107-444: SWP or swp may refer to: Businesses and organisations [ edit ] California State Water Project , an American public utility German Institute for International and Security Affairs (German: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik ) Saskatchewan Wheat Pool , Canadian grain firm Socialist Workers Party (disambiguation) , various political parties South Wales Police ,
214-745: A greenhouse gas . According to the World Commission on Dams report, where the reservoir is large compared to the generating capacity (less than 100 watts per square metre of surface area) and no clearing of the forests in the area was undertaken prior to impoundment of the reservoir, greenhouse gas emissions from the reservoir may be higher than those of a conventional oil-fired thermal generation plant. In boreal reservoirs of Canada and Northern Europe, however, greenhouse gas emissions are typically only 2% to 8% of any kind of conventional fossil-fuel thermal generation. A new class of underwater logging operation that targets drowned forests can mitigate
321-463: A low-head hydro power plant with hydrostatic head of few meters to few tens of meters can be classified either as an SHP or an LHP. The other distinction between SHP and LHP is the degree of the water flow regulation: a typical SHP primarily uses the natural water discharge with very little regulation in comparison to an LHP. Therefore, the term SHP is frequently used as a synonym for the run-of-the-river power plant . The largest power producers in
428-474: A British constabulary Southwest Pennsylvania Railroad , United States (by reporting mark) Wikimedia Polska (Polish: Stowarzyszenie Wikimedia Polska ) Association "Polish Community" , (Polish: Stowarzyszenie "Wspólnota Polska" ) Computing [ edit ] Scientific WorkPlace , a mathematics tool with LaTeX support Single Wire Protocol .swp, a swap file used by Vim Publications [ edit ] PEF Survey of Palestine ,
535-688: A combined storage capacity of about 162,000 acre-feet (0.200 km ). Water released from the Upper Feather River system flows into Lake Oroville , which is formed by the Oroville Dam several miles above the city of Oroville . At 770 feet (230 m), Oroville is the tallest dam in the United States; by volume it is the largest dam in California. Authorized by an emergency flood control measure in 1957, Oroville Dam
642-554: A connection from Perris to Lake Skinner , further south. The original 1957 California Water Plan included provisions for dams on the Klamath, Eel, Mad and Smith Rivers of California's North Coast. Fed by prolific rainfall in the western Coast Ranges and Klamath Mountains , these rivers discharge more than 26 million acre-feet (32 km ) to the Pacific each year, more than that of the entire Sacramento River system. The plan
749-421: A flood and fail. Changes in the amount of river flow will correlate with the amount of energy produced by a dam. Lower river flows will reduce the amount of live storage in a reservoir therefore reducing the amount of water that can be used for hydroelectricity. The result of diminished river flow can be power shortages in areas that depend heavily on hydroelectric power. The risk of flow shortage may increase as
856-546: A fraction of the facilities originally proposed. As a result, the project has only delivered an average of 2.4 million acre-feet (3.0 km ) annually, as compared to total entitlements of 4.23 million acre-feet (5.22 km ). Environmental concerns caused by the dry-season removal of water from the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta , a sensitive estuary region, have often led to further reductions in water delivery. Work continues today to expand
963-494: A hydroelectric complex is constructed, it produces no direct waste, and almost always emits considerably less greenhouse gas than fossil fuel -powered energy plants. However, when constructed in lowland rainforest areas, where part of the forest is inundated, substantial amounts of greenhouse gases may be emitted. Construction of a hydroelectric complex can have significant environmental impact, principally in loss of arable land and population displacement. They also disrupt
1070-809: A large natural height difference between two waterways, such as a waterfall or mountain lake. A tunnel is constructed to take water from the high reservoir to the generating hall built in a cavern near the lowest point of the water tunnel and a horizontal tailrace taking water away to the lower outlet waterway. A simple formula for approximating electric power production at a hydroelectric station is: P = − η ( m ˙ g Δ h ) = − η ( ( ρ V ˙ ) g Δ h ) {\displaystyle P=-\eta \ ({\dot {m}}g\ \Delta h)=-\eta \ ((\rho {\dot {V}})\ g\ \Delta h)} where Efficiency
1177-451: A larger amount of methane than those in temperate areas. Like other non-fossil fuel sources, hydropower also has no emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, or other particulates. Reservoirs created by hydroelectric schemes often provide facilities for water sports , and become tourist attractions themselves. In some countries, aquaculture in reservoirs is common. Multi-use dams installed for irrigation support agriculture with
SECTION 10
#17327718507081284-493: A maximum width of 300 feet (91 m) and a maximum depth of 30 feet (9.1 m); some parts of the channel are capable of delivering more than 13,000 cu ft/s (370 m /s). The section of the aqueduct that runs through the San Joaquin Valley includes multiple turnouts where water is released to irrigate roughly 750,000 acres (300,000 ha) of land on the west side of the valley. The aqueduct enters
1391-835: A pipeline known as the Central Coast Water Authority extension, completed in 1997, the Coastal Branch supplies water to Lake Cachuma , a 205,000 acre⋅ft (0.253 km ) reservoir on the Santa Ynez River . From the terminus of the main California Aqueduct at Tehachapi Afterbay, the West Branch carries water to a second reservoir, Quail Lake, via the Oso Pumping Plant. The water then runs south by gravity to
