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108-529: In the late 19th century, the biblical Hittites were identified with a newly discovered Indo-European -speaking empire of Anatolia , a major regional power through most of the second millennium BC, who therefore came to be known as the Hittites . This nomenclature is used today as a matter of convention, regardless of debates about possible identities between the Anatolian Hittite Empire and

216-695: A language family native to the overwhelming majority of Europe , the Iranian plateau , and the northern Indian subcontinent . Some European languages of this family— English , French , Portuguese , Russian , Dutch , and Spanish —have expanded through colonialism in the modern period and are now spoken across several continents. The Indo-European family is divided into several branches or sub-families, of which there are eight groups with languages still alive today: Albanian , Armenian , Balto-Slavic , Celtic , Germanic , Hellenic , Indo-Iranian , and Italic ; another nine subdivisions are now extinct . Today,

324-716: A 'Dark Age' (Muhly 1998). The first-century Romano-Jewish scholar Josephus in Against Apion , citing Tyrian court records and Menander , gives a specific year during which King Hiram I of Tyre sent materials to Solomon for the construction of the Temple. However, no material evidence indisputably of Solomon's reign has been found. Yigael Yadin 's excavations at Hazor , Megiddo , Beit Shean and Gezer uncovered structures that he and others have argued date from Solomon's reign, but others, such as Israel Finkelstein and Neil Silberman , argue that they should be dated to

432-730: A century later, Ezra is dismayed to learn, on his arrival from Babylon , that the leaders who had remained on the land had been "polluted" by mixing with other people, including the Hittites. Indo-European languages Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The Indo-European languages are

540-675: A common ancestor, Proto-Indo-European . Membership in the various branches, groups, and subgroups of Indo-European is also genealogical, but here the defining factors are shared innovations among various languages, suggesting a common ancestor that split off from other Indo-European groups. For example, what makes the Germanic languages a branch of Indo-European is that much of their structure and phonology can be stated in rules that apply to all of them. Many of their common features are presumed innovations that took place in Proto-Germanic ,

648-558: A confirmation of de Saussure's theory. The various subgroups of the Indo-European language family include ten major branches, listed below in alphabetical order: In addition to the classical ten branches listed above, several extinct and little-known languages and language-groups have existed or are proposed to have existed: Membership of languages in the Indo-European language family is determined by genealogical relationships, meaning that all members are presumed descendants of

756-803: A diplomatic mission and noted a few similarities between words in German and in Persian. Gaston Coeurdoux and others made observations of the same type. Coeurdoux made a thorough comparison of Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek conjugations in the late 1760s to suggest a relationship among them. Meanwhile, Mikhail Lomonosov compared different language groups, including Slavic, Baltic (" Kurlandic "), Iranian (" Medic "), Finnish , Chinese , "Hottentot" ( Khoekhoe ), and others, noting that related languages (including Latin, Greek, German, and Russian) must have separated in antiquity from common ancestors. The hypothesis reappeared in 1786 when Sir William Jones first lectured on

864-467: A dream, asking what Solomon wanted from God. Solomon asked for wisdom in order to better rule and guide his people. Pleased, God personally answered Solomon's prayer, promising him great wisdom because he did not ask for self-serving rewards like long life or the death of his enemies. Perhaps the best known story of his wisdom is the Judgement of Solomon ; two women each lay claim to being the mother of

972-548: A few points, and these correspondences have allowed archaeologists to date its kings in a modern framework. According to the most widely used chronology, based on that by the Old Testament professor Edwin R. Thiele , the death of Solomon and the division of his kingdom would have occurred in the fall of 931 BCE. Solomon was born in Jerusalem , the second-born child of David and his wife Bathsheba (widow of Uriah

1080-576: A historical Solomon, but regards his reign as king over Israel and Judah in the 10th century BCE as uncertain and the biblical description of his apparent empire's lavishness as most probably a massive anachronistic exaggeration . Solomon is also revered in Christianity and Islam . In the New Testament , he is portrayed as a teacher of wisdom, though excelled by Jesus of Nazareth , and as arrayed in glory, but excelled by "the lilies of

1188-461: A linguistic area). In a similar vein, there are many similar innovations in Germanic and Balto-Slavic that are far more likely areal features than traceable to a common proto-language, such as the uniform development of a high vowel (* u in the case of Germanic, * i/u in the case of Baltic and Slavic) before the PIE syllabic resonants * ṛ, *ḷ, *ṃ, *ṇ , unique to these two groups among IE languages, which

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1296-538: A peace offering between God and David, due to David's adulterous relationship with Bathsheba. In an effort to hide this sin, David sent Bathsheba's husband, Uriah the Hittite , to battle, and specifically to the front line wherein David ordered the commanding officer Joab to withdraw support for Uriah in order to have him killed in battle by the enemy. After he died, David was finally able to marry Bathsheba. As punishment,

1404-620: A small Canaanite hill tribe . Most notable among these is 2 Kings 7:6 : "For the Lord had made the host of the Syrians to hear a noise of chariots, and a noise of horses, even the noise of a great host: and they said one to another, Lo, the king of Israel hath hired against us the kings of the Hittites, and the kings of the Egyptians, to come upon us." This conveys the impression that the Hittite kings were commensurate in importance and power with

