117-696: Bhakra Nangal Dam is a concrete gravity dam on the Satluj River in Bhakra Village in Bilaspur district , Himachal Pradesh in northern India . The dam forms the Gobind Sagar reservoir. Nangal Dam is another dam at Nangal in Punjab downstream of Bhakra Dam. However, sometimes both the dams together are called Bhakra-Nangal Dam though they are two separate dams. The dam is located at
234-411: A calcium aluminate cement or with Portland cement to form Portland cement concrete (named for its visual resemblance to Portland stone ). Many other non-cementitious types of concrete exist with other methods of binding aggregate together, including asphalt concrete with a bitumen binder, which is frequently used for road surfaces , and polymer concretes that use polymers as a binder. Concrete
351-497: A fish ladder to the hatchery, which is located on the north bank of the Feather River. The hatchery produces 10 million salmon smolt , along with 450,000 trout smolt, to stock in the river each year. The salmon smolt are released in two runs, with 20% for the spring run and 80% for the fall run. This facility has been successful enough that concern exists that salmon of hatchery stock are outcompeting remaining wild salmon in
468-433: A French structural and civil engineer . Concrete components or structures are compressed by tendon cables during, or after, their fabrication in order to strengthen them against tensile forces developing when put in service. Freyssinet patented the technique on 2 October 1928. Concrete is an artificial composite material , comprising a matrix of cementitious binder (typically Portland cement paste or asphalt ) and
585-575: A Temple or a Gurdwara or a Mosque, it inspires our admiration and reverence". On 22 October 2013, the Government of India approved the release of a commemorative stamp to mark the 50th anniversary of the Bhakra Dam. As how successful India was at that time that it was the only dam in Asia which could produce 1500 MW power. Also, these are multipurpose projects. The dam, at 741 ft (226 m),
702-452: A cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of hydration. The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and makes it flow more freely. As stated by Abrams' law , a lower water-to-cement ratio yields a stronger, more durable concrete, whereas more water gives a freer-flowing concrete with a higher slump . The hydration of cement involves many concurrent reactions. The process involves polymerization ,
819-532: A chain reaction along the great canal and the branches and distributaries to the edge of the Rajasthan Desert, long before the water got there' In October 1963, at the ceremony to mark the dedication of the Bhakra–Nangal project to the nation, Prime Minister Nehru said, "This dam has been built with the unrelenting toil of man for the benefit of mankind and therefore is worthy of worship. May you call it
936-562: A concrete secant cutoff wall for the emergency spillway. The cost estimate at this point is over $ 500 million. In October 2017, hairline cracks were found in the rebuilt spillway. Things that added to the cost included relocating power lines, dredging the river downstream of the dam, as well as the discovery that the bedrock under the spillway was weak, necessitating deeper excavations and more concrete. The DWR commissioned an independent board of consultants (BOC) to review and comment on repairs to Oroville Dam. Memoranda (reports) prepared by
1053-400: A concrete component—and become a part of the binder for the aggregate. Fly ash and slag can enhance some properties of concrete such as fresh properties and durability. Alternatively, other materials can also be used as a concrete binder: the most prevalent substitute is asphalt , which is used as the binder in asphalt concrete . Admixtures are added to modify the cure rate or properties of
1170-434: A dispersed phase or "filler" of aggregate (typically a rocky material, loose stones, and sand). The binder "glues" the filler together to form a synthetic conglomerate . Many types of concrete are available, determined by the formulations of binders and the types of aggregate used to suit the application of the engineered material. These variables determine strength and density, as well as chemical and thermal resistance of
1287-415: A failure, known as 'loss of crest control'." FERC water agencies responsible for the cost of the upgrades said this was unnecessary and that concerns were overblown. In 2006, a senior civil engineer sent a memorandum to his managers stating, "The emergency spillway meets FERC's engineering guidelines for an emergency spillway", and "The guidelines specify that during a rare flood event, it is acceptable for
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#17327972013571404-437: A fluid cement that cures to a solid over time. Concrete is the second-most-used substance in the world after water , and is the most widely used building material. Its usage worldwide, ton for ton, is twice that of steel, wood, plastics, and aluminium combined. When aggregate is mixed with dry Portland cement and water , the mixture forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts with
1521-451: A gorge near the (now submerged) upstream Bhakra village in Bilaspur district of Himachal Pradesh and is of height 226 m. The length of the dam (measured from the road above it) is 518.25 m and the width is 9.1 m. Its reservoir known as "Gobind Sagar" stores up to 9.34 billion cubic metres of water. The 90 km long reservoir created by the Bhakra Dam is spread over an area of 168.35 km. In terms of storage of water, it
1638-452: A greater degree of fracture resistance even in seismically active environments. Roman concrete is significantly more resistant to erosion by seawater than modern concrete; it used pyroclastic materials which react with seawater to form Al- tobermorite crystals over time. The use of hot mixing and the presence of lime clasts are thought to give the concrete a self-healing ability, where cracks that form become filled with calcite that prevents
1755-415: A large aggregate that is too large for the size of the formwork, or which has too few smaller aggregate grades to serve to fill the gaps between the larger grades, or using too little or too much sand for the same reason, or using too little water, or too much cement, or even using jagged crushed stone instead of smoother round aggregate such as pebbles. Any combination of these factors and others may result in
