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46-602: Bergen Sporvei AS was a municipal owned public transport company that operated in Bergen , Norway from 1898 to 1998. The company operated both the Bergen Tramway , Bergen trolleybus and the yellow buses in Bergen. The company was founded as Bergen Elektriske Sporvei in 1898 to operate the tramway that was built in Bergen. After the municipality nationalized the tramway it changed name to Bergen Sporvei. Eventually

92-533: A capitalist marketplace characterized by the dominance of hierarchical , bureaucratic corporations . Mercantilism was the dominant model in Western Europe from the 16th to 18th century. This encouraged imperialism and colonialism until economic and political changes resulted in global decolonization . Modern capitalism has favored free trade to take advantage of increased efficiency due to national comparative advantage and economies of scale in

138-399: A combination of state-owned enterprises and central planning using the material balances method. The extent to which these economic systems achieved socialism or represented a viable alternative to capitalism is subject to debate. In orthodox Marxism , the mode of production is tantamount to the subject of this article, determining with a superstructure of relations the entirety of

184-661: A dominant private sector . Actually, mixed economies gravitate more heavily to one end of the spectrum. Notable economic models and theories that have been described as a "mixed economy" include the following: Socialist economic systems (all of which feature social ownership of the means of production ) can be subdivided by their coordinating mechanism (planning and markets) into planned socialist and market socialist systems. Additionally, socialism can be divided based on their property structures between those that are based on public ownership , worker or consumer cooperatives and common ownership (i.e. non-ownership). Communism

230-578: A given culture or stage of human development. In the May 1949 issue of the Monthly Review titled " Why Socialism? ", Albert Einstein wrote: I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate (the) grave evils (of capitalism), namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are utilized in

276-415: A government owning all or a controlling stake of the company's shares . This form is often referred to as a state-owned enterprise . A state-owned enterprise might variously operate as a not-for-profit corporation , as it may not be required to generate a profit; as a commercial enterprise in competitive sectors; or as a natural monopoly . Governments may also use the profitable entities they own to support

322-666: A larger, more universal market. Some critics have applied the term neo-colonialism to the power imbalance between multi-national corporations operating in a free market vs. seemingly impoverished people in developing countries . There is no precise definition of a "mixed economy". Theoretically, it may refer to an economic system that combines one of three characteristics: public and private ownership of industry, market-based allocation with economic planning, or free markets with state interventionism. In practice, "mixed economy" generally refers to market economies with substantial state interventionism and/or sizable public sector alongside

368-565: A planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow-men in place of the glorification of power and success in our present society. There are multiple components of an economic system. Decision-making structures of an economy determine

414-419: A pure socialist planned economy that involves different processes of resource allocation, production and means of quantifying value, the use of money would be replaced with a different measure of value and accounting tool that would embody more accurate information about an object or resource. In practice, the economic system of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc operated as a command economy , featuring

460-423: A specific state institution or branch of government, used exclusively by that branch, such as a research laboratory. The latter refers to assets and resources owned by the population of a state which are mostly available to the entire public for use, such as a public park (see public space ). In neoclassical economic theory , the desirability of state ownership has been studied using contract theory . According to

506-408: A valuation based on natural units), with business and financial decisions replaced by engineering and technical criteria for managing the economy. Fundamentally, this meant that socialism would operate under different economic dynamics than those of capitalism and the price system. Later models of socialism developed by neoclassical economists (most notably Oskar Lange and Abba Lerner ) were based on

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552-406: A whole. As such, state ownership is only one possible expression of public ownership, which itself is one variation of the broader concept of social ownership. In the context of socialism, public ownership implies that the surplus product generated by publicly owned assets accrues to all of society in the form of a social dividend , as opposed to a distinct class of private capital owners. There

598-550: Is a natural monopoly or because the government is promoting economic development and industrialization . State-owned enterprises may or may not be expected to operate in a broadly commercial manner and may or may not have monopolies in their areas of activity. The transformation of public entities and government agencies into government-owned corporations is sometimes a precursor to privatization . State capitalist economies are capitalist market economies that have high degrees of government-owned businesses. Public ownership of

644-454: Is a system of production , resource allocation and distribution of goods and services within a society . It includes the combination of the various institutions , agencies, entities, decision-making processes, and patterns of consumption that comprise the economic structure of a given community. An economic system is a type of social system . The mode of production is a related concept. All economic systems must confront and solve

690-525: Is a hypothetical stage of socialist development articulated by Karl Marx as "second stage socialism" in Critique of the Gotha Program , whereby the economic output is distributed based on need and not simply on the basis of labor contribution. The original conception of socialism involved the substitution of money as a unit of calculation and monetary prices as a whole with calculation in kind (or

736-416: Is a process of transferring private or municipal assets to a central government or state entity. Municipalization is the process of transferring private or state assets to a municipal government. A state-owned enterprise is a commercial enterprise owned by a government entity in a capitalist market or mixed economy . Reasons for state ownership of commercial enterprises are that the enterprise in question