1498-592: A positive risk adjusted return, unless appropriate risk management measures are put in place. While many hydroelectric projects supply public electricity networks, some are created to serve specific industrial enterprises. Dedicated hydroelectric projects are often built to provide the substantial amounts of electricity needed for aluminium electrolytic plants, for example. The Grand Coulee Dam switched to support Alcoa aluminium in Bellingham, Washington , United States for American World War II airplanes before it
1605-548: A relatively constant water supply. Large hydro dams can control floods, which would otherwise affect people living downstream of the project. Managing dams which are also used for other purposes, such as irrigation , is complicated. In 2021 the IEA called for "robust sustainability standards for all hydropower development with streamlined rules and regulations". Large reservoirs associated with traditional hydroelectric power stations result in submersion of extensive areas upstream of
1712-477: A result of climate change . One study from the Colorado River in the United States suggest that modest climate changes, such as an increase in temperature in 2 degree Celsius resulting in a 10% decline in precipitation, might reduce river run-off by up to 40%. Brazil in particular is vulnerable due to its heavy reliance on hydroelectricity, as increasing temperatures, lower water flow and alterations in
1819-415: A series of maps (1872–1880) Südwest Presse , a German newspaper (founded 1946) Other uses [ edit ] Skill with prize , a category of slot machine Sherwin-Williams Paints, a line of paint sold by Sherwin-Williams Swiss Water Process, a method of coffee decaffeination Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with
1926-448: A small TV/radio). Even smaller turbines of 200–300 W may power a few homes in a developing country with a drop of only 1 m (3 ft). A Pico-hydro setup is typically run-of-the-river , meaning that dams are not used, but rather pipes divert some of the flow, drop this down a gradient, and through the turbine before returning it to the stream. An underground power station is generally used at large facilities and makes use of
2033-455: A source of low-cost renewable energy. Alternatively, small hydro projects may be built in isolated areas that would be uneconomic to serve from a grid, or in areas where there is no national electrical distribution network. Since small hydro projects usually have minimal reservoirs and civil construction work, they are seen as having a relatively low environmental impact compared to large hydro. This decreased environmental impact depends strongly on
2140-414: A start-up time of the order of a few minutes. Although battery power is quicker its capacity is tiny compared to hydro. It takes less than 10 minutes to bring most hydro units from cold start-up to full load; this is quicker than nuclear and almost all fossil fuel power. Power generation can also be decreased quickly when there is a surplus power generation. Hence the limited capacity of hydropower units
2247-581: A total of 1,500 terawatt-hours (TWh) of electrical energy in one full cycle" which was "about 170 times more energy than the global fleet of pumped storage hydropower plants". Battery storage capacity is not expected to overtake pumped storage during the 2020s. When used as peak power to meet demand, hydroelectricity has a higher value than baseload power and a much higher value compared to intermittent energy sources such as wind and solar. Hydroelectric stations have long economic lives, with some plants still in service after 50–100 years. Operating labor cost
SECTION 20
#17327718507082354-452: Is hydroelectric power on a scale serving a small community or industrial plant. The definition of a small hydro project varies but a generating capacity of up to 10 megawatts (MW) is generally accepted as the upper limit. This may be stretched to 25 MW and 30 MW in Canada and the United States. Small hydro stations may be connected to conventional electrical distribution networks as
2461-551: Is a pumped-storage hydroelectric plant capable of producing 1,247 MW on peak demand. Together, Pyramid and Castaic Lakes form the primary storage for West Branch water delivered to Southern California. Water is supplied to municipalities in Los Angeles and Ventura counties. The East Branch takes water from Tehachapi Afterbay along the north side of the San Gabriel Mountains and San Bernardino Mountains to
2568-635: Is also usually low, as plants are automated and have few personnel on site during normal operation. Where a dam serves multiple purposes, a hydroelectric station may be added with relatively low construction cost, providing a useful revenue stream to offset the costs of dam operation. It has been calculated that the sale of electricity from the Three Gorges Dam will cover the construction costs after 5 to 8 years of full generation. However, some data shows that in most countries large hydropower dams will be too costly and take too long to build to deliver
2675-541: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages California State Water Project The California State Water Project , commonly known as the SWP , is a state water management project in the U.S. state of California under the supervision of the California Department of Water Resources . The SWP is one of the largest public water and power utilities in
2782-470: Is highest in the winter when solar energy is at a minimum. Pico hydro is hydroelectric power generation of under 5 kW . It is useful in small, remote communities that require only a small amount of electricity. For example, the 1.1 kW Intermediate Technology Development Group Pico Hydro Project in Kenya supplies 57 homes with very small electric loads (e.g., a couple of lights and a phone charger, or
2889-445: Is initially produced during construction of the project, and some methane is given off annually by reservoirs, hydro has one of the lowest lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions for electricity generation. The low greenhouse gas impact of hydroelectricity is found especially in temperate climates . Greater greenhouse gas emission impacts are found in the tropical regions because the reservoirs of power stations in tropical regions produce