1872-461: A large type of industrial facility called a concrete plant , or often a batch plant. The usual method of placement is casting in formwork , which holds the mix in shape until it has set enough to hold its shape unaided. Concrete plants come in two main types, ready-mix plants and central mix plants. A ready-mix plant blends all of the solid ingredients, while a central mix does the same but adds water. A central-mix plant offers more precise control of
1989-590: A mix which is too harsh, i.e., which does not flow or spread out smoothly, is difficult to get into the formwork, and which is difficult to surface finish. Oroville Dam Oroville Dam is an earthfill embankment dam on the Feather River east of the city of Oroville, California , in the Sierra Nevada foothills east of the Sacramento Valley . At 770 feet (235 m) high, it is
2106-469: A mixture of calcium silicates ( alite , belite ), aluminates and ferrites —compounds, which will react with water. Portland cement and similar materials are made by heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay or shale (a source of silicon, aluminium and iron) and grinding this product (called clinker ) with a source of sulfate (most commonly gypsum ). Cement kilns are extremely large, complex, and inherently dusty industrial installations. Of
2223-594: A motion with the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) urging federal officials to require that the dam's emergency spillway be armored with concrete, rather than remain as an earthen spillway, as it did not meet modern safety standards. "In the event of extreme rain and flooding, fast-rising water would overwhelm the main concrete spillway, then flow down the emergency spillway, and that could cause heavy erosion that would create flooding for communities downstream, but also could cause
2340-405: A number of manufactured aggregates, including air-cooled blast furnace slag and bottom ash are also permitted. The size distribution of the aggregate determines how much binder is required. Aggregate with a very even size distribution has the biggest gaps whereas adding aggregate with smaller particles tends to fill these gaps. The binder must fill the gaps between the aggregate as well as paste
2457-424: A semi-liquid slurry (paste) that can be shaped, typically by pouring it into a form. The concrete solidifies and hardens through a chemical process called hydration . The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components together, creating a robust, stone-like material. Other cementitious materials, such as fly ash and slag cement , are sometimes added—either pre-blended with the cement or directly as
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#17327972013572574-493: A simple, fast way of getting a basic idea of the properties of the finished concrete without having to perform testing in advance. Various governing bodies (such as British Standards ) define nominal mix ratios into a number of grades, usually ranging from lower compressive strength to higher compressive strength. The grades usually indicate the 28-day cure strength. Thorough mixing is essential to produce uniform, high-quality concrete. Separate paste mixing has shown that
2691-461: A third-party expert to improve the safety of the river valve outlet system (RVOS) and make it operational again. In 2014, DWR embarked on an accelerated refurbishment program to respond to concerns about operational needs during the ongoing drought. The system was mostly refurbished and was used during 2014 and 2015 to meet Endangered Species Act temperature requirements for the Feather River. Some additional refurbishments were being made to portions of
2808-674: A tourist spot for the tourists during later years because of its huge size and uniqueness. It also has four spillway gates that are only used when the reservoir exceeds the maximum allowed level. Nangal dam is a barrage dam that is 10 km downstream of Bhakra dam The dam holds excess waters during the monsoon and provides a regulated release during the year. It also prevents damage due to monsoon floods. The Bhakra Canal fed by this dam provides irrigation to 10 million acres of (40,000 km) fields in Punjab , Haryana , and Rajasthan . Water flows from Bhakra Dam downstream Nangal dam where it
2925-424: Is absolutely free. The large reservoir created by the dam displaced a large population from the district of Bilaspur . About 371 villages were submerged. After 50 years of its completion, there is still a question of full resettlement of oustees. [REDACTED] Media related to Bhakra Dam at Wikimedia Commons Concrete Concrete is a composite material composed of aggregate bonded together with
3042-521: Is available. The pump-generators at Hyatt can lift up to 5,610 cubic feet per second (159 m /s) into Lake Oroville (with a net consumption of 519 MW), while the six turbines combined use a flow of 16,950 cu ft/s (480 m /s) at maximum generation. Since 1969, the Hyatt plant has worked in tandem with an extensive pumped-storage operation comprising two offstream reservoirs west of Oroville. These two facilities are collectively known as
3159-500: Is controlled and released into Nangal Hydel Channel that later becomes Bhakra Main Line after Ganguwal and Kotla power plants. The Bhakra main line is a canal that mostly supplies irrigation water to the state of Haryana. Bhakra Dam has ten power generators with five on each side. Generators for the left power house were originally supplied by Hitachi, Japan and upgraded to the present capacity by Sumitomo, Hitachi and Andritz. Generators for
3276-511: Is distinct from mortar . Whereas concrete is itself a building material, mortar is a bonding agent that typically holds bricks , tiles and other masonry units together. Grout is another material associated with concrete and cement. It does not contain coarse aggregates and is usually either pourable or thixotropic , and is used to fill gaps between masonry components or coarse aggregate which has already been put in place. Some methods of concrete manufacture and repair involve pumping grout into
3393-469: Is one of the highest gravity dams in the world (compared to USA's largest Oroville Dam at 770 ft). The 166 km Gobindsagar Reservoir , named after Guru Gobind Singh , is created by this dam which is the third largest reservoir in India the first being Indira Sagar Dam and second Nagarjunasagar Dam . The river Satluj used to flow through a narrow gorge between two hills, Naina Devi and Ramgarh, and
3510-440: Is released. During the winter and early spring, Lake Oroville is required to have at least 750,000 acre⋅ft (240 billion US gal; 930 billion L), or a fifth of the reservoir's storage capacity, available for flood control. The dam is operated to maintain an objective flood-control release of 150,000 cubic feet per second (4,200 m /s), which may be further reduced during large storms when flows below
