Misplaced Pages

#944055

112-485: Kültepe is located about 20 km northeast from the modern city Kayseri . Its ancient name is recorded in Assyrian and Hittite sources. In cuneiform inscriptions from the 20th and the 19th century BC, the city was mentioned as Kaneš (also transcribed as Kanesh); in later Hittite inscriptions, the city was mentioned as Neša (sometimes transcribed as Nesha, Nessa or Nesa. Neša derives from [Ka]neša). The site

224-413: A kārum , but the largest was Kaneš, whose important kārum was inhabited by soldiers and merchants from Assyria for hundreds of years. They traded local tin and wool for luxury items, foodstuffs, spices and woven fabrics from the Assyrian homeland and Elam . The remains of the kārum form a large circular mound 500 m in diameter and about 20 m above the plain (a tell). The kārum settlement

336-691: A lingua franca of the empire, rather than it being eclipsed by Akkadian. Texts written 'exclusively' in Neo-Assyrian disappear within 10 years of Nineveh 's destruction in 612 BC. Under the Achaemenids , Aramaic continued to prosper, but Assyrian continued its decline. The language's final demise came about during the Hellenistic period when it was further marginalized by Koine Greek , even though Neo-Assyrian cuneiform remained in use in literary tradition well into Parthian times. Similarly,

448-468: A trekking and alpinism centre. During the 2010s an erstwhile small, local ski resort was developed into more of an international attraction with big-name hotels and facilities suitable for all sorts of winter pastimes. The archaeological site of Kanesh-Kültepe , one of the oldest cities in Asia Minor , is 20 km northeast of Kayseri. Ağırnas , a small town with many lovely old houses,

560-650: A voiced alveolar trill /r/ but its pattern of alternation with ⟨ ḫ ⟩ suggests it was a fricative (either uvular /ʁ/ or velar /ɣ/ ). In the Hellenistic period, Akkadian ⟨ r ⟩ was transcribed using the Greek ρ, indicating it was pronounced similarly as an alveolar sound (though Greeks may also have perceived a uvular trill as ρ). Several Proto-Semitic phonemes are lost in Akkadian. The Proto-Semitic glottal stop *ʔ , as well as

672-579: A billion dollars in export revenues in 2007. Its environment is regarded as especially favourable for small and medium enterprises . The Kayseri Free Zone established in 1998 now has more than 43 companies with an investment of 140 million dollars. The Zone's main business activities include production, trading, warehouse management, mounting and demounting, assembly-disassembly, merchandising, maintenance and repair, engineering workshops, office and workplace rental, packing-repacking, banking and insurance, leasing, labelling and exhibition facilities. Kayseri FTZ

784-517: A comparison with other Semitic languages, and the resulting picture was gradually amended using internal linguistic evidence from Akkadian sources, especially deriving from so-called plene spellings (spellings with an extra vowel). According to this widely accepted system, the place of stress in Akkadian is completely predictable and sensitive to syllable weight . There are three syllable weights: light (ending in -V); heavy (ending in -V̄ or -VC), and superheavy (ending in -V̂, -V̄C or -V̂C). If

896-481: A day to Ankara . To the east there are two train routes, one to Kars and the other to Tatvan at the western end of Lake Van . As the city is located in central Turkey, road transportation is very efficient. It takes approximately three hours to reach Ankara, the same to the Mediterranean coast and 45 minutes to Cappadocia . A notable ski resort in winter and accessible for trekking in summer, Mt Erciyes

1008-458: A dormant volcano that reaches an altitude of 3,916 metres (12,848 feet), more than 1,500 metres above the city's mean altitude. It contains a number of historic monuments, particularly from the Seljuk period. Tourists often pass through Kayseri en route to the attractions of Cappadocia to the west. Kayseri is served by Erkilet International Airport and is home to Erciyes University . Kayseri