2996-510: Is mostly made up of buried pipeline. Pumping plants at Las Perillas, Badger Hill, Devil's Den, Bluestone, and Polonio Pass serve to lift the water over the California Coast Ranges . Once over the crest of the mountains, the water is reregulated in a series of small reservoirs numbered Tanks 1 through 5. The Coastal Branch was completed in 1994 following a severe drought that led to calls for importation of SWP water. Through
3103-471: Is mostly used for irrigation. The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (the largest entitlement holder) pays $ 298 per acre-foot ($ 241 per 1,000 m ). This basically means that cities are subsidizing the cost of farm water, even though the cities also provided primary funding for the construction of the SWP. In the early 1970s, the SWP system still had a lot of "surplus" – water supply developed through
3210-462: Is not an energy source, and appears as a negative number in listings. Run-of-the-river hydroelectric stations are those with small or no reservoir capacity, so that only the water coming from upstream is available for generation at that moment, and any oversupply must pass unused. A constant supply of water from a lake or existing reservoir upstream is a significant advantage in choosing sites for run-of-the-river. A tidal power station makes use of
3317-452: Is not generally used to produce base power except for vacating the flood pool or meeting downstream needs. Instead, it can serve as backup for non-hydro generators. The major advantage of conventional hydroelectric dams with reservoirs is their ability to store water at low cost for dispatch later as high value clean electricity. In 2021, the IEA estimated that the "reservoirs of all existing conventional hydropower plants combined can store
SWP - Misplaced Pages Continue
3424-410: Is often higher (that is, closer to 1) with larger and more modern turbines. Annual electric energy production depends on the available water supply. In some installations, the water flow rate can vary by a factor of 10:1 over the course of a year. Hydropower is a flexible source of electricity since stations can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. Hydro turbines have
3531-679: The Bonneville Dam in 1937 and being recognized by the Flood Control Act of 1936 as the premier federal flood control agency. Hydroelectric power stations continued to become larger throughout the 20th century. Hydropower was referred to as "white coal". Hoover Dam 's initial 1,345 MW power station was the world's largest hydroelectric power station in 1936; it was eclipsed by the 6,809 MW Grand Coulee Dam in 1942. The Itaipu Dam opened in 1984 in South America as
3638-672: The Clifton Court Forebay , located northwest of Tracy on the southern end of the Delta. Here, the Harvey O. Banks Pumping Plant lifts water 224 feet (68 m) into the California Aqueduct . Completed in 1963, the eleven pump units can lift up to 10,670 cu ft/s (302 m /s) of water – upgraded in 1986 from its original capacity of 6,400 cu ft/s (180 m /s) across seven units. From here
3745-806: The International Exhibition of Hydropower and Tourism , with over one million visitors 1925. By 1920, when 40% of the power produced in the United States was hydroelectric, the Federal Power Act was enacted into law. The Act created the Federal Power Commission to regulate hydroelectric power stations on federal land and water. As the power stations became larger, their associated dams developed additional purposes, including flood control , irrigation and navigation . Federal funding became necessary for large-scale development, and federally owned corporations, such as
3852-415: The O'Neill Forebay reservoir west of Volta , where water can be pumped into a giant offstream storage facility, San Luis Reservoir , formed by the nearby B.F. Sisk Dam . San Luis Reservoir is shared by the SWP and the federal Central Valley Project ; here water can be switched between the California Aqueduct and Delta-Mendota Canal to cope with fluctuating demands. The SWP has a 50 percent share of
3959-563: The Oroville-Thermalito Complex . The Thermalito Forebay and Afterbay support the 120 MW Thermalito Pumping-Generating Plant, and the Thermalito Diversion Dam supports a smaller 3.3 MW powerplant. The entire system generates approximately 2.2 billion kilowatt hours per year, making up about a third of the total power generated by SWP facilities. From Oroville, a regulated water flow travels down
4066-533: The Peripheral Canal and Sites Reservoir, was to have been built beginning in the late 1970s and 1980s – but due to concerted opposition from Northern Californians, environmentalist groups and some economic interests, as well as the state's increasing debt, attempts to begin construction have all met with failure. Parties currently receiving SWP water are also opposed to its expansion, because water rates could be raised up to 300 percent to help pay for
4173-726: The Silverwood Lake reservoir, which can hold 73,000 acre⋅ft (0.090 km ). From here it passes through a tunnel under the San Bernardino Mountains to the Devil Canyon Powerplant, the largest "recovery plant", or aqueduct power plant, of the SWP system. The water then flows 28 miles (45 km) through the Santa Ana Tunnel to Lake Perris , which can store up to 131,400 acre⋅ft (0.1621 km ). Water deliveries through
4280-633: The Tennessee Valley Authority (1933) and the Bonneville Power Administration (1937) were created. Additionally, the Bureau of Reclamation which had begun a series of western US irrigation projects in the early 20th century, was now constructing large hydroelectric projects such as the 1928 Hoover Dam . The United States Army Corps of Engineers was also involved in hydroelectric development, completing
4387-583: The Vulcan Street Plant , began operating September 30, 1882, in Appleton, Wisconsin , with an output of about 12.5 kilowatts. By 1886 there were 45 hydroelectric power stations in the United States and Canada; and by 1889 there were 200 in the United States alone. At the beginning of the 20th century, many small hydroelectric power stations were being constructed by commercial companies in mountains near metropolitan areas. Grenoble , France held