1512-548: Is Naamah the Ammonite , mother of Solomon's successor, Rehoboam . The biblical narrative notes with disapproval that Solomon permitted his foreign wives to import their national deities, building temples to Ashtoreth and Milcom . In the branch of literary analysis that examines the Bible, called higher criticism , the story of Solomon falling into idolatry by the influence of Pharaoh's daughter and his other foreign wives

1620-401: Is "customarily seen as the handiwork of the 'deuteronomistic historian(s)' ", who are held to have written, compiled, or edited texts to legitimize the reforms of Hezekiah 's great-grandson, King Josiah who reigned from about 641 to 609 BCE (over 280 years after Solomon's death according to Bible scholars). Scholarly consensus in this field holds that "Solomon's wives/women were introduced in

1728-468: Is almost surely an anachronistic exaggeration. As for Solomon himself, scholars on both the maximalist and minimalist sides of the spectrum of biblical archeology generally agree that he probably existed. However, a historically accurate picture of the Davidic king is difficult to construct. According to some archaeologists, Solomon could have only been the monarch or chieftain of Judah, and that

1836-510: Is cited to have been radically non-treelike. Specialists have postulated the existence of higher-order subgroups such as Italo-Celtic , Graeco-Armenian , Graeco-Aryan or Graeco-Armeno-Aryan, and Balto-Slavo-Germanic. However, unlike the ten traditional branches, these are all controversial to a greater or lesser degree. The Italo-Celtic subgroup was at one point uncontroversial, considered by Antoine Meillet to be even better established than Balto-Slavic. The main lines of evidence included

1944-461: Is described as surrounding himself with all the luxuries and the grandeur of an Eastern monarch, and his government prospered. He entered into an alliance with Hiram I , king of Tyre , who in many ways greatly assisted him in his numerous undertakings. For some years before his death, David was engaged in collecting materials for building a temple in Jerusalem as a permanent home for Yahweh and

2052-535: Is in agreement with the wave model. The Balkan sprachbund even features areal convergence among members of very different branches. An extension to the Ringe - Warnow model of language evolution suggests that early IE had featured limited contact between distinct lineages, with only the Germanic subfamily exhibiting a less treelike behaviour as it acquired some characteristics from neighbours early in its evolution. The internal diversification of especially West Germanic

2160-520: Is known to have been a member of the Indo-European family. Because its speakers were originally based in Kanesh, they called their language "Neshili". The former inhabitants of Hatti and Hattusas are now called Hattites ; and their Hattic language was not Indo-European, but is of unknown linguistic relationship. After the fall of the Hittite Empire around 1178 BC, a remnant of them, still using

2268-661: Is one of the sons of Ham , who is also said to be the ancestor of the Egyptians and the Philistines . The sons of Canaan are given as Sidon , Heth, then the Jebusites , Amorites , Girgasites , Hivites , Arkites , Sinites , Arvadites , Zemarites , and the Hamathites . In this period, which is conjectured to start sometime after 2000 BC and end sometime before 1200 BC, the "children of Heth" (בני-חת, BNY-HT ) and

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2376-483: Is portrayed as wealthy, wise, powerful, and a dedicated follower of Yahweh ( God ), as attested by the eponymous Solomon's Temple , which was the first Temple in Jerusalem . He is also the subject of many later references and legends, most notably in the Testament of Solomon , part of biblical apocrypha from the 1st century CE. The historicity of Solomon is widely debated. Current scholarly consensus allows for

2484-479: Is said to have been spectacularly opulent and possessed moving parts, making it one of the earliest mechanical devices in history. It is said that "Nothing like it (the throne) had ever been made for any other kingdom." Solomon also constructed great water works for the city, and the Millo ( Septuagint , Acra ) for the defense of the city. However, excavations of Jerusalem have discovered no monumental architecture from

2592-553: Is still there, guarded by a single dedicated priest. The claim of such a lineage and of possession of the Ark was an important source of legitimacy and prestige for the Ethiopian monarchy through the centuries, and had important and lasting effects on Ethiopian culture . The Ethiopian government and church deny all requests to view the alleged ark. Some classical-era Rabbis, attacking Solomon's moral character, have claimed instead that

2700-779: Is traditionally ascribed authorship of the Wisdom of Solomon which is included in the Scriptures of the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Church, but is considered apocryphal in Protestant traditions. According to the Hebrew Bible, the ancient Kingdom of Israel gained its highest splendour and wealth during Solomon's reign of 40 years. In a single year, according to 1 Kings 10:14 , Solomon collected tribute amounting to 666 talents (18,125 kilograms) of gold. Solomon

2808-459: Is treated as if it were contemporary with the latter. The epochs are indicated by the names of the biblical characters (Patriarchs, Judges, Kings or Prophets) prominent at the time. The biblical view of the genetic relationships among humanity is set forth in Genesis 10 (the " Table of Nations "), where various peoples are described as different lines of descent from Noah . In particular, Canaan

2916-635: The Ark of the Covenant . Solomon is described as undertaking the construction of the temple , with the help of an architect, also named Hiram , and other materials, sent from King Hiram of Tyre. After the completion of the temple, Solomon is described in the biblical narrative as erecting many other buildings of importance in Jerusalem . For 13 years, he was engaged in the building of a royal palace on Ophel (a hilly promontory in central Jerusalem). This complex included buildings referred to as: Solomon's throne