3627-603: Is the third largest reservoir in India, the first being Indira Sagar dam in Madhya Pradesh with capacity of 12.22 billion cubic meters and the second being Nagarjunasagar Dam in Telangana. Described as "New Temple of Resurgent India" by Jawaharlal Nehru , the first prime minister of India, the dam attracts tourists from all over India. Bhakra dam is 15 km from Nangal town, Punjab and 106 km from Bilaspur The Bhakra-Nangal multipurpose dams were among
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3744-559: Is then blended with aggregates and any remaining batch water and final mixing is completed in conventional concrete mixing equipment. Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold properly with the desired work (pouring, pumping, spreading, tamping, vibration) and without reducing the concrete's quality. Workability depends on water content, aggregate (shape and size distribution), cementitious content and age (level of hydration ) and can be modified by adding chemical admixtures, like superplasticizer. Raising
3861-399: Is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension, typically steel rebar . The mix design depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete is mixed and delivered, and how it is placed to form the structure. Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar , and many plasters . It consists of
3978-491: The California State Water Project (SWP), one of two major projects passed that set up California's statewide water system . Construction was initiated in 1961, and despite numerous difficulties encountered during its construction, including multiple floods and a major train wreck on the rail line used to transport materials to the dam site, the embankment was topped out in 1967 and the entire project
4095-779: The Oroville–Thermalito Complex . Water is diverted into the upper Thermalito reservoir (Thermalito Forebay) via the Thermalito Diversion Dam on the Feather River. During periods of off-peak power use, surplus energy generated at Hyatt is used to lift water from Thermalito's lower reservoir (the Thermalito Afterbay) to the forebay, which releases water back into the afterbay to generate up to 114 MW of power at times of high demand. The Hyatt and Thermalito plants produce an average of 2,200 gigawatt hours (GWh) of electricity each year, about half of
4212-536: The San Joaquin Valley , as well as municipal and industrial water supplies to coastal Southern California , and has prevented large amounts of flood damage to the area—more than $ 1.3 billion between 1987 and 1999. The dam stops fish migration up the Feather River and the controlled flow of the river; as a result, the Oroville Dam has affected riparian habitat. Multiple attempts at trying to counter
4329-610: The anadromous migrations of Chinook salmon and steelhead trout in the Feather River. In 1967, in an effort to compensate for lost habitat, the DWR and the California Department of Fish and Game completed the Feather River Fish Hatchery. The Fish Barrier Dam, built in 1962, intercepts salmon and trout before they reach the base of the impassable Thermalito Diversion Dam and forces them to swim up
4446-480: The construction industry , whose demand is ever growing with greater impacts on raw material extraction, waste generation and landfill practices. Concrete production is the process of mixing together the various ingredients—water, aggregate, cement, and any additives—to produce concrete. Concrete production is time-sensitive. Once the ingredients are mixed, workers must put the concrete in place before it hardens. In modern usage, most concrete production takes place in
4563-452: The BOC are posted at the DWR web site. The independent forensic team (IFT) was selected to determine the cause of the spillways incident, including effects of operations, management, structural design and geological conditions. According to its 2017–18 operations plan, the DWR maintained Lake Oroville at a lower-than-normal level to reduce the possibility that the spillway would have to be used
4680-738: The Division of Water Resources (now California Department of Water Resources , DWR) was carried out under an act of the California State Legislature in 1945. In 1951, California State Engineer A. D. Edmonston proposed the Feather River Project, the direct predecessor to the SWP, which included a major dam on the Feather River at Oroville, and aqueducts and pumping plants to transfer stored water to destinations in central and southern California. The proposed project
4797-615: The Feather's confluence with the Yuba River exceed 300,000 cubic feet per second (8,500 m /s). In the particularly devastating flood of 1997, inflows to the reservoir hit more than 331,000 cubic feet per second (9,400 m /s), but dam operators managed to limit the outflow to 160,000 cubic feet per second (4,500 m /s), sparing large regions of the Sacramento Valley from flooding. Oroville Dam completely blocks
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4914-500: The Oroville Dam site. The water rose behind the partially completed embankment dam and nearly overtopped it, while a maximum of 157,000 cu ft/s (4,400 m /s) poured from the diversion tunnels. This Christmas flood of 1964 was one of the most disastrous floods on record in Northern California, but the incomplete dam was able to reduce the peak flow of the Feather River by nearly 40%, averting massive damage to
5031-465: The Oroville area in 1975 is believed to have been caused by induced seismicity from the weight of the Oroville Dam and reservoir on a local fault line. ) The embankment was finally topped out on October 6, 1967, with the last of 155 million short tons (140.6 million tonnes ) of material that took over 40,000 train trips to transport. On May 4, 1968, Oroville Dam was officially dedicated by
5148-535: The RVOS and were expected to conclude in early 2017. The spillway cracked in 2013. A senior civil engineer with the DWR was interviewed by the Sacramento Bee , and explained, "It’s common for spillways to develop a void because of the drainage systems under them", and "There were some patches needed and so we made repairs and everything checked out." In July 2015, the state Division of Safety of Dams inspected