SWP - Misplaced Pages Continue
4494-506: The potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator . The power extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the difference in height between the source and the water's outflow. This height difference is called the head . A large pipe (the " penstock ") delivers water from the reservoir to the turbine. This method produces electricity to supply high peak demands by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand,
4601-543: The 2.04 million acre-feet (2.52 km ) of storage available in San Luis Reservoir. South of the San Luis Reservoir complex, the aqueduct steadily gains elevation through a series of massive pumping plants. Dos Amigos Pumping Plant is located shortly south of San Luis, lifting the water 118 feet (36 m). Near Kettleman City , the Coastal Branch splits off from the main California Aqueduct. Buena Vista, Teerink and Chrisman Pumping Plants are located on
4708-538: The 60-mile (97 km) Trinity Tunnel into the Sacramento River, and thence to the canals and pump systems of the SWP. This would have provided between 5 and 10 million acre-feet (6.2 and 12.3 km ) of water each year for the SWP. The diversion of the North Coast rivers, however were dropped from the initial SWP program. In the mid-1960s, devastating flooding brought renewed interest in damming
4815-602: The 78 MW William E. Warne Powerplant, located on the 180,000 acre⋅ft (0.22 km ) Pyramid Lake reservoir. The West Branch delivered about 537,000 acre⋅ft (0.662 km ) per year for the period 1995–2010. From Pyramid Lake, water is released through the Angeles Tunnel to the Castaic Power Plant on Elderberry Forebay and the 325,000 acre⋅ft (0.401 km ) Castaic Lake reservoir located north of Santa Clarita . Castaic Power Plant
4922-548: The Banks Pumping Plant pulls water from the Sacramento River southward across the Delta, it disrupts the normal flow direction of east to west that salmon smolt follow to the Pacific Ocean. Populations of salmon and steelhead trout have reached critically low levels in the decades after SWP water withdrawals began. The fish migration issue has become hotly contested in recent years, with rising support for
5029-631: The Bay Area diversions, the bulk of the SWP water – ranging from 1 to 3.7 million acre-feet (1.2 to 4.6 km ) per year – travels south along the western flank of the San Joaquin Valley through the California Aqueduct. The main section of the aqueduct stretches for 304 miles (489 km); it is composed mainly of concrete-lined canals but also includes 20.7 miles (33.3 km) of tunnels, 130.4 miles (209.9 km) of pipelines and 27 miles (43 km) of siphons. The aqueduct reaches
5136-741: The Colorado River. Historians largely attribute the success of the Burns-Porter Act and the State Water Project to major agribusiness lobbying, particularly by J.G. Boswell II of the J.G. Boswell cotton company. The bond was passed on an extremely narrow margin of 174,000 out of 5.8 million ballots cast. In 1966, the Metropolitan Water District passed Proposition W, a Southern California property tax bond to connect its regional water system to
5243-550: The Dos Rios dam would have reduced the record 72-foot (22 m) Eel River flood crest of 1964 by only 8 inches (20 cm) had it been in place. In 1980, the North Coast rivers were incorporated into the National Wild and Scenic Rivers system, effectively eliminating the possibility of any projects to divert them. California WaterFix , is a planned twin forty-foot (12 m) tunnel project that would extend through
5350-619: The East Branch averaged 995,000 acre⋅ft (1.227 km ) per year from 1995 through 2012. The East Branch principally provides water for cities and farms in the Inland Empire , Orange County , and other areas south of Los Angeles. Through Lake Perris, the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California receives a large portion of its water from the SWP. Water is also supplied to the San Diego Aqueduct through
5457-696: The Feather River Project, which proposed the damming of the Feather River , a tributary of the Sacramento River, for the same purpose. The Feather River was much more accessible than the North Coast rivers, but did not have nearly as much water. Under both of the plans, a series of canals and pumps would carry the water south through the Central Valley to the foot of the Tehachapi Mountains , where it would pass through
SECTION 50
#17327718507085564-508: The Feather and Sacramento Rivers to the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta . North of Rio Vista , about 120,000 acre-feet (0.15 km ) per year is pumped into the 27.4-mile (44.1 km) North Bay Aqueduct , completed in 1988. The aqueduct delivers water to clients in Napa and Solano counties. The vast majority of the SWP water is drawn through the Delta's complex estuary system into
5671-463: The IEA released a main-case forecast of 141 GW generated by hydropower over 2022–2027, which is slightly lower than deployment achieved from 2017–2022. Because environmental permitting and construction times are long, they estimate hydropower potential will remain limited, with only an additional 40 GW deemed possible in the accelerated case. In 2021 the IEA said that major modernisation refurbishments are required. Most hydroelectric power comes from
5778-578: The Metropolitan Water District and urban developers in Los Angeles. They claim it would eliminate the need to pull water directly through this sensitive region, reducing salinity intrusion and water quality problems during the dry season. The canal was included in the initial SWP planning, and the lack of the canal is among the principal reasons the SWP has never been able to deliver its full entitlement. Tunnel opponents believe
5885-642: The North Coast rivers. The Department of Water Resources formed the State-Federal Interagency Task Force with the Bureau of Reclamation and the Army Corps of Engineers to develop plans for developing the rivers in the name of flood control – which would, incidentally, provide a way to divert some of their water into the SWP system. Although most of the proposed projects met their demise over political squabbles, one that persisted