3024-522: The Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament . The successor of his father David , he is described as having been the penultimate ruler of all Twelve Tribes of Israel under an amalgamated Israel and Judah . The hypothesized dates of Solomon's reign are from 970 to 931 BCE. According to the biblical narrative, after Solomon's death, his son and successor Rehoboam adopted harsh policies towards

3132-570: The Hivites but includes the Kadmonites , Kenites , Kenizzites , and Rephaim . Among the five references to the Hittites that cannot be classified as a variant of that formula, two ( Numbers 13:29 and Joshua 11:3 ) declare that the Hittites "dwell in the mountains", together with the Jebusites , Amorites , and Perizzites , whereas the Canaanites live "on the east and on the west", on

3240-645: The Omride period, more than a century after Solomon. According to Finkelstein and Silberman, authors of The Bible Unearthed : Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts , at the time of the kingdoms of David and Solomon, Jerusalem was populated by only a few hundred residents or less, which is insufficient for an empire stretching from the Euphrates to Eilath . According to The Bible Unearthed , archaeological evidence suggests that

3348-469: The united Kingdom of Israel . After a reign of forty years (1 Kings 11:42), he died of natural causes, at around 55 years of age. Upon Solomon's death, his son, Rehoboam , succeeded him, but ten of the Tribes of Israel refused him as king, splitting the monarchy into the northern Kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam , while Rehoboam continued to reign over the smaller southern Kingdom of Judah . Henceforth

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3456-432: The " wave model " is a more accurate representation. Most approaches to Indo-European subgrouping to date have assumed that the tree model is by-and-large valid for Indo-European; however, there is also a long tradition of wave-model approaches. In addition to genealogical changes, many of the early changes in Indo-European languages can be attributed to language contact . It has been asserted, for example, that many of

3564-600: The 'Josianic' (customarily Dtr) edition of Kings as a theological construct to blame the schism [between Judah and the Northern Kingdom of Israel] on his misdeeds". In a brief, unelaborated, and enigmatic passage, the Hebrew Bible describes how the fame of Solomon's wisdom and wealth reached even the far-off Queen of Sheba . The queen is described as visiting with gifts including gold, spices and precious stones. When Solomon gave her "all her desire, whatsoever she asked", she left satisfied ( 1 Kings 10:13 ). Whether

3672-459: The 16th century, European visitors to the Indian subcontinent began to notice similarities among Indo-Aryan , Iranian , and European languages. In 1583, English Jesuit missionary and Konkani scholar Thomas Stephens wrote a letter from Goa to his brother (not published until the 20th century) in which he noted similarities between Indian languages and Greek and Latin . Another account

3780-411: The 1880s. Brugmann's neogrammarian reevaluation of the field and Ferdinand de Saussure 's development of the laryngeal theory may be considered the beginning of "modern" Indo-European studies. The generation of Indo-Europeanists active in the last third of the 20th century (such as Calvert Watkins , Jochem Schindler , and Helmut Rix ) developed a better understanding of morphology and of ablaut in

3888-533: The Anatolian and Tocharian language families, in that order. The " tree model " is considered an appropriate representation of the genealogical history of a language family if communities do not remain in contact after their languages have started to diverge. In this case, subgroups defined by shared innovations form a nested pattern. The tree model is not appropriate in cases where languages remain in contact as they diversify; in such cases subgroups may overlap, and

3996-452: The Anatolian subgroup left the Indo-European parent language comparatively late, approximately at the same time as Indo-Iranian and later than the Greek or Armenian divisions. A third view, especially prevalent in the so-called French school of Indo-European studies, holds that extant similarities in non- satem languages in general—including Anatolian—might be due to their peripheral location in

4104-464: The Bible and the archaeological discoveries, some biblical scholars reject Archibald Sayce 's identification of the two peoples, and believe that the similarity in names is only a coincidence. For example E. A. Speiser , referring to "the children of Heth" in the Book of Genesis writes "For reasons of both history and geography, it is most unlikely that this group name has any direct connection either with

4212-548: The Bible, just as the ḤTY post-Exodus are. Moreover, in the account of the conquest of Canaan, the Hittites are said to dwell "in the mountains" and "towards the north" of Canaan, a description that matches the general direction and geography of the original Hittite Empire, which had been influential in the region prior to the Battle of Kadesh . Modern academics propose, based on much onomastic and archaeological evidence, that Anatolian populations moved south into Canaan as part of

4320-574: The Bronze Age in the form of Mycenaean Greek and the Anatolian languages of Hittite and Luwian . The oldest records are isolated Hittite words and names—interspersed in texts that are otherwise in the unrelated Akkadian language , a Semitic language —found in texts of the Assyrian colony of Kültepe in eastern Anatolia dating to the 20th century BC. Although no older written records of

4428-491: The Egyptian pharaohs. A similar impression is conveyed by 2 Chronicles 1:17 : "And they fetched up, and brought forth out of Egypt a chariot for six hundred shekels of silver, and a horse for a hundred and fifty: and so brought they out horses for all the kings of the Hittites, and for the kings of Syria, by their means." In these cases there can be little doubt that the references are to the neo-Hittite kingdoms of Syria. If