5265-690: The SWP. Groundbreaking on the dam site occurred in May 1957 with the relocation of the Western Pacific Railroad tracks that ran through the Feather River Canyon. The Burns-Porter Act of the California Legislature, which authorized the SWP, was not passed until November 8, 1960, and only by a slim margin. Engineer Donald Thayer of the DWR was commissioned to design and head construction of Oroville Dam, and
5382-496: The U.S. workers. The organisation evolved for the purpose of design and construction was divided into three parts. The Designs Directorate provided the designs and drawings. The Construction and Plant Design Directorate was to look after its execution and installing of the plant, while the Directorate of Inspection and Control ensured that the specifications are accorded to safety requirements were met. In early 1954, Nehru visited
5499-643: The absence of reinforcement, its tensile strength was far lower than modern reinforced concrete , and its mode of application also differed: Modern structural concrete differs from Roman concrete in two important details. First, its mix consistency is fluid and homogeneous, allowing it to be poured into forms rather than requiring hand-layering together with the placement of aggregate, which, in Roman practice, often consisted of rubble . Second, integral reinforcing steel gives modern concrete assemblies great strength in tension, whereas Roman concrete could depend only upon
5616-476: The area. Ten months later, four men died in a tragic accident on the construction rail line. On October 7, 1965, two 40-car work trains, one fully loaded and the other empty, collided head-on at a tunnel entrance, igniting 10,000 US gallons (38,000 L) of diesel fuel, completely destroying two locomotives. The burning fuel from the collision started a forest fire that burned 100 acres (40 ha) before it could be extinguished. The crash delayed construction of
5733-630: The cisterns secret as these enabled the Nabataeans to thrive in the desert. Some of these structures survive to this day. In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman eras, builders discovered that adding volcanic ash to lime allowed the mix to set underwater. They discovered the pozzolanic reaction . The Romans used concrete extensively from 300 BC to AD 476. During the Roman Empire, Roman concrete (or opus caementicium )
5850-526: The concrete at the time of batching/mixing. (See § Production below.) The common types of admixtures are as follows: Inorganic materials that have pozzolanic or latent hydraulic properties, these very fine-grained materials are added to the concrete mix to improve the properties of concrete (mineral admixtures), or as a replacement for Portland cement (blended cements). Products which incorporate limestone , fly ash , blast furnace slag , and other useful materials with pozzolanic properties into
5967-399: The concrete can cause the initially placed material to begin to set before the next batch is added on top. This creates a horizontal plane of weakness called a cold joint between the two batches. Once the mix is where it should be, the curing process must be controlled to ensure that the concrete attains the desired attributes. During concrete preparation, various technical details may affect
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#17327972013576084-461: The concrete quality. Central mix plants must be close to the work site where the concrete will be used, since hydration begins at the plant. A concrete plant consists of large hoppers for storage of various ingredients like cement, storage for bulk ingredients like aggregate and water, mechanisms for the addition of various additives and amendments, machinery to accurately weigh, move, and mix some or all of those ingredients, and facilities to dispense
6201-528: The crack from spreading. The widespread use of concrete in many Roman structures ensured that many survive to the present day. The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are just one example. Many Roman aqueducts and bridges, such as the magnificent Pont du Gard in southern France, have masonry cladding on a concrete core, as does the dome of the Pantheon . After the Roman Empire, the use of burned lime and pozzolana
6318-583: The crater in the main spillway was carried downstream, and caused damage to the Feather River Fish Hatchery due to high turbidity . Although engineers had hoped that using the damaged spillway could drain the lake enough to avoid use of the emergency spillway, they were forced to reduce its discharge from 65,000 cu ft/s (1,800 m /s) to 55,000 cu ft/s (1,600 m /s) due to potential damage to nearby power lines. Shortly after 8:00 pm on February 11, 2017,
6435-424: The dam by a week while the train wreckage was cleared. Overall, 34 men died in the construction of the dam. Oroville Dam was designed to withstand the strongest possible earthquake for the region, and was fitted with hundreds of instruments that serve to measure water pressure and settlement of the earth fill used in its construction, earning it the nickname "the dam that talks back". (A M L 5.7 earthquake in
6552-672: The dam spillway visually "from some distance" and did not walk it. The rainy season of 2016–2017 was Northern California's wettest winter in over 100 years . Heavy rainfall resulted in record inflows from the Feather River, and the spillway was opened in January to relieve pressure on Oroville Dam. After a second series of heavy storms in February, the spillway flow was increased to 50,000 cu ft/s (1,400 m /s), and on February 7, DWR employees noticed an unusual flow pattern. This halted spillway outflow, and DWR brought engineers onto
6669-452: The dam started in 1948; Jawaharlal Nehru poured the first bucket of concrete into the dry riverbed of the Sutlej on 17 November 1955, as a symbolic initiation of the work. Addressing a gathering there, he said, "This is a gift to the people of India and to the future generations from the workers who built this dam", calling for "raising a memorial" at the dam "in honour" of the workers. The dam
6786-467: The dam to formally inaugurate it. Historian Ramachandra Guha writes: As he [Nehru] flicked on the switch of the power house, Dakotas of the Indian air force dipper their wings overhead. Next he opened the sluice gates of the dam. Seeing the water coming towards them, the villagers downstream set off hundreds of homemade crackers. As one eyewitness wrote, 'For 150 miles the boisterous celebration spread like
6903-432: The dam's impacts on fish migration have included the construction of a salmon / steelhead fish hatchery on the river, which began shortly after the dam was completed. In February 2017, the main and emergency spillways threatened to fail , leading to the evacuation of 188,000 people living near the dam. After deterioration of the main spillway largely stabilized and the water level of the dam's reservoir dropped below