782-463: Is a wide range of proposed planning procedures and ownership structures for socialist systems, with the common feature among them being the social ownership of the means of production. This might take the form of public ownership by all of the society, or ownership cooperatively by their employees. A socialist economic system that features social ownership, but that it is based on the process of capital accumulation and utilization of capital markets for

828-416: Is a wide variety of organizational forms for state-run industry, ranging from specialized technocratic management to direct workers' self-management . In traditional conceptions of non-market socialism, public ownership is a tool to consolidate the means of production as a precursor to the establishment of economic planning for the allocation of resources between organizations, as required by government or by

874-563: Is desirable. In their model, the government and a private firm can invest to improve the quality of a public good and to reduce its production costs. It turns out that private ownership results in strong incentives to reduce costs, but it may also lead to poor quality. Hence, depending on the available investment technologies, there are situations in which state ownership is better. The Hart-Shleifer-Vishny theory has been extended in many directions. For instance, some authors have also considered mixed forms of private ownership and state ownership. In

920-684: Is produced. An economic system is a way of answering these basic questions and different economic systems answer them differently. Many different objectives may be seen as desirable for an economy, like efficiency , growth , liberty and equality . Economic systems are commonly segmented by their property rights regime for the means of production and by their dominant resource allocation mechanism. Economies that combine private ownership with market allocation are called "market capitalism" and economies that combine private ownership with economic planning are labelled "command capitalism" or dirigisme . Likewise, systems that mix public or cooperative ownership of

966-482: Is the category in the Journal of Economic Literature classification codes that includes the study of such systems. One field that cuts across them is comparative economic systems , which includes the study of the following aspects of different systems: Capitalism generally features the private ownership of the means of production ( capital ) and a market economy for coordination. Corporate capitalism refers to

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1012-518: Is thus a system that allocates resources for exchange, production, distribution and consumption. The system is stabilized through a combination of threat and trust, which are the outcome of institutional arrangements. An economic system possesses the following institutions: There are several basic questions that must be answered in order for an economy to run satisfactorily. The scarcity problem , for example, requires answers to basic questions, such as what to produce, how to produce it and who gets what

1058-481: The law system , political system , cultural and so on. There is often a strong correlation between certain ideologies , political systems and certain economic systems (for example, consider the meanings of the term "communism"). Many economic systems overlap each other in various areas (for example, the term "mixed economy" can be argued to include elements from various systems). There are also various mutually exclusive hierarchical categorizations. Economic systems

1104-423: The means of production is a subset of social ownership , which is the defining characteristic of a socialist economy. However, state ownership and nationalization by themselves are not socialist, as they can exist under a wide variety of different political and economic systems for a variety of different reasons. State ownership by itself does not imply social ownership where income rights belong to society as

1150-498: The Hart-Shleifer-Vishny model it is assumed that all parties have the same information, while Schmitz (2023) has studied an extension of their analysis allowing for asymmetric information . Moreover, the Hart-Shleifer-Vishny model assumes that the private party derives no utility from provision of the public good. Besley and Ghatak (2001) have shown that if the private party (a non-governmental organization) cares about

1196-453: The aims of ameliorating market failures (see economic intervention ) or supplementing the private marketplace with social policies to promote equal opportunities (see welfare state ), respectively. In socialist economic systems ( socialism ), production for use is carried out; decisions regarding the use of the means of production are adjusted to satisfy economic demand; and investment is determined through economic planning procedures. There

1242-698: The allocation of capital goods between socially owned enterprises falls under the subcategory of market socialism. The basic and general "modern" economic systems segmented by the criterium of resource allocation mechanism are: Other types: Various strains of anarchism and libertarianism advocate different economic systems, all of which have very small or no government involvement. These include: Corporatism refers to economic tripartite involving negotiations between business, labor and state interest groups to establish economic policy, or more generally to assigning people to political groups based on their occupational affiliation. Certain subsets of an economy, or

1288-730: The analysis that the working class was exploited by the party leadership. Instead of looking at nominal ownership, this perspective takes into account the organizational form within economic enterprises. In a capitalist economic system , production is carried out for private profit and decisions regarding investment and allocation of factor inputs are determined by business owners in factor markets. The means of production are primarily owned by private enterprises and decisions regarding production and investment are determined by private owners in capital markets . Capitalist systems range from laissez-faire , with minimal government regulation and state enterprise, to regulated and social market systems, with

1334-437: The company also started operating buses. Both the trams and buses where yellow. In 1965 the tramway was closed and replaced with trolleybuses, also operated by Bergen Sporvei. As a consequence of the municipal merger in Bergen in 1972, Laksevåg Kommunale Rutebilselskap was merged into Bergen Sporvei. After the municipal merger there were a number of bus companies in Bergen, and Bergen Sporvei only retained route permissions within

1380-436: The course of history superior economic systems would replace inferior ones. Inferior systems were beset by internal contradictions and inefficiencies that would make it impossible for them to survive long-term. In Marx's scheme, feudalism was replaced by capitalism , which would eventually be superseded by socialism . Joseph Schumpeter had an evolutionary conception of economic development, but unlike Marx he de-emphasized