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4536-507: The Hattians of Anatolia or with their 'Hittite' successors." Trevor Bryce suggests that biblical references to Hittites may be separated into two distinct groups. The first, the majority, are to a Canaanite tribe as encountered by Abraham and his family. The names of these Hittites are for the most part of a Semitic type; for example Ephron at Genesis 23:8–17 etc., Judith at Genesis 26:34 and Zohar at Genesis 23:8 . These were presumably

4644-565: The Hebrews lived and intermarried with the Hittites as well as with the other five "major nations". In this period the Hittites are mentioned as the ethnic label of two soldiers under king David (around 1000 BC), Ahimelech and Uriah ; the latter is murdered by David for the sake of his wife Bathsheba . In Solomon's reign (around 950 BC), the Hittites are listed as people whom the Hebrews had not been able "utterly to destroy" in their conquest of Canaan and who paid tribute to Israel. The kings of

4752-472: The Hittite ). The first child (unnamed in that account), a son conceived adulterously during Uriah's lifetime, had died seven days after birth. It is suggested in Scripture that this was a judgment from God. Solomon had three named full brothers born to Bathsheba: Nathan , Shammua, and Shobab, besides six known older half-brothers born of as many mothers. The biblical narrative shows that Solomon served as

4860-524: The Hittites are depicted in the Hebrew Bible along with Syria as among his powerful neighbors. From around 1900, archaeologists were aware of a country established in Anatolia and known to Assyrians as "Hatti". Because it was initially assumed that the people of Hatti were identical to the Hetti of the Hebrew Bible, the term Hittite Empire is still today used to describe the Anatolian state. Their language

4968-418: The Hittites are mentioned (in two similar passages), together with Egypt and the kings of Syria , as senders of lavish tribute to Solomon. Then Hittites are said to be among the "strange women" that Solomon loved, along with "the daughter of the pharaoh" and women from the other peoples in the region. In the time of the prophet Elisha (around 850 BC) there is a passage in 2 Kings 7:6 where the Syrians flee in

5076-526: The Hittites who were subject to Solomon ( 1 Kings 11:1–2 , 1 Kings 9:20–21 , 2 Chronicles 8:7 ) and who were elsewhere in conflict with the Israelites ( Deuteronomy 20:17 , Judges 3:5 ). They were a small group living in the hills, and clearly to be distinguished from the Hittites of the Anatolian Kingdom. But there are other biblical references which are not compatible with the notion of

5184-556: The Indo-European language-area and to early separation, rather than indicating a special ancestral relationship. Hans J. Holm, based on lexical calculations, arrives at a picture roughly replicating the general scholarly opinion and refuting the Indo-Hittite hypothesis. Solomon Solomon ( / ˈ s ɒ l ə m ə n / ), also called Jedidiah , was the fourth monarch of the Kingdom of Israel and Judah , according to

5292-666: The Indo-Iranian branch. All Indo-European languages are descended from a single prehistoric language, linguistically reconstructed as Proto-Indo-European , spoken sometime during the Neolithic or early Bronze Age . The geographical location where it was spoken, the Proto-Indo-European homeland , has been the object of many competing hypotheses; the academic consensus supports the Kurgan hypothesis , which posits

5400-418: The Lord said to Solomon, "Since this has been your practice and you have not kept my covenant and my statutes that I have commanded you, I will surely tear the kingdom from you and will give it to your servant. Yet for the sake of David your father I will not do it in your days, but I will tear it out of the hand of your son. However, I will not tear away all the kingdom, but I will give one tribe to your son, for

5508-575: The Phoenician king Hiram I of Tyre (see 'wealth' below); they sent out joint expeditions to the lands of Tarshish and Ophir to engage in the trade of luxury products, importing gold, silver, sandalwood, pearls, ivory, apes, and peacocks. Solomon is considered the most wealthy of the Israelite kings named in the Bible. Solomon was the biblical king most famous for his wisdom. In 1   Kings he sacrificed to God, and God later appeared to him in

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5616-488: The administration, including in religious positions as well as in civic and military posts. It is said that Solomon ascended to the throne when he was only about fifteen. Solomon greatly expanded his military strength, especially the cavalry and chariot arms. He founded numerous colonies, some of which doubled as trading posts and military outposts. Trade relationships were a focus of his administration. In particular he continued his father's very profitable relationship with

5724-463: The area of what is now northern Ethiopia and Eritrea. In a Rabbinical account (e.g. Targum Sheni , Colloquy of the Queen of Sheba ), Solomon was accustomed to ordering animals to dance before him (a power granted by God), and upon summoning the mountain-cock or hoopoe (Aramaic name: nagar tura ), the bird told him it had discovered a land in the east, rich in gold, silver, and plants, whose capital

5832-500: The authors of the Bible suppressed the achievements of the Omrides (whom the Hebrew Bible describes as being polytheist ), and instead pushed them back to a supposed golden age of Judaism and monotheists, and devotees of Yahweh . Some Biblical minimalists like Thomas L. Thompson go further, arguing that Jerusalem became a city and capable of being a state capital only in the mid-7th century. Likewise, Finkelstein and others consider