7020-461: The earliest river valley development schemes undertaken by India after independence though the project had been conceived long before India became a free nation. The agreement for this project had been signed by the then Punjab Revenue Minister, Sir Chhotu Ram in November 1944 with Raja of Bilaspur and finalised the project plan on 8 January 1945. Preliminary works commenced in 1946. Construction of
7137-401: The emergency spillway began carrying water for the first time since the dam's construction in 1968. The water flowed directly onto the earthen hillside below the emergency spillway, as designed. However, headward erosion of the emergency spillway threatened to undermine and collapse the concrete weir . On February 12, an evacuation was ordered for low-lying areas, due to possible failure of
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#17327972013577254-403: The emergency spillway to sustain significant damage." At around 7:30 am on July 22, 2009, several workers were deep below the reservoir operating flow controls to test a river valve chamber in the Oroville Dam. When the flow reached 85%, suction pulled a breakaway wall downstream into a 35-foot (11 m) diversion tunnel, cutting lights and nearly sending three workers to their deaths in
7371-422: The emergency spillway. The flow over the main spillway was increased to 100,000 cu ft/s (2,800 m /s) to try to slow erosion of the emergency spillway. By 8:00 pm on the evening of February 12, the increased flow had lowered the water level, causing the emergency spillway to stop overflowing. On February 14, the sheriff of Butte County lifted the mandatory evacuation order. On May 19, 2017,
7488-431: The finished product. Construction aggregates consist of large chunks of material in a concrete mix, generally a coarse gravel or crushed rocks such as limestone , or granite , along with finer materials such as sand . Cement paste, most commonly made of Portland cement , is the most prevalent kind of concrete binder. For cementitious binders, water is mixed with the dry cement powder and aggregate, which produces
7605-486: The following winter. In a second phase of spillway repairs in 2018–19, temporary repairs on the main spillway done during phase one were being torn out and replaced with steel-reinforced structural concrete. On April 2, 2019, due to heavy rainfall upstream, the DWR began releasing water over the newly reconstructed spillway at a rate of 8,300 cubic feet per second (240 m /s). Releases were increased to 25,000 cubic feet per second (710 m /s) on April 7 to test how
7722-409: The future. Due to the low precipitation in the catchment area, water levels were below normal beginning in 2020. In August 2021, the Hyatt power plant had to be shut down because the water level fell below its water inlets. After falling to a record low of 22% capacity by September 30, winter storms increased the lake level by December and the plant was restarted on January 4, 2022. Construction of
7839-442: The future. On November 1, 2017, DWR director Grant Davis said, "Lake Oroville's main spillway is indeed ready to safely handle winter flows if needed". While this completes phase 1 of the construction, there remained a phase 2 to be completed in 2018. The second phase would include rebuilding the top section of the spillway (which was not rebuilt this season), putting slabs over the roller compacted concrete section, and constructing
7956-681: The gaps to make up a solid mass in situ . The word concrete comes from the Latin word " concretus " (meaning compact or condensed), the perfect passive participle of " concrescere ", from " con -" (together) and " crescere " (to grow). Concrete floors were found in the royal palace of Tiryns , Greece, which dates roughly to 1400 to 1200 BC. Lime mortars were used in Greece, such as in Crete and Cyprus, in 800 BC. The Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct (688 BC) made use of waterproof concrete . Concrete
8073-560: The governments of Punjab , Patiala and East Punjab States Union , Rajasthan , Bilaspur and Himachal Pradesh . The dam was built primarily by Indian workers, with the exception of the American Harvey Slocum who consulted on the project and many workers from the United States Bull Shoals Dam project that joined Slocum on the construction of the Bhakra Dam. A small city was constructed to house
8190-400: The highly fertile Central Valley . However, after the end of World War II in 1945, the state experienced an economic boom that led to rapid urban and commercial growth in the central and southern portions of the state, and it became clear that California's economy could not depend solely on a state water system geared primarily towards agriculture. A new study of California's water supplies by
8307-554: The interlinking of the silicates and aluminate components as well as their bonding to sand and gravel particles to form a solid mass. One illustrative conversion is the hydration of tricalcium silicate: The hydration (curing) of cement is irreversible. Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand , natural gravel, and crushed stone are used mainly for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from construction, demolition, and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial replacements for natural aggregates, while
8424-406: The making of mortar. In an English translation from 1397, it reads "lyme ... is a stone brent; by medlynge thereof with sonde and water sement is made". From the 14th century, the quality of mortar was again excellent, but only from the 17th century was pozzolana commonly added. The Canal du Midi was built using concrete in 1670. Perhaps the greatest step forward in the modern use of concrete
8541-531: The material. Mineral admixtures use recycled materials as concrete ingredients. Conspicuous materials include fly ash , a by-product of coal-fired power plants ; ground granulated blast furnace slag , a by-product of steelmaking ; and silica fume , a by-product of industrial electric arc furnaces . Structures employing Portland cement concrete usually include steel reinforcement because this type of concrete can be formulated with high compressive strength , but always has lower tensile strength . Therefore, it