1426-415: The distinctions between capitalism and socialism . Subsequently, the categorization of economic systems expanded to include other topics and models that do not conform to the traditional dichotomy. Today the dominant form of economic organization at the world level is based on market-oriented mixed economies . An economic system can be considered a part of the social system and hierarchically equal to

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1472-443: The four fundamental economic problems : The study of economic systems includes how these various agencies and institutions are linked to one another, how information flows between them, and the social relations within the system (including property rights and the structure of management). The analysis of economic systems traditionally focused on the dichotomies and comparisons between market economies and planned economies and on

1518-467: The general budget. The creation of a state-owned enterprise from other forms of public property is called corporatization . In Soviet-type economies , state property was the dominant form of industry as property. The state held a monopoly on land and natural resources, and enterprises operated under the legal framework of a nominally planned economy , and thus according to different criteria than enterprises in market and mixed economies. Nationalization

1564-428: The indirect mechanism of the profit system where satisfying needs is subordinate to the pursuit of profit; and to advance the productive forces of the economy in a more efficient manner while being immune to the perceived systemic inefficiencies ( cyclical processes ) and crisis of overproduction so that production would be subject to the needs of society as opposed to being ordered around capital accumulation . In

1610-533: The means of production may be labelled state socialism . State ownership was recognized by Friedrich Engels in Socialism: Utopian and Scientific as, by itself, not doing away with capitalism, including the process of capital accumulation and structure of wage labor. Engels argued that state ownership of commercial industry would represent the final stage of capitalism, consisting of ownership and management of large-scale production and manufacture by

1656-497: The means of production with economic planning are called "socialist planned economies" and systems that combine public or cooperative ownership with markets are called "market socialism". Some perspectives build upon this basic nomenclature to take other variables into account, such as class processes within an economy. This leads some economists to categorize, for example, the Soviet Union's economy as state capitalism based on

1702-436: The old municipal borders was well as Laksevåg . In 1998, Pan Trafikk , operating the red suburban buses was merged with Bergen Sporvei, creating the new company Gaia Trafikk . This Norwegian tram- or light rail-related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Public ownership In market-based economies, state-owned assets are often managed and operated as joint-stock corporations with

1748-416: The particular goods, services, techniques of production, or moral rules can also be described as an "economy". For example, some terms emphasize specific sectors or externalizes: Others emphasize a particular religion: The type of labour power : Or the means of production : Karl Marx 's theory of economic development was based on the premise of evolving economic systems. Specifically, in his view over

1794-399: The property rights approach based on incomplete contracting (developed by Oliver Hart and his co-authors), ownership matters because it determines what happens in contingencies that were not considered in prevailing contracts. The work by Hart, Shleifer and Vishny (1997) is the leading application of the property rights approach to the question whether state ownership or private ownership

1840-530: The public good, then the party with the larger valuation of the public good should always be the owner, regardless of the parties' investment technologies. More recently, some authors have shown that the investment technology also matters in the Besley-Ghatak framework if an investing party is indispensable or if there are bargaining frictions between the government and the private party. Economic system An economic system , or economic order ,

1886-406: The role of class struggle in contributing to qualitative change in the economic mode of production. In subsequent world history, many communist states run according to Marxist–Leninist ideologies arose during the 20th century, but by the 1990s they had either ceased to exist or gradually reformed their centrally planned economies toward market-based economies , for example with perestroika and

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1932-484: The state's management policies, though these rights are not property rights as they are not transmissible. For example, if a family is allocated an apartment that is state owned, it will have been granted a tenancy of the apartment, which may be lifelong or inheritable, but the management and control rights are held by various government departments . There is a distinction to be made between state ownership and public property. The former may refer to assets operated by

1978-577: The state. Within the United Kingdom, public ownership is mostly associated with the Labour Party (a centre-left democratic socialist party), specifically due to the creation of Clause IV of the "Labour Party Manifesto" in 1918. "Clause IV" was written by Fabian Society member Sidney Webb . When ownership of a resource is vested in the state, or any branch of the state such as a local authority , individual use "rights" are based on

2024-527: The state. State ownership is advocated as a form of social ownership for practical concerns, with the state being seen as the obvious candidate for owning and operating the means of production. Proponents assume that the state, as the representative of the public interest , would manage resources and production for the benefit of the public. As a form of social ownership, state ownership may be contrasted with cooperatives and common ownership. Socialist theories and political ideologies that favor state ownership of

2070-549: The use of economic inputs (the factors of production ), distribution of output, the level of centralization in decision-making and who makes these decisions. Decisions might be carried out by industrial councils , by a government agency, or by private owners. An economic system is a system of production, resource allocation, exchange and distribution of goods and services in a society or a given geographic area. In one view, every economic system represents an attempt to solve three fundamental and interdependent problems: Every economy

2116-411: The use of notional prices derived from a trial-and-error approach to achieve market clearing prices on the part of a planning agency. These models of socialism were called "market socialism" because they included a role for markets, money, and prices. The primary emphasis of socialist planned economies is to coordinate production to produce economic output to directly satisfy economic demand as opposed to

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