1120-667: A family native to Middle East , Arabian Peninsula , parts of Anatolia , parts of the Horn of Africa , North Africa , Malta , Canary Islands and parts of West Africa ( Hausa ). Akkadian is only ever attested in Mesopotamia and neighboring regions in the Near East. Within the Near Eastern Semitic languages, Akkadian forms an East Semitic subgroup (with Eblaite and perhaps Dilmunite ). This group differs from

1232-468: A locative ending in -um in the singular and the resulting forms serve as adverbials . These forms are generally not productive, but in the Neo-Babylonian the um -locative replaces several constructions with the preposition ina . In the later stages of Akkadian, the mimation (word-final -m ) and nunation (dual final -n ) that occurred at the end of most case endings disappeared, except in

SECTION 10

#1732771860945

1344-536: A range of historical and cultural attractions that reflect the city's heritage. Cumhuriyet Square is a central public space in Kayseri, surrounded by notable buildings. Inside the centre of Kayseri the most unmissable reminder of the past are the huge basalt walls that once enclosed the old city. Dating back to the sixth century and the reign of the Emperor Justinian , they have been repeatedly repaired, by

1456-403: A separate East Semitic language. Because Akkadian as a spoken language is extinct and no contemporary descriptions of the pronunciation are known, little can be said with certainty about the phonetics and phonology of Akkadian. Some conclusions can be made, however, due to the relationship to the other Semitic languages and variant spellings of Akkadian words. The following table presents

1568-417: A significant role in the city's educational offerings, providing specialized medical training and research opportunities. These institutions collectively contribute to Kayseri's growing reputation as an educational hub. Kayseri's cuisine includes several traditional dishes that are characteristic of the region. Mantı , a small dumpling filled with minced meat and commonly served with yogurt and spiced butter,

1680-646: A similar route from Ephesus to the East also crossed the city. Basil of Caesarea , one of the Cappadocian Fathers, established a large monastic complex, the Basileiad, in Caesarea Mazaca in the 4th century. Nothing remains of it today. The city stood on a low spur on the north side of Mount Erciyes ( Mount Argaeus in antiquity). Very few traces of the ancient site now survive. For more on

1792-593: A small soundage in 1906. In 1925, Bedřich Hrozný excavated Kültepe and found over 1000 cuneiform tablets, some of which ended up in Prague and in Istanbul . In 1929 the site was visited and photographed by James Henry Breasted of the Oriental Institute of Chicago. There had been much digging for fertilizer, which had destroyed a quarter of the mound. Modern archaeological work began in 1948, when Kültepe

1904-529: A strong work ethic. According to an op-ed in The Irish Times , "The city's streets are not crowded with luxury cars, and the homes in its wealthiest neighborhoods are relatively modest compared to European standards. Rather than conspicuous consumption, wealth is often reinvested into the community." Philanthropy plays an important role in the city, aligning with the Islamic emphasis on charity. Kayseri

2016-499: A written language, adapting Sumerian cuneiform orthography for the purpose. During the Middle Bronze Age (Old Assyrian and Old Babylonian period), the language virtually displaced Sumerian, which is assumed to have been extinct as a living language by the 18th century BC. Old Akkadian, which was used until the end of the 3rd millennium BC, differed from both Babylonian and Assyrian, and was displaced by these dialects. By

2128-609: Is PaRiStum (< *PaRiS-at-um ). Additionally there is a general tendency of syncope of short vowels in the later stages of Akkadian. Most roots of the Akkadian language consist of three consonants, called the radicals, but some roots are composed of four consonants, so-called quadriradicals. The radicals are occasionally represented in transcription in upper-case letters, for example PRS (to decide). Between and around these radicals various infixes , suffixes and prefixes , having word generating or grammatical functions, are inserted. The resulting consonant-vowel pattern differentiates

2240-404: Is 30 minutes from the city centre. Within the city transportation largely relies on buses and private vehicles although there is also a light rail transit (LRT) system called Kayseray which runs to the inter-city bus terminal and to Talas. The city had two professional football teams competing in top-flight Turkish football. Kayserispor and Kayseri Erciyesspor simultaneously play in