5992-441: The SWP's water delivery capacity while finding solutions for the environmental impacts of water diversion. The original purpose of the project was to provide water for arid Southern California, whose local water resources and share of the Colorado River were insufficient to sustain the region's growth. The SWP was rooted in two proposals. The United Western Investigation of 1951, a study by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation , assessed
6099-415: The Sacramento River during the wet season. The Los Banos Grandes reservoir was first proposed in 1983 and would have served a similar purpose to Sites. The 1.73 million acre-feet (2.13 km ) reservoir would have been located along the California Aqueduct several miles south of San Luis Reservoir, and would have allowed for the storage of water during wet years when extra water could be pumped from
6206-566: The Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta. Pumped-storage hydroelectric plants would have been built between Los Banos Grandes and the existing Los Banos flood control reservoir, and between that reservoir and the aqueduct. The current status of Los Banos Grandes remains uncertain, as the DWR has been unable to appropriate funding since the 1990s. The existing SWP facilities are collectively known as Stage I. Stage II, which includes such works as
6313-596: The Tehachapi Tunnel to reach Southern California. Calls for a comprehensive statewide water management system (complementing the extensive, but primarily irrigation-based Central Valley Project ) led to the creation of the California Department of Water Resources in 1956. The following year, the preliminary studies were compiled into the extensive California Water Plan, or Bulletin No. 3. The project
6420-464: The ability to transport particles heavier than itself downstream. This has a negative effect on dams and subsequently their power stations, particularly those on rivers or within catchment areas with high siltation. Siltation can fill a reservoir and reduce its capacity to control floods along with causing additional horizontal pressure on the upstream portion of the dam. Eventually, some reservoirs can become full of sediment and useless or over-top during
6527-595: The balance between stream flow and power production. Micro hydro means hydroelectric power installations that typically produce up to 100 kW of power. These installations can provide power to an isolated home or small community, or are sometimes connected to electric power networks. There are many of these installations around the world, particularly in developing nations as they can provide an economical source of energy without purchase of fuel. Micro hydro systems complement photovoltaic solar energy systems because in many areas water flow, and thus available hydro power,
SECTION 60
#17327718507086634-520: The canal being built. Since the 1980s, there has been interest in creating a large off-stream reservoir in the Sacramento Valley. Water "skimmed" off high winter flows in the Sacramento River would be pumped into a storage basin in the western side of the valley known as Sites Reservoir. The reservoir would hold about 1.8 million acre-feet (2.2 km ) of water to be released into the Sacramento River during low-flow periods, boosting
6741-506: The center of the Delta, 150 feet (46 m) below ground. Earlier designs called for a Peripheral Canal to skirt the Delta to the east. The tunnels would draw water from the Sacramento River to bypass the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta, a vast estuary and agricultural region consisting of over 700 miles (1,100 km) of tidal waterways. Supporters of the canal and tunnel have included the Central Valley farmers and
6848-521: The construction of Oroville Dam, which was running unused to the Pacific Ocean because the water delivery infrastructure for Southern California had not yet been completed (and when it was, southern California was slow to use the water). The surplus water was given for irrigation in the San Joaquin Valley instead. Because the water would only be a temporary supply, farmers were advised to use it for seasonal crops (such as alfalfa or hay) rather than permanent crops such as orchards. Nevertheless, many farmers used
6955-560: The construction of the Peripheral Canal, which would divert water around the Delta, restoring the natural flow direction. Water use and environmental problems associated with the SWP led to the creation of the CALFED Bay-Delta Program (CALFED) in 1994. The primary goals are to improve quality of SWP water while preventing further ecological damage in the Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta. In January 2014, after
7062-507: The construction project would do extensive damage to the sensitive Delta ecosystem, farms and communities. Opponents also believe there will be long-term damage to the Delta ecosystem from fresh water being removed prior to flushing through the Delta and flowing more naturally to the San Francisco Bay. Governor Jerry Brown had supported a ballot initiative approving the canal in the early 1980s, and stated his intention to finish
7169-603: The cost. As a result, SWP capacity falls short by an average of 2 million acre-feet (2.5 km ) each year; contractors only occasionally receive their full shares of water. The disparity of costs to the project's various constituents has been a frequent source of controversy. Although the overall average cost of SWP water is $ 147 per acre-foot ($ 119 per 1,000 m ), agricultural users pay far less than their urban counterparts for SWP water. The Kern County Water Agency (the second largest SWP entitlement holder) pays around $ 45–50 per acre-foot ($ 36–41 per 1,000 m ) of SWP water, which
7276-404: The daily rise and fall of ocean water due to tides; such sources are highly predictable, and if conditions permit construction of reservoirs, can also be dispatchable to generate power during high demand periods. Less common types of hydro schemes use water's kinetic energy or undammed sources such as undershot water wheels . Tidal power is viable in a relatively small number of locations around