8658-419: The mix, are being tested and used. These developments are ever growing in relevance to minimize the impacts caused by cement use, notorious for being one of the largest producers (at about 5 to 10%) of global greenhouse gas emissions . The use of alternative materials also is capable of lowering costs, improving concrete properties, and recycling wastes, the latest being relevant for circular economy aspects of
8775-478: The mixed concrete, often to a concrete mixer truck. Modern concrete is usually prepared as a viscous fluid, so that it may be poured into forms. The forms are containers that define the desired shape. Concrete formwork can be prepared in several ways, such as slip forming and steel plate construction . Alternatively, concrete can be mixed into dryer, non-fluid forms and used in factory settings to manufacture precast concrete products. Interruption in pouring
8892-441: The mixing of cement and water into a paste before combining these materials with aggregates can increase the compressive strength of the resulting concrete. The paste is generally mixed in a high-speed , shear-type mixer at a w/c (water to cement ratio) of 0.30 to 0.45 by mass. The cement paste premix may include admixtures such as accelerators or retarders, superplasticizers , pigments , or silica fume . The premixed paste
9009-441: The mixture to improve the physical properties of the wet mix, delay or accelerate the curing time, or otherwise change the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials (such as steel rebar ) embedded to provide tensile strength , yielding reinforced concrete . In the past, lime -based cement binders, such as lime putty, were often used but sometimes with other hydraulic cements , (water resistant) such as
9126-627: The power necessary to drive the pumps that lift the water in the aqueduct from the delta into the valley, and then from the valley over the Tehachapi Mountains into coastal Southern California. Water and power from the dam contribute to the irrigation of 755,000 acres (306,000 ha) in the arid San Joaquin Valley Westside and municipal supplies to some 25 million people. At least 2.8 million acre⋅ft (910 billion US gal; 3.5 trillion L) of water
9243-401: The primary work contract was awarded to Oro Dam Constructors Inc., a joint venture led by Oman Construction Co. Two concrete-lined diversion tunnels, each 4,400 ft (1,341 m) long and 35 ft (11 m) in diameter, were excavated to channel the Feather River around the dam site. One of the tunnels was located at river level and was to carry normal water flows, while the second one
9360-506: The properties or increase the performance envelope of the mix. Design-mix concrete can have very broad specifications that cannot be met with more basic nominal mixes, but the involvement of the engineer often increases the cost of the concrete mix. Concrete mixes are primarily divided into nominal mix, standard mix and design mix. Nominal mix ratios are given in volume of Cement : Sand : Aggregate {\displaystyle {\text{Cement : Sand : Aggregate}}} . Nominal mixes are
9477-468: The quality and nature of the product. Design mix ratios are decided by an engineer after analyzing the properties of the specific ingredients being used. Instead of using a 'nominal mix' of 1 part cement, 2 parts sand, and 4 parts aggregate (the second example from above), a civil engineer will custom-design a concrete mix to exactly meet the requirements of the site and conditions, setting material ratios and often designing an admixture package to fine-tune
9594-469: The right side were originally supplied by Soviet Union and later upgraded to the present capacity by Russia . The two power houses have a total capacity of 1325 MW. The left power house contain 3 x 108 MW and 2 x 126 MW Francis turbines while the right has 5 x 157 MW. The power generated at Bhakra Dam is distributed among partner states of Himachal Pradesh , Punjab , Haryana , Rajasthan , Chandigarh and Delhi . Three additional power plants are on
9711-525: The river Beas . Since then the Bhakra Beas Management Board is engaged in the regulation of the supply of water and power from Bhakra Nangal Project and Beas Projects to the states of Punjab , Haryana , Rajasthan , Himachal Pradesh , Delhi , and Chandigarh government. The Bhakra Beas Management Board regulates, operates and manages Bhakra Dam, Dehar Hydroelectric Project , Pong dam , Ganguwal and Kotla power stations. Being
9828-511: The roaring current. One of the workers who was badly injured survived by clinging to a bent rail, where he was struck by tools and equipment being sucked into the tunnel. He was hospitalized for four days with head trauma, a broken leg and arm, cuts, and bruises. The California Division of the Occupational Health and Safety Administration (Cal OSHA) concluded opening the valves without an energy-dispersion ring, which reportedly
9945-500: The second largest dam in India after Tehri Dam , it attracts a large number of tourists who visit its reservoir and attractive location. However, for security reasons, visitors to Bhakra-Nangal Dam has been banned since Board (BBMB) are also run the Bhakhra Tourism Railway run on narrow gauge railway line just like Darjeeling himalayan railway, from bhakhra dam to nangal dam. There are 8 railway stations and traveling
10062-507: The site was chosen to dam the river. The large map http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ams/india/nh-43-03.jpg shows the location of the original Bhakra village that was submerged in the lake formed behind the dam. Bhakra dam was part of the larger multipurpose Bhakra Nangal Project whose aims were to prevent floods in the Satluj-Beas river valley, to provide irrigation to adjoining states and also to provide hydro-electricity . It also became
10179-449: The spillway failure, including a faulty drainage system, variations in concrete thickness, and corrosion in the structure's rebar". For 2018 the DWR planned to demolish and reconstruct the portion of the spillway which was undamaged by the flood, but which also has been identified as structurally defective. In addition, crews worked to extend a cutoff wall under the emergency spillway to prevent erosion should that structure be used again in
10296-445: The spillway performed in higher flows. They were decreased to 15,000 cubic feet per second (420 m /s) on April 9. The DWR released an assessment, dated October 1, 2020, concluding that Oroville Dam was suitable for continued safe and reliable operation. Meanwhile, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission has demanded that California submit a plan by September 2022, for addressing the issue of greater amounts of rain predicted in