2352-588: Is a fusional language with grammatical case . Like all Semitic languages, Akkadian uses the system of consonantal roots . The Kültepe texts , which were written in Old Assyrian , include Hittite loanwords and names, which constitute the oldest record of any Indo-European language . Akkadian belongs with the other Semitic languages in the Near Eastern branch of the Afroasiatic languages ,

SECTION 20

#1732771860945

2464-460: Is a private, non-profit school in the Kocasinan district, serving kindergarten through high school. Middle East Technical University Development Foundation Kayseri College follows METU 's educational philosophy, offering a comprehensive curriculum. Talas American College , established in 1871, has a rich legacy as an American school and continues to influence the region's education. Although

2576-458: Is another popular specialty in the region and is commonly included in breakfasts or cooked with eggs. Stuffed zucchini flowers are a seasonal dish prepared with a filling of minced meat, garlic, and spices. The flowers are carefully stuffed and then baked or steamed. This dish highlights the use of locally sourced ingredients in Kayseri's cuisine. Nevzine is a traditional dessert made from tahini, molasses, and walnuts, soaked in syrup. This dessert

2688-442: Is divided into several varieties based on geography and historical period : One of the earliest known Akkadian inscriptions was found on a bowl at Ur , addressed to the very early pre-Sargonic king Meskiagnunna of Ur ( c.  2485 –2450 BC) by his queen Gan-saman, who is thought to have been from Akkad. The Akkadian Empire , established by Sargon of Akkad , introduced the Akkadian language (the "language of Akkad ") as

2800-613: Is divided into two main areas: the circular mound (tepe, höyük) and the lower town to its northeast. The mound was inhabited (with discontinuity) from the Early Bronze Age through the Roman Empire, while the lower town was occupied only from the last decades of the third millennium to the early sixteenth century BCE. The lower town displays four levels of occupation, with only levels II (approximately 1945–1835 BCE) and Ib (approximately 1832–1700 BCE)—which roughly correspond to

2912-423: Is known for its privately funded institutions, including schools, clinics, sports facilities, and community centers, reflecting a focus on communal support and development. The city is served by Erkilet International Airport (ASR) which is a short distance from the centre of Kayseri. It offers several flights a day to Istanbul. Kayseri is connected to the rest of country by rail services. There are four trains

3024-463: Is marked by the Kassite invasion of Babylonia around 1550 BC. The Kassites, who reigned for 300 years, gave up their own language in favor of Akkadian, but they had little influence on the language. At its apogee, Middle Babylonian was the written language of diplomacy of the entire Ancient Near East , including Egypt ( Amarna Period ). During this period, a large number of loan words were included in

3136-457: Is one of the cheapest land free zones in the world. A group of social scientists have traced the economic success of Kayseri, a city in central Turkey, to a modernist Islamic outlook referred to as "Islamic Calvinism." This concept is drawn from Max Weber 's influential 1905 essay, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism , which argued that the "this-worldly asceticism" of Calvinism

3248-428: Is one of the city's signature dishes. Known for its fine preparation, Kayseri-style mantı is distinguished by the small size of the dumplings. Pastırma is a type of air-dried, cured beef, seasoned with a paste made from garlic, fenugreek, and spices. It is often thinly sliced and served as an appetizer or used in other dishes. Sucuk , a dry, fermented sausage made from ground beef and seasoned with garlic and red pepper,

3360-507: Is preserved on clay tablets dating back to c.  2500 BC . It was written using cuneiform , a script adopted from the Sumerians using wedge-shaped symbols pressed in wet clay. As employed by Akkadian scribes, the adapted cuneiform script could represent either (a) Sumerian logograms ( i.e. , picture-based characters representing entire words), (b) Sumerian syllables, (c) Akkadian syllables, or (d) phonetic complements . In Akkadian