7383-505: The dams, sometimes destroying biologically rich and productive lowland and riverine valley forests, marshland and grasslands. Damming interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local ecosystems, and building large dams and reservoirs often involves displacing people and wildlife. The loss of land is often exacerbated by habitat fragmentation of surrounding areas caused by the reservoir. Hydroelectric projects can be disruptive to surrounding aquatic ecosystems both upstream and downstream of
7490-705: The effect of forest decay. Another disadvantage of hydroelectric dams is the need to relocate the people living where the reservoirs are planned. In 2000, the World Commission on Dams estimated that dams had physically displaced 40–80 million people worldwide. Because large conventional dammed-hydro facilities hold back large volumes of water, a failure due to poor construction, natural disasters or sabotage can be catastrophic to downriver settlements and infrastructure. During Typhoon Nina in 1975 Banqiao Dam in Southern China failed when more than
7597-399: The excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir, thus providing demand side response . When the demand becomes greater, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine. In 2021 pumped-storage schemes provided almost 85% of the world's 190 GW of grid energy storage and improve the daily capacity factor of the generation system. Pumped storage
7704-506: The feasibility of interbasin water transfers in the Western United States. In California, this plan contemplated the construction of dams on rivers draining to California's North Coast – the wild and undammed Klamath , Eel , Mad and Smith River systems – and tunnels to carry the impounded water to the Sacramento River system, where it could be diverted southwards. In the same year, State Engineer A.D. Edmonston proposed
7811-427: The first 2.23 million acre-feet (2.75 km ) of water, began in 1960. Northern Californians opposed the measure as a boondoggle and an attempt to steal their water resources. In fact, the city of Los Angeles – which was to be one of the principal beneficiaries – also opposed the project; locals saw it as a ploy by politicians in the other Colorado River basin states to get Los Angeles to relinquish its share of
7918-449: The initial allocation for 2015 was give on December 1, 2014. †Background color denotes facility shared with Central Valley Project . *This is the portion of total capacity of San Luis Reservoir allocated to SWP; the total capacity is 2,041,000 acre⋅ft (2,518,000 dam ) Hydroelectricity Hydroelectricity , or hydroelectric power , is electricity generated from hydropower (water power). Hydropower supplies 15% of
8025-501: The largest amount for the region since 1990. Meanwhile, globally, hydropower generation increased by 70 TWh (up 2%) in 2022 and remains the largest renewable energy source, surpassing all other technologies combined. Hydropower has been used since ancient times to grind flour and perform other tasks. In the late 18th century hydraulic power provided the energy source needed for the start of the Industrial Revolution . In
8132-750: The largest, producing 14 GW , but was surpassed in 2008 by the Three Gorges Dam in China at 22.5 GW . Hydroelectricity would eventually supply some countries, including Norway , Democratic Republic of the Congo , Paraguay and Brazil , with over 85% of their electricity. In 2021 the International Energy Agency (IEA) said that more efforts are needed to help limit climate change . Some countries have highly developed their hydropower potential and have very little room for growth: Switzerland produces 88% of its potential and Mexico 80%. In 2022,
8239-616: The late 19th century, the electrical generator was developed and could now be coupled with hydraulics. The growing demand arising from the Industrial Revolution would drive development as well. In 1878, the world's first hydroelectric power scheme was developed at Cragside in Northumberland , England, by William Armstrong . It was used to power a single arc lamp in his art gallery. The old Schoelkopf Power Station No. 1 , US, near Niagara Falls , began to produce electricity in 1881. The first Edison hydroelectric power station,
8346-439: The main aqueduct near the southern end of the San Joaquin Valley near Bakersfield . The aqueduct then reaches A.D. Edmonston Pumping Plant , which lifts the water 1,926 feet (587 m) over the Tehachapi Mountains that separate the San Joaquin Valley from Southern California. It is the highest pump-lift in the SWP, with a capacity of 4,480 cu ft/s (127 m /s) across fourteen units. Initial construction of Edmonston
8453-488: The mid-1700s, French engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor published Architecture Hydraulique , which described vertical- and horizontal-axis hydraulic machines, and in 1771 Richard Arkwright 's combination of water power , the water frame , and continuous production played a significant part in the development of the factory system, with modern employment practices. In the 1840s, hydraulic power networks were developed to generate and transmit hydro power to end users. By
8560-465: The moderately dry year of 2012 and the record California drought of 2013, the Department of Water Resources announced that the SWP would be making zero deliveries that year, the first time in the project's history, due to dangerously low snowpack and reservoir levels. On April 18, 2014, the Department of Water Resources increased the SWP allocation back to five percent and that level remained until
8667-567: The mountains' 3,500-foot (1,100 m) crest. In 1973, the pumps and the East and West branches of the aqueduct were completed, and the first water was delivered to Southern California. A Peripheral Canal , which would have carried SWP water around the vulnerable and ecologically sensitive Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta , was rejected in 1982 due to environmental concerns. The Coastal Branch, which delivers water to coastal central California,