5940-527: The biblical Hittites. According to Genesis, the Hittite Ephron sold Abraham the cave of Machpelah in Hebron for use as a family tomb. Later, Esau married wives from the Hittites. In the Book of Joshua 1:4 , when the Lord tells Joshua "From the wilderness and this Lebanon even unto the great river, the river Euphrates, all the land of the Hittites, and unto the great sea toward the going down of

6048-404: The biblical account, Solomon had 700 wives and 300 concubines . The wives were described as foreign princesses, including Pharaoh's daughter and women of Moab , Ammon , Edom , Sidon and of the Hittites . His marriage to Pharaoh's daughter appears to have cemented a political alliance with Egypt, whereas he clung to his other wives and concubines "in love". The only wife mentioned by name

6156-465: The bones of Joseph, which the children of Israel brought up out of Egypt, buried they in Shechem, in the parcel of ground which Jacob bought of the sons of Hamor the father of Shechem for a hundred pieces of money; and they became the inheritance of the children of Joseph." This period is conjectured to start sometime after 1800 BC and end sometime before 1000 BC. In this period (in which can be included

6264-540: The character of his reign". A 2023 textbook described three possibilities for the etymology of Solomon’s name: “compensation or a substitute,” “the ruler of peace,” or based on the deified evening star Shalim . The conventional dates of Solomon's reign are derived from biblical chronology and are set from about 970 to 931 BCE . Regarding the Davidic dynasty , to which King Solomon belongs, its chronology can be checked against datable Babylonian and Assyrian records at

6372-436: The child was an ancestor of Nebuchadnezzar II , who destroyed Solomon's temple some 300 years later. Jewish scribes say that Solomon's teacher was Shimei ben Gera , and while he lived, he prevented Solomon from marrying foreign wives. The Talmud says at Ber. 8a: "For as long as Shimei the son of Gera was alive Solomon did not marry the daughter of Pharaoh" (see also Midrash Tehillim to Ps. 3:1). Solomon's execution of Shimei

6480-628: The claimed size of Solomon's temple implausible. André Lemaire states in Ancient Israel: From Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple that the principal points of the biblical tradition of Solomon are generally trustworthy, although elsewhere he writes that he could find no substantiating archaeological evidence that supports the Queen of Sheba's visit to king Solomon, saying that the earliest records of trans-Arabian caravan voyages from Tayma and Sheba unto

6588-568: The coast of Jordan, and the Amalekites live "in the south". In Joshua 1:4 the land of the Hittites is said to extend "from the wilderness and this Lebanon", from "the Euphrates unto the great sea". In Judges 1:18 , the traitor from Bethel who led the Hebrews into the city is said to have gone to live among the Hittites where he built a city called Luz. Finally in Judges 3:5 it is said that

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6696-557: The early pseudoepigraphical work called the Testament of Solomon with its elaborate and grotesque demonology . As with most biblical personages in the middle era of Israelite society, the historicity of Solomon is hotly debated. Current consensus states that regardless of whether or not a man named Solomon truly reigned as king over the Judean hills in the tenth century BCE, the biblical description of his apparent empire's lavishness

6804-472: The era, and no remains of either the Temple or Solomon's palace have been found. Solomon is also described as rebuilding cities elsewhere in Israel, creating the port of Ezion-Geber , and constructing Palmyra in the wilderness as a commercial depot and military outpost. Although the location of the port of Ezion-Geber is known, no remains have ever been found. More archaeological success has been achieved with

6912-702: The existence of an earlier ancestor language, which he called "a common source" but did not name: The Sanscrit [ sic ] language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists. Thomas Young first used

7020-485: The family relationships between the Indo-European languages, and the reconstruction of their common source, was central to the development of the methodology of historical linguistics as an academic discipline in the 19th century. The Indo-European language family is not considered by the current academic consensus in the field of linguistics to have any genetic relationships with other language families, although several disputed hypotheses propose such relations. During

7128-605: The field ". In the Quran , he is considered to be a major Islamic prophet . In mostly non-biblical circles, Solomon also came to be known as a magician and an exorcist, with numerous amulets and medallion seals dating from the Hellenistic period invoking his name. The life of Solomon is primarily described in 2   Samuel , 1   Kings and 2   Chronicles . His two names are traditionally taken to mean " peaceful " and " friend of God ", both considered "predictive of

7236-484: The first child, who was conceived during the adulterous relationship, died. Solomon was born after David was forgiven. It is this reason why his name, which means peace, was chosen. Some historians cited that Nathan the Prophet brought up Solomon as his father was busy governing the realm. This could also be attributed to the notion that the prophet held great influence over David because he knew of his adultery , which

7344-432: The gender or the verb system) have been interpreted alternately as archaic debris or as innovations due to prolonged isolation. Points proffered in favour of the Indo-Hittite hypothesis are the (non-universal) Indo-European agricultural terminology in Anatolia and the preservation of laryngeals. However, in general this hypothesis is considered to attribute too much weight to the Anatolian evidence. According to another view,