3472-703: Is still in use today. Surp Asdvadzadzin Virgin Mary Church Research Library , located within the Surp Asdvadzadzin Church. The Atatürk House Museum is located in a house where Mustafa Kemal Atatürk stayed, providing historical context about the early years of the Turkish Republic. The National Struggle Museum focuses on the history of the Turkish War of Independence and the role of Kayseri in

Kültepe - Misplaced Pages Continue

3584-528: Is the Avgunlu Medresesi which now serves as a large bookshop-cum-cafe in a park. In Mimar Sinan Park stands the Çifte Medresesi , a pair of Seljuk-era theological schools that eventually served as a hospital for those with psychiatric disorders. They were commissioned by the Seljuk sultan Giyasettin I Keyhüsrev and his sister, Gevher Nesibe Sultan , who is buried inside. Today the buildings house

3696-700: Is the Döner Kümbet ( lit. Revolving Tomb). The oldest surviving Seljuk place of worship – and the oldest Seljuk mosque built in Turkey – is the Hunat Hatun Mosque Complex which still includes a functioning hamam with separate sections for men and women dating back to 1238. Near the mosque is the Sahabiye Medresesi , a theological school dating back to 1267 with a magnificent portal typical of Seljuk architecture. Very similar

3808-519: Is the kārum , a portion of the city that was set aside by local officials for the early Assyrian merchants to use without paying taxes as long as the goods remained inside the kārum . The term kārum means "port" in Akkadian , the lingua franca of the time, but its meaning was later extended to refer to any trading colony whether or not it bordered water. Several other cities in Anatolia also had

3920-462: Is the city's largest research university . It currently has 13 faculties, six colleges, and seven vocational schools, with over 3,100 staff members and 41,225 students. Nuh Naci Yazgan University , founded in 2009, is the only private university in the region. Kayseri University , established more recently, contributes to the city's academic landscape with a focus on a diverse curriculum. University of Health Sciences Kayseri Medical School also plays

4032-577: Is the result of several superimposed stratigraphic periods. New buildings were constructed on top of the remains of the earlier periods so there is a deep stratigraphy from prehistoric times to the early Hittite period. The kārum was destroyed by fire at the end of levels II and Ib. The inhabitants left most of their possessions behind, as found by modern archaeologists. The findings have included numerous baked-clay tablets, some of which were enclosed in clay envelopes stamped with cylinder seals . The documents record common activities, such as trade between

4144-501: Is then [awat+su] > /awatt͡su/ . In this vein, an alternative transcription of ⟨ š ⟩ is ⟨ s̱ ⟩, with the macron below indicating a soft (lenis) articulation in Semitic transcription. Other interpretations are possible. /ʃ/ could have been assimilated to the preceding /t/ , yielding /ts/ , which would later have been simplified to /ss/ . The rhotic ⟨ r ⟩ has traditionally been interpreted as

4256-401: Is typical of Anatolia rather than of Assyria, but the use of both cuneiform and the dialect is the best indication of Assyrian presence. At Level II, the destruction was so total that no wood survived for dendrochronological studies . In 2003, researchers from Cornell University dated wood in level Ib from the rest of the city, built centuries earlier. The dendrochronologists date the bulk of

4368-452: Is typically prepared for special occasions and is notable for its dense texture and flavor profile. Kayseri is twinned with: Akkadian language Akkadian ( / ə ˈ k eɪ d i ən / ə- KAY -dee-ən ; Akkadian: 𒀝𒅗𒁺𒌑(𒌝) , romanized:  Akkadû(m) ) is an extinct East Semitic language that was spoken in ancient Mesopotamia ( Akkad , Assyria , Isin , Larsa , Babylonia and perhaps Dilmun ) from

4480-774: The Kiliç Arslan Mosque, the Ulu Camii (Grand Mosque) and the Gevher Nesibe Hastanesi (Hospital). As Mazaca ( Ancient Greek : Μάζακα ), the city served as the residence of the kings of Cappadocia . In ancient times, it was on the crossroads of the trade routes from Sinope to the Euphrates and from the Persian Royal Road that extended from Sardis to Susa during the 200+ years of Achaemenid Persian rule. In Roman times,