8774-651: The natural ecology of the river involved, affecting habitats and ecosystems, and siltation and erosion patterns. While dams can ameliorate the risks of flooding, dam failure can be catastrophic. In 2021, global installed hydropower electrical capacity reached almost 1,400 GW, the highest among all renewable energy technologies. Hydroelectricity plays a leading role in countries like Brazil, Norway and China. but there are geographical limits and environmental issues. Tidal power can be used in coastal regions. China added 24 GW in 2022, accounting for nearly three-quarters of global hydropower capacity additions. Europe added 2 GW,
8881-477: The new state project. In 1961, ground was broken on Oroville Dam , and in 1963, work began on the California Aqueduct and San Luis Reservoir . The first deliveries to the Bay Area were made in 1962, and water reached the San Joaquin Valley by 1968. Due to concerns over the fault -ridden geography of the Tehachapi Mountains, the tunnel plan was scrapped; the water would have to be pumped over
8988-482: The plan's early stages after strong opposition from locals and concerns about the potential impact on the salmon in North Coast rivers. The California Water Plan would have to go ahead with the development of the Feather River alone, as proposed by Edmonston. The Burns-Porter Act of 1959 provided $ 1.75 billion of initial funding through a bond measure . Construction on Stage I of the project, which would deliver
9095-633: The plant site. Generation of hydroelectric power changes the downstream river environment. Water exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, which can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks. The turbines also will kill large portions of the fauna passing through, for instance 70% of the eel passing a turbine will perish immediately. Since turbine gates are often opened intermittently, rapid or even daily fluctuations in river flow are observed. Drought and seasonal changes in rainfall can severely limit hydropower. Water may also be lost by evaporation. When water flows it has
9202-517: The production and flexibility of California's water management system, yielding 470,000 to 640,000 acre⋅ft (0.58 to 0.79 km ) of new water per year. This project is being seriously considered by the Department of Water Resources, as California's water system is expected to face serious shortfalls of 2 million acre-feet (2.5 km ) per year by 2020. However, the project has been criticized for its high cost, and potential disruption of fish migration when large amounts of water are drawn from
9309-535: The project in its tunnel form during his second governorship (2011-2019). His successor, Gavin Newsom , has also supported the project. Supporters of the tunnel argue that water being drawn from the southern intakes creates problems for wildlife and changes the natural flow in these areas, which would be corrected by drawing water from farther north. Supporters also claim that the California levees are also vulnerable to earthquakes and directing water away from them protects
9416-450: The rainfall regime, could reduce total energy production by 7% annually by the end of the century. Lower positive impacts are found in the tropical regions. In lowland rainforest areas, where inundation of a part of the forest is necessary, it has been noted that the reservoirs of power plants produce substantial amounts of methane . This is due to plant material in flooded areas decaying in an anaerobic environment and forming methane,
9523-596: The reservoirs. Fishermen expressed concerns over the impact of the dams on the salmon runs of North Coast rivers, especially the Klamath – the largest Pacific coast salmon river south of the Columbia River . The project would have eliminated 98 percent of the salmon spawning grounds on the Klamath. California Governor Ronald Reagan refused to approve the Dos Rios project, citing economic insensibility and fraudulent claims made by project proponents. The flood control benefits, for example, were largely exaggerated;
9630-484: The supply of water. Delta farmers, communities, and commercial salmon and bass fishermen are especially concerned about the tunnel. However, some Delta scientists disagree. The new proposed canal would transport 1 million acre-feet (1.2 km ) of water to Silicon Valley , southern California and the majority of it would be directed to the Central Valley , a location with political influence and interest in
9737-405: The title SWP . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SWP&oldid=1253617284 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Articles containing German-language text Articles containing Polish-language text Short description
9844-655: The water flows briefly south along the California Aqueduct to the 4,800 acre⋅ft (0.0059 km ) Bethany Reservoir . The South Bay Pumping Plant supplies the South Bay Aqueduct , which has delivered water west to Alameda County since 1962 and Santa Clara County since 1965. The aqueduct carries a maximum of 188,000 acre⋅ft (0.232 km ) per year. Up to 77,100 acre⋅ft (0.0951 km ) of this water can be stored in Lake Del Valle , an offstream reservoir located near Livermore . South of
9951-618: The water provided by the project is used for urban areas and industry in Southern California and the San Francisco Bay Area , and 30% is used for irrigation in the Central Valley . To reach Southern California, the water must be pumped 2,882 feet (878 m) over the Tehachapi Mountains , with 1,926 feet (587 m) at the Edmonston Pumping Plant alone, the highest single water lift in
10058-629: The water supply available for SWP entitlement holders and improving water quality in the Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta. This project has previously arisen in several forms, including proposals for a Glenn Reservoir or the Glenn-Colusa Complex on nearby streams, which would also have been receiving reservoirs for water sent east through the Dos Rios Project's Grindstone Tunnel or other transfers from North Coast rivers. With its large storage capacity, Sites Reservoir would increase