10413-450: The spillway to inspect its integrity. The engineers found a large area of concrete and foundation erosion. This erosion feature was too massive to repair without diverting water to the emergency spillway, and halted outflow along the main spillway for a period to fix the hole. High inflows to Lake Oroville forced dam operators to continue using the damaged spillway, causing additional damage. The spillway hole continued to grow. Debris from
10530-464: The spillway was shut down for the summer, to allow demolition and repair work to begin. The total cost of the repair was projected to exceed $ 400 million, with the $ 275 million primary contract awarded to Kiewit Construction . FEMA was expected to cover a large portion of the expenses. According to an independent forensics team led by John France, the exact cause of the spillway failure remains uncertain, though they identified "24 possible causes for
10647-428: The state of California. Among the notable figures present were California governor Ronald Reagan , who spoke, Chief Justice (formerly California governor) Earl Warren , Senator Thomas Kuchel , and California Representative Harold T. "Bizz" Johnson . The dedication was accompanied by a week of festivities in nearby Oroville, attended by nearly 50,000 people. On October 17, 2005, three environmental groups filed
10764-411: The strength of the concrete bonding to resist tension. The long-term durability of Roman concrete structures has been found to be due to its use of pyroclastic (volcanic) rock and ash, whereby the crystallization of strätlingite (a specific and complex calcium aluminosilicate hydrate) and the coalescence of this and similar calcium–aluminium-silicate–hydrate cementing binders helped give the concrete
10881-497: The surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate" finish, popular among landscape designers. Admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. Admixtures are defined as additions "made as the concrete mix is being prepared". The most common admixtures are retarders and accelerators. In normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement and are added to
10998-535: The surfaces of the aggregate together, and is typically the most expensive component. Thus, variation in sizes of the aggregate reduces the cost of concrete. The aggregate is nearly always stronger than the binder, so its use does not negatively affect the strength of the concrete. Redistribution of aggregates after compaction often creates non-homogeneity due to the influence of vibration. This can lead to strength gradients. Decorative stones such as quartzite , small river stones or crushed glass are sometimes added to
11115-468: The tallest dam in the U.S. and serves mainly for water supply, hydroelectricity generation, and flood control. The dam impounds Lake Oroville , the second-largest reservoir in California, capable of storing more than 3.5 million acre-feet (1.1 × 10 ^ US gal; 4.3 × 10 m ). Built by the California Department of Water Resources , Oroville Dam is one of the key features of
11232-587: The top of the emergency spillway, the evacuation order was lifted. The main spillway was reconstructed by November 1, 2018, and water releases were successfully tested, up to 25,000 cu ft/s (710 m /s), during April 2019. In 1935, work began on the Central Valley Project , a federal water project that would develop the Sacramento and San Joaquin River systems for irrigation of
11349-642: The total power produced by the SWP's eight hydroelectric facilities. Water released from Oroville Dam travels down the Feather River before joining with the Sacramento River , eventually reaching the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta , where the SWP's California Aqueduct diverts the fresh water for transport to the arid San Joaquin Valley and Southern California. Oroville–Thermalito hydroelectric facilities furnish about one-third of
11466-414: The two canals Nangal Hydel Channel and Anandpur Sahib Hydel Channel that originate from Nangal dam. Their generation capacities are : Ganguwal - 77.65 MW, Kotla - 77.65 MW and Anandpur - 134 MW. The Gobind Sagar reservoir is home to many fish species including endangered Mahseer . Commercial fishing in the reservoir is a source of revenue for the local population. Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB)
11583-474: The underground Edward Hyatt Pump-Generating Plant was finished shortly after the completion of Oroville Dam. At the time, it was the largest underground power station in the United States, with three 132- megawatt (MW) conventional turbines and three 141 MW pump-generators for a total installed capacity of 819 MW. The Hyatt Powerplant is capable of pumping water back into Lake Oroville when surplus power
11700-655: The various ingredients used to produce a given quantity of concrete, the cement is the most energetically expensive. Even complex and efficient kilns require 3.3 to 3.6 gigajoules of energy to produce a ton of clinker and then grind it into cement . Many kilns can be fueled with difficult-to-dispose-of wastes, the most common being used tires. The extremely high temperatures and long periods of time at those temperatures allows cement kilns to efficiently and completely burn even difficult-to-use fuels. The five major compounds of calcium silicates and aluminates comprising Portland cement range from 5 to 50% in weight. Combining water with
11817-439: The water content or adding chemical admixtures increases concrete workability. Excessive water leads to increased bleeding or segregation of aggregates (when the cement and aggregates start to separate), with the resulting concrete having reduced quality. Changes in gradation can also affect workability of the concrete, although a wide range of gradation can be used for various applications. An undesirable gradation can mean using
11934-527: The water through a process called concrete hydration that hardens it over several hours to form a hard matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses. This time allows concrete to not only be cast in forms, but also to have a variety of tooled processes performed. The hydration process is exothermic , which means ambient temperature plays a significant role in how long it takes concrete to set. Often, additives (such as pozzolans or superplasticizers ) are included in
12051-524: Was Smeaton's Tower , built by British engineer John Smeaton in Devon , England, between 1756 and 1759. This third Eddystone Lighthouse pioneered the use of hydraulic lime in concrete, using pebbles and powdered brick as aggregate. A method for producing Portland cement was developed in England and patented by Joseph Aspdin in 1824. Aspdin chose the name for its similarity to Portland stone , which