4592-627: The Mongols in 1243. Within the walls lies the greater part of Kayseri, rebuilt between the 13th and 16th centuries. The city then fell to the Eretnids before finally becoming Ottoman in 1515. It was the centre of a sanjak called initially the Rum Eyalet (1515–1521) and then the Angora vilayet (founded as Bozok Eyalet, 1839–1923). The Grand Bazaar dates from the latter part of the 1800s, but

Kültepe - Misplaced Pages Continue

4704-584: The Museum of Seljuk Civilisations. Another Seljuk survivor is the grand Halikılıç Mosque complex which has two spectacular entrance portals. It dates back to 1249 but was extensively restored three centuries later. Post-dating the Seljuks is the Güpgüpoğlu Mansion which dates back to the early 15th century but is open to the public with the furnishings it would have had in the late 19th century when it

4816-542: The Northwest Semitic languages and South Semitic languages in its subject–object–verb word order, while the other Semitic languages usually have either a verb–subject–object or subject–verb–object order. Additionally Akkadian is the only Semitic language to use the prepositions ina and ana ( locative case , English in / on / with , and dative -locative case, for / to , respectively). Other Semitic languages like Arabic , Hebrew and Aramaic have

4928-465: The Old Babylonian period . The following table shows Proto-Semitic phonemes and their correspondences among Akkadian, Modern Standard Arabic and Tiberian Hebrew : The existence of a back mid-vowel /o/ has been proposed, but the cuneiform writing gives no good proof for this. There is limited contrast between different u-signs in lexical texts, but this scribal differentiation may reflect

5040-656: The Persian conquest of the Mesopotamian kingdoms contributed to the decline of Babylonian, from that point on known as Late Babylonian, as a popular language. However, the language was still used in its written form. Even after the Greek invasion under Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC, Akkadian was still a contender as a written language, but spoken Akkadian was likely extinct by this time, or at least rarely used. The last positively identified Akkadian text comes from

5152-533: The Seljuks , by the Ottomans and more recently by the current Turkish government. In 2019 Kayseri Archaeology Museum moved from an outlying location to a new site inside the walls. Kayseri Clock Tower , built in the early 20th century by Abdülhamid II , is located in the city center and remains a recognizable landmark. Bürüngüz Mosque , constructed in the 13th century, is an example of Seljuk architecture and

5264-668: The Süper Lig , making Kayseri one of only two cities having more than one team in Spor Toto Süper Lig 2013–14 (the other being Istanbul ). In 2006 Kayserispor became the only Turkish team to have won the UEFA Intertoto Cup . Kayserispor is the remaining professional team in the city, playing in the top flight as of 2023. The Erciyes Ski Resort on Mount Erciyes is one of the largest ski resorts in Turkey. The women's football club Kayseri Gençler Birliği

5376-746: The Turkish War of Independence when the Greek army was advancing on Ankara , the base of the Turkish National Movement. Kayseri has a continental climate ( Köppen : Dsa , Trewartha : Dc ). It experiences cold, snowy winters and hot, dry summers with cool nights. Precipitation occurs throughout the year, albeit with a marked decrease in late summer and early fall. The city of Kayseri consists of sixteen metropolitan districts: Akkışla, Bünyan, Develi, Felâhiye, Hacılar, İncesu, Kocasinan, Melikgâzi, Özvatan, Pınarbaşı, Sarıoğlan, Sarız, Talas, Tomarza, Yahyâlı, and Yeşilhisar. Kayseri features

5488-598: The consonants of the Akkadian language, as distinguished in Akkadian cuneiform. The reconstructed phonetic value of a phoneme is given in IPA transcription, alongside its standard ( DMG-Umschrift ) transliteration in angle brackets ⟨ ⟩ . Evidence from borrowings from and to Sumerian has been interpreted as indicating that the Akkadian voiceless non-emphatic stops were originally unaspirated, but became aspirated around 2000 BCE. Akkadian emphatic consonants are typically reconstructed as ejectives , which are thought to be