7452-416: The genitive suffix -ī ; the superlative suffix -m̥mo ; the change of /p/ to /kʷ/ before another /kʷ/ in the same word (as in penkʷe > *kʷenkʷe > Latin quīnque , Old Irish cóic ); and the subjunctive morpheme -ā- . This evidence was prominently challenged by Calvert Watkins , while Michael Weiss has argued for the subgroup. Evidence for a relationship between Greek and Armenian includes

7560-704: The goddess of the Sidonians , and after Milcom , the god of the Ammonites . In Deuteronomy 17:16–17 , a king is commanded not to multiply horses or wives, neither greatly multiply to himself gold or silver. Solomon sinned in all three of these areas. In addition to his wives, he collected 666 talents of gold each year ( 1 Kings 10:14 ), a huge amount for a small nation like Israel. He gathered multitudes of horses and chariots from as far as Egypt, and as Deuteronomy 17 warns, took Israel back to Egypt in spirit. According to 1 Kings 11:30–34 and 1 Kings 11:9–13 , it

7668-571: The homeland to be the Pontic–Caspian steppe in what is now Ukraine and southern Russia , associated with the Yamnaya culture and other related archaeological cultures during the 4th millennium BC to early 3rd millennium BC. By the time the first written records appeared, Indo-European had already evolved into numerous languages spoken across much of Europe , South Asia , and part of Western Asia . Written evidence of Indo-European appeared during

7776-567: The individual Indo-European languages with the most native speakers are English, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Hindustani , Bengali , Punjabi , French and German each with over 100 million native speakers; many others are small and in danger of extinction. In total, 46% of the world's population (3.2 billion people) speaks an Indo-European language as a first language —by far the highest of any language family. There are about 445 living Indo-European languages, according to an estimate by Ethnologue , with over two-thirds (313) of them belonging to

7884-542: The kingdom of Israel at the time of Solomon was little more than a small city state, and so it is implausible that Solomon received tribute as large as 666 talents of gold per year. Although both Finkelstein and Silberman accept that David and Solomon were real inhabitants of Judah about the 10th century BCE, they claim that the earliest independent reference to the Kingdom of Israel is about 890 BCE, and for Judah about 750 BCE. They suggest that because of religious prejudice,

7992-417: The kings of Egypt and Tyre . The Gnostic Apocalypse of Adam , which may date to the 1st or 2nd century, refers to a legend in which Solomon sends out an army of demons to seek a virgin who had fled from him, perhaps the earliest surviving mention of the later common tale that Solomon controlled demons and made them his slaves. This tradition of Solomon's control over demons appears fully elaborated in

8100-480: The label "Hittite" ( HTY ) are mentioned multiple times, but referring to essentially only two events. In Genesis 23:2 , towards the end of Abraham's life, he was staying in Hebron, on lands belonging to the "children of Heth", and from them he obtained a plot of land with a cave to bury his wife Sarah . One of them ( Ephron ) is labeled "the Hittite", several times. This deal is mentioned three more times (with almost

8208-602: The major cities Solomon is said to have strengthened or rebuilt, for example, Hazor , Megiddo and Gezer . These all have substantial ancient remains, including impressive six-chambered gates, and ashlar palaces; however it is no longer the scholarly consensus that these structures date to the time, according to the Bible, when Solomon ruled. According to the Bible, during Solomon's reign, Israel enjoyed great commercial prosperity, with extensive traffic being carried on by land with Tyre , Egypt , and Arabia , and by sea with Tarshish , Ophir , and South India . According to

8316-467: The more striking features shared by Italic languages (Latin, Oscan, Umbrian, etc.) might well be areal features . More certainly, very similar-looking alterations in the systems of long vowels in the West Germanic languages greatly postdate any possible notion of a proto-language innovation (and cannot readily be regarded as "areal", either, because English and continental West Germanic were not

8424-584: The name "people of Hatti", established some city-states in the region of northern Syria. Therefore these are usually assumed to be the Hittites mentioned in Solomon's time. Some scholars take the view that the two peoples are identical. Apart from the similarity in names, the Anatolian Hittites were a powerful political entity in the region before the collapse of their empire in the 14th-12th centuries BC and so one would expect them to be mentioned in

8532-421: The night after hearing a terrible noise of horses and chariots, believing that Israel had hired "the kings of the Hittites, and the kings of the Egyptians". In Ezekiel 16:1, Jerusalem is said to be the daughter of a Hittite mother and an Amorite father, sister of Samaria and Sodom . The intent is clearly offensive, but it is not clear whether the reference to the Hittites is concrete or only symbolic. However,

8640-488: The northern Israelites , who then rejected the reign of the House of David and sought Jeroboam as their king. In the aftermath of Jeroboam's Revolt , the Israelites were split between the Kingdom of Israel in the north ( Samaria ) and the Kingdom of Judah in the south ( Judea ); the Bible depicts Rehoboam and the rest of Solomon's patrilineal descendants ruling over independent Judah alone. A Jewish prophet , Solomon

8748-413: The northern kingdom was a separate development. Such positions have been criticized by other archaeologists and scholars, who argue that a united monarchy did exist in the 10th century BCE, while agreeing that the biblical account contains exaggerations. Historical evidence of King Solomon other than the biblical accounts has been so minimal that some scholars have understood the period of his reign as