12168-441: Was absent, "created water flow with such great turbulence that it blocked an air vent and created a vacuum". It sanctioned the DWR with six citations, including five classified as serious, and the department was initially fined $ 141,375. Two of the "serious" citations were overturned on appeal. This river valve system was one of the first parts of the dam to be built when the dam project started in 1961, because its initial purpose
12285-626: Was built largely of concrete, and the Pantheon has the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome. Concrete, as the Romans knew it, was a new and revolutionary material. Laid in the shape of arches , vaults and domes , it quickly hardened into a rigid mass, free from many of the internal thrusts and strains that troubled the builders of similar structures in stone or brick. Modern tests show that opus caementicium had as much compressive strength as modern Portland-cement concrete (c. 200 kg/cm [20 MPa; 2,800 psi]). However, due to
12402-534: Was completed by the end of 1963. Successive stages were completed by the early 1970s. Initially, the construction of the dam was started by Sir Louis Dane , the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab. But the project got delayed and was restarted soon after independence under the chief architect Rai Bahadur Kunwar Sen Gupta. It was financed entirely by the union government . The Control Board for the project included representatives from union government, and of
12519-452: Was constituted in 1966 for the administration, maintenance and operation of Bhakra Nangal Project from 1 October 1967. It manages the operation of both the dams. Its members are appointed by the government of India and by the states of Punjab , Haryana , Rajasthan , Himachal Pradesh , and Union territories of Delhi , and Chandigarh . Bhakra Management Board was renamed Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB) on 15 May 1976 to also manage dams on
12636-525: Was constructed to move earth and rock to the dam site. An average of 120 train cars ran along the line each hour, transporting fill that was mainly excavated from enormous piles of hydraulic mining debris that was washed down by the Feather River after the California Gold Rush . On December 22, 1964, disaster nearly struck when the Feather River, after days of heavy rain, reached a peak flow of 250,000 cu ft/s (7,100 m /s) above
12753-602: Was greatly reduced. Low kiln temperatures in the burning of lime, lack of pozzolana, and poor mixing all contributed to a decline in the quality of concrete and mortar. From the 11th century, the increased use of stone in church and castle construction led to an increased demand for mortar. Quality began to improve in the 12th century through better grinding and sieving. Medieval lime mortars and concretes were non-hydraulic and were used for binding masonry, "hearting" (binding rubble masonry cores) and foundations. Bartholomaeus Anglicus in his De proprietatibus rerum (1240) describes
12870-452: Was made from quicklime , pozzolana and an aggregate of pumice . Its widespread use in many Roman structures , a key event in the history of architecture termed the Roman architectural revolution , freed Roman construction from the restrictions of stone and brick materials. It enabled revolutionary new designs in terms of both structural complexity and dimension. The Colosseum in Rome
12987-406: Was only to be used during floods. In May 1963, workers poured the last of 252,000 cu yd (6.8 million cu ft; 193,000 m ) of concrete that comprised the 128 ft (39 m) high cofferdam , to protect the construction site from floods. This structure later served as an impervious core for the completed dam. With the cofferdam in place, an 11-mile (18 km) rail line
13104-498: Was pioneered by the Nabatean traders who occupied and controlled a series of oases and developed a small empire in the regions of southern Syria and northern Jordan from the 4th century BC. They discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime , with some self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of rubble masonry houses, concrete floors, and underground waterproof cisterns . They kept
13221-622: Was quarried on the Isle of Portland in Dorset , England. His son William continued developments into the 1840s, earning him recognition for the development of "modern" Portland cement. Reinforced concrete was invented in 1849 by Joseph Monier . and the first reinforced concrete house was built by François Coignet in 1853. The first concrete reinforced bridge was designed and built by Joseph Monier in 1875. Prestressed concrete and post-tensioned concrete were pioneered by Eugène Freyssinet ,
13338-494: Was ready for use in 1968. The dam began to generate electricity shortly afterwards with completion of the Edward Hyatt Power Plant , then the country's largest underground power station . Since its completion in 1968, the Oroville Dam has allocated the flow of the Feather River from the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta into the SWP's California Aqueduct , which provides a major supply of water for irrigation in
13455-495: Was strongly opposed by voters in Northern California and parts of Southern California that received water from the Colorado River , but was supported by other Southern Californians and San Joaquin Valley farmers. However, major flooding in the 1950s prompted the 1957 passage of an emergency flood-control bill that provided sufficient funding for construction for a dam at Oroville – regardless of whether it would become part of
13572-407: Was to divert the river while the dam was under construction. After that, it served various purposes, including as a possible emergency release valve. Since the accident, DWR had implemented a standing order that prohibited the operation of the river outlet system and significantly limited access to the river valve chamber. Following the accident, DWR entered into a 2012 agreement with Cal OSHA to hire
13689-625: Was used for construction in many ancient structures. Mayan concrete at the ruins of Uxmal (AD 850–925) is referenced in Incidents of Travel in the Yucatán by John L. Stephens . "The roof is flat and had been covered with cement". "The floors were cement, in some places hard, but, by long exposure, broken, and now crumbling under the feet." "But throughout the wall was solid, and consisting of large stones imbedded in mortar, almost as hard as rock." Small-scale production of concrete-like materials
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