10165-414: The water to develop new permanent crops, creating a dependency on SWP water that is technically part of Southern California's entitlement, This is now causing tensions as Southern California continues to increase its use of SWP water, decreasing the amount of surplus available to the system, especially in years of drought. In dry years, water pumped from the Delta creates a hazard to spring-run salmon . As
10272-524: The world are hydroelectric power stations, with some hydroelectric facilities capable of generating more than double the installed capacities of the current largest nuclear power stations . Although no official definition exists for the capacity range of large hydroelectric power stations, facilities from over a few hundred megawatts are generally considered large hydroelectric facilities. Currently, only seven facilities over 10 GW ( 10,000 MW ) are in operation worldwide, see table below. Small hydro
10379-533: The world's electricity , almost 4,210 TWh in 2023, which is more than all other renewable sources combined and also more than nuclear power . Hydropower can provide large amounts of low-carbon electricity on demand, making it a key element for creating secure and clean electricity supply systems. A hydroelectric power station that has a dam and reservoir is a flexible source, since the amount of electricity produced can be increased or decreased in seconds or minutes in response to varying electricity demand. Once
10486-530: The world, providing drinking water for more than 27 million people and generating an average of 6,500 GWh of hydroelectricity annually. However, as it is the largest single consumer of power in the state itself, it has a net usage of 5,100 GWh. The SWP collects water from rivers in Northern California and redistributes it to the water-scarce but populous cities through a network of aqueducts, pumping stations and power plants. About 70% of
10593-539: The world. The classification of hydropower plants starts with two top-level categories: The classification of a plant as an SHP or LHP is primarily based on its nameplate capacity , the threshold varies by the country, but in any case a plant with the capacity of 50 MW or more is considered an LHP. As an example, for China, SHP power is below 25 MW, for India - below 15 MW, most of Europe - below 10 MW. The SHP and LHP categories are further subdivided into many subcategories that are not mutually exclusive. For example,
10700-520: The world. The SWP shares many facilities with the federal Central Valley Project (CVP), which primarily serves agricultural users. Water can be interchanged between SWP and CVP canals as needed to meet peak requirements for project constituents. The SWP provides estimated annual benefits of $ 400 billion to California's economy. Since its inception in 1960, the SWP has required the construction of 21 dams and more than 700 miles (1,100 km) of canals, pipelines and tunnels, although these constitute only
10807-586: Was allowed to provide irrigation and power to citizens (in addition to aluminium power) after the war. In Suriname , the Brokopondo Reservoir was constructed to provide electricity for the Alcoa aluminium industry. New Zealand 's Manapouri Power Station was constructed to supply electricity to the aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point . Since hydroelectric dams do not use fuel, power generation does not produce carbon dioxide . While carbon dioxide
10914-542: Was basically a variation of a contemporary Bureau of Reclamation project, the Klamath Diversion . A series of dams in these watersheds would shunt water through interbasin transfers into the Klamath River system. The centerpiece of the project would be a 15-million-acre-foot (19 km ) reservoir on the Klamath River – the largest man-made lake in California – from where the water would flow through
11021-588: Was built between 1961 and 1967 with the reservoir filling for the first time in 1968. Lake Oroville has a capacity to store approximately 3.54 million acre-feet (4.37 km ) of water which accounts for 61 percent of the SWP's total system storage capacity, and is the single most important reservoir of the project. Water stored in Lake Oroville is released through the 819 MW Edward Hyatt pumped-storage powerplant and two other hydroelectric plants downstream of Oroville Dam, which together make up
11128-608: Was completed in 1974, with the last three units installed in the 1980s. Once reaching the crest of the Tehachapis, the aqueduct runs through a series of tunnels to the Tehachapi Afterbay, where its flow is partitioned between West and East Branches. The Coastal Branch diverts about 48,000 acre⋅ft (0.059 km ) per year from the California Aqueduct to parts of San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara counties. The aqueduct stretches for 143 miles (230 km), and
11235-673: Was completed in 1997. The Feather River , a tributary of the Sacramento River , provides the primary watershed for the State Water Project. Runoff from the Feather River headwaters is captured in Antelope , Frenchman , and Davis reservoirs, which impound tributaries of the North and Middle forks of the Feather River. Collectively referred to as the Upper Feather River Lakes, these three reservoirs provide
11342-410: Was intended for "the control, protection, conservation, distribution, and utilization of the waters of California, to meet present and future needs for all beneficial uses and purposes in all areas of the state to the maximum feasible extent." California governor Pat Brown would later say it was to "correct an accident of people and geography". The diversion of the North Coast rivers was abandoned in
11449-698: Was the Dos Rios Project on the Eel River system, which would have involved constructing a gigantic dam on the Middle Fork of the Eel River, diverting water through the Grindstone Tunnel into the Sacramento Valley. Supporters of this project cited the disastrous Christmas flood of 1964 and the flood control benefits Dos Rios would provide to the Eel River basin. The Klamath and Dos Rios diversions were heavily opposed by local towns and Native American tribes, whose land would have been flooded under
#707292