8856-462: The occurrences of cheth (H2845) and chittiy (H2850) in Strong's Concordance . The citations were arranged approximately in chronological order, more precisely according to the epoch in which the events in question are supposed to have occurred. Note that this is not always the time in which the words were actually written. In particular, the covenant with Abraham about the future conquest of Canaan

8964-486: The original Proto-Indo-European population remain, some aspects of their culture and their religion can be reconstructed from later evidence in the daughter cultures. The Indo-European family is significant to the field of historical linguistics as it possesses the second-longest recorded history of any known family, after the Afroasiatic Egyptian language and Semitic languages . The analysis of

9072-559: The passage is simply to provide a brief foreign witness of Solomon's wealth and wisdom, or whether the visit is meant to have more significance, is unknown; nevertheless the Queen of Sheba has become the subject of numerous stories. Sheba is typically identified as Saba , a nation once spanning the Red Sea on the coasts of what are now Eritrea , Somalia , Ethiopia and Yemen , in Arabia Felix ; although other sources place it in

9180-557: The perfect active particle -s fixed to the stem, link this group closer to Anatolian languages and Tocharian. Shared features with Balto-Slavic languages, on the other hand (especially present and preterit formations), might be due to later contacts. The Indo-Hittite hypothesis proposes that the Indo-European language family consists of two main branches: one represented by the Anatolian languages and another branch encompassing all other Indo-European languages. Features that separate Anatolian from all other branches of Indo-European (such as

9288-596: The promise made to Abraham, centuries earlier, and its recall by Nehemiah half a millennium later), the Hittites are mentioned about a dozen times as part of an almost fixed formula that lists the "seven nations greater and mightier than [the Hebrews]" whose lands will be eventually conquered. Five other "major nations" are mentioned in almost all instances of the formula: Canaanites , Amorites , Hivites , Jebusites , and Perizzites . The Girgashites are mentioned only five times. Abraham's covenant in Genesis 15:18 omits

9396-599: The references to the Canaanite tribe are distinct from those to the neo-Hittite kingdom, the similarity between the names (only two significant consonants) could easily be due to chance. Listed below are all the occurrences of the words "Heth", "Hittite" or "Hittites" in the King James Bible, found through a University of Virginia search service. The same information is available in book form in Jones. Compare also

9504-461: The regular change of the second laryngeal to a at the beginnings of words, as well as terms for "woman" and "sheep". Greek and Indo-Iranian share innovations mainly in verbal morphology and patterns of nominal derivation. Relations have also been proposed between Phrygian and Greek, and between Thracian and Armenian. Some fundamental shared features, like the aorist (a verb form denoting action without reference to duration or completion) having

9612-467: The sake of David my servant and for the sake of Jerusalem that I have chosen. Near the end of his life, Solomon was beset by several enemies, including Hadad of Edom , Rezon of Zobah , and his own official Jeroboam of the tribe of Ephraim . King Solomon is a central biblical figure, who, according to the Hebrew Bible , was the builder of the First Temple in Jerusalem and the last ruler of

9720-475: The same child. Solomon easily resolved the dispute by commanding the child to be cut in half and shared between the two. One woman promptly renounced her claim, proving that she would rather give the child up than see it killed. Solomon declared the woman who showed compassion to be the true mother, entitled to the whole child. Solomon has traditionally been considered the author of several biblical books, including Proverbs , Ecclesiastes , and Song of Songs . He

9828-485: The same words), upon the deaths of Abraham and Jacob. Decades later, in Genesis 26:34 , Abraham's grandson Esau is said to have taken two Hittite wives, and a Hivite one. This claim is repeated, with somewhat different names, in Genesis 36:2 . In Genesis 27:46 , Rebekah is worried that Jacob will do the same. This passage refers to Jacob being buried in Machpelah. Joseph was buried in Shechem (Joshua 24.32): "And

9936-541: The similarity among certain Asian and European languages and theorized that they were derived from a primitive common language that he called Scythian. He included in his hypothesis Dutch , Albanian , Greek , Latin , Persian , and German , later adding Slavic , Celtic , and Baltic languages . However, Van Boxhorn's suggestions did not become widely known and did not stimulate further research. Ottoman Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi visited Vienna in 1665–1666 as part of

10044-434: The source of all the Germanic languages. In the 21st century, several attempts have been made to model the phylogeny of Indo-European languages using Bayesian methodologies similar to those applied to problems in biological phylogeny. Although there are differences in absolute timing between the various analyses, there is much commonality between them, including the result that the first known language groups to diverge were

10152-605: The standard scientific term. A number of other synonymous terms have also been used. Franz Bopp wrote in 1816 On the conjugational system of the Sanskrit language compared with that of Greek, Latin, Persian and Germanic and between 1833 and 1852 he wrote Comparative Grammar . This marks the beginning of Indo-European studies as an academic discipline. The classical phase of Indo-European comparative linguistics leads from this work to August Schleicher 's 1861 Compendium and up to Karl Brugmann 's Grundriss , published in

10260-482: The striking similarities among three of the oldest languages known in his time: Latin , Greek , and Sanskrit , to which he tentatively added Gothic , Celtic , and Persian , though his classification contained some inaccuracies and omissions. In one of the most famous quotations in linguistics, Jones made the following prescient statement in a lecture to the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1786, conjecturing

10368-412: The sun, shall be your border", this "land of the Hittites" on Canaan's border is seen to stretch between Lebanon and the Euphrates, and from there toward the setting Sun (i.e., to the west). According to the Book of Judges 1:26 , when the Israelites captured Bethel , they allowed one man to escape, and he went to the "land of the Hittites" where he founded the settlement of Luz . In King Solomon's era

10476-532: The term Indo-European in 1813, deriving it from the geographical extremes of the language family: from Western Europe to North India . A synonym is Indo-Germanic ( Idg. or IdG. ), specifying the family's southeasternmost and northwesternmost branches. This first appeared in French ( indo-germanique ) in 1810 in the work of Conrad Malte-Brun ; in most languages this term is now dated or less common than Indo-European , although in German indogermanisch remains

10584-539: The two kingdoms were never again united. Solomon is associated with the peak "golden age" of the independent Kingdom of Israel and is a legendary source of judicial and religious wisdom. According to Jewish tradition, King Solomon wrote three books of the Bible : The Hebrew word לשלמה appears in the title of two hymns (72 and 127) in the Psalms . This Hebrew word means "to Solomon", but it can also be translated as "by Solomon", thus suggesting to some that Solomon wrote

10692-691: The two psalms. Rabbinical tradition attributes the Book of Wisdom (included within the Septuagint ) to Solomon, although this book was probably written in the 2nd century BCE. In this work, Solomon is portrayed as an astronomer . Other books of wisdom poetry such as the Odes of Solomon and the Psalms of Solomon also bear his name. The Jewish historian Eupolemus , who wrote about 157 BCE, included copies of apocryphal letters exchanged between Solomon and

10800-506: The wake of Kuryłowicz 's 1956 Apophony in Indo-European, who in 1927 pointed out the existence of the Hittite consonant ḫ. Kuryłowicz's discovery supported Ferdinand de Saussure's 1879 proposal of the existence of coefficients sonantiques , elements de Saussure reconstructed to account for vowel length alternations in Indo-European languages. This led to the so-called laryngeal theory , a major step forward in Indo-European linguistics and

10908-548: The waves of Sea Peoples who were migrating along the Mediterranean coastline at the time of the collapse of the Hittite Empire. Many kings of local city-states are shown to have had Hittite and Luwian names in the Late Bronze to Early Iron Age transition period. Indeed, even the name of Mount Zion may be Hittite in origin. Because of the perceived discrepancy between the picture of the Hittites as developed in

11016-474: Was a son who became Menelik I , King of Axum , and founded a dynasty that would reign as the Jewish, then Christian, Empire of Ethiopia which lasted 2900 years until Haile Selassie was overthrown in 1974. Menelik was said to be a practicing Jew who was given a replica of the Ark of the Covenant by King Solomon; and, moreover, that the original Ark was switched and went to Axum with him and his mother, and

11124-454: Was because of these sins that the Lord punished Solomon by removing most of the tribes of Israel from rule by Solomon's house. And the Lord was angry with Solomon, because his heart had turned away from the Lord, the God of Israel, who had appeared to him twice and had commanded him concerning this thing, that he should not go after other gods. But he did not keep what the Lord commanded. Therefore

11232-468: Was called Kitor and whose ruler was the Queen of Sheba. Solomon then sent the bird to request the queen's visit. An Ethiopian account from the 14th century ( Kebra Nagast ) maintains that the Queen of Sheba had sexual relations with King Solomon and gave birth beside the Mai Bella stream in the province of Hamasien , Eritrea . The Ethiopian tradition has a detailed account of the affair . The child

11340-599: Was considered a grievous offense under the Mosaic Law . According to the First Book of Kings , when David was old, "he could not get warm". "So they sought a beautiful young woman throughout all the territory of Israel, and found Abishag the Shunamite , and brought her to the king. The young woman was very beautiful, and she was of service to the king and attended to him, but the king knew her not." While David

11448-404: Was his first descent into sin. According to 1 Kings 11:4 Solomon's "wives turned his heart after other gods", their own national deities, to whom Solomon built temples, thus incurring divine anger and retribution in the form of the division of the kingdom after Solomon's death ( 1 Kings 11:9–13 ). 1 Kings 11 describes Solomon's descent into idolatry, particularly his turning after Ashtoreth ,

11556-592: Was in this state, court factions were maneuvering for power. Adonijah , David's heir apparent , acted to have himself declared king, but was outmaneuvered by Bathsheba and the biblical prophet Nathan, who convinced David to proclaim Solomon king according to his earlier promise (not recorded elsewhere in the biblical narrative), despite Solomon's being younger than his brothers. Solomon, as instructed by David, began his reign with an extensive purge, including his father's chief general, Joab , among others, and further consolidated his position by appointing friends throughout

11664-606: Was made by Filippo Sassetti , a merchant born in Florence in 1540, who travelled to the Indian subcontinent. Writing in 1585, he noted some word similarities between Sanskrit and Italian (these included devaḥ / dio "God", sarpaḥ / serpe "serpent", sapta / sette "seven", aṣṭa / otto "eight", and nava / nove "nine"). However, neither Stephens' nor Sassetti's observations led to further scholarly inquiry. In 1647, Dutch linguist and scholar Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn noted

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