5600-591: The line of Hittite kings . The inhabitants thus referred to the Hittite language as Nešili 'the Neša tongue'. By 1880, cuneiform tablets said to be from Kara Eyuk ('black village') or Gyul Tepé ('burnt mound') near Kaisariyeh , had begun to appear on the market, some being thus bought by the British Museum . In response the site was worked by Ernest Chantre for two seasons, beginning in 1893. Hugo Grothe dug

5712-400: The status absolutus (the absolute state ) and the status constructus ( construct state ). The latter is found in all other Semitic languages, while the former appears only in Akkadian and some dialects of Aramaic. The status absolutus is characterised by the loss of a noun's case ending (e.g. awīl < awīlum , šar < šarrum ). It is relatively uncommon, and is used chiefly to mark

SECTION 50

#1732771860945

5824-535: The third millennium BC until its gradual replacement in common use by Old Aramaic among Assyrians and Babylonians from the 8th century BC. Akkadian, which is the earliest documented Semitic language , is named after the city of Akkad , a major centre of Mesopotamian civilization during the Akkadian Empire ( c.  2334 –2154 BC). It was written using the cuneiform script , originally used for Sumerian , but also used to write multiple languages in

5936-540: The 10th century BC when the Assyrian kingdom became a major power with the Neo-Assyrian Empire . During the existence of that empire, however, Neo-Assyrian began to turn into a chancellery language, being marginalized by Old Aramaic . The dominance of the Neo-Assyrian Empire under Tiglath-Pileser III over Aram-Damascus in the middle of the 8th century led to the establishment of Aramaic as

6048-422: The 1950s, the city suffered from a decrease in the amount of public investment. It was, however, during the same years that Kayseri businessmen and merchants transformed themselves into rural capitalists. Members of Turkish business families such as Sabancı , Has , Dedeman , Hattat , Kurmel , Özyeğin , Karamanlargil and Özilhan started out as small-scale merchants in Kayseri before becoming prominent actors in

6160-617: The 1st century AD. The latest known text in cuneiform Babylonian is an astronomical almanac dated to 79/80 AD. However, the latest cuneiform texts are almost entirely written in Sumerian logograms. The Akkadian language began to be rediscovered when Carsten Niebuhr in 1767 was able to make extensive copies of cuneiform texts and published them in Denmark. The deciphering of the texts started immediately, and bilinguals, in particular Old Persian -Akkadian bilinguals, were of great help. Since

6272-701: The 20th century BC, two variant dialectic forms of the same language were in use in Assyria and Babylonia, known as Assyrian and Babylonian respectively. The bulk of preserved material is from this later period, corresponding to the Near Eastern Iron Age . In total, hundreds of thousands of texts and text fragments have been excavated, covering a vast textual tradition of religious and mythological narrative, legal texts, scientific works, personal correspondence, political, civil and military events, economic tracts and many other examples. Centuries after

6384-524: The 21st century BC Babylonian and Assyrian, which were to become the primary dialects, were easily distinguishable. Old Babylonian, along with the closely related dialect Mariotic , is clearly more innovative than the Old Assyrian dialect and the more distantly related Eblaite language . For this reason, forms like lu-prus ('I will decide') were first encountered in Old Babylonian instead of

6496-410: The Assyrian colony and the city-state of Assur and between Assyrian merchants and local people. The trade was run by families rather than the state. The Kültepe texts are the oldest documents from Anatolia. Although they are written in Old Assyrian, the Hittite loanwords and names in the texts are the oldest record of any Indo-European language (see also Ishara ). Most of the archaeological evidence

6608-487: The Iron Age, during the Neo-Assyrian Empire when in the mid-eighth century BC Tiglath-Pileser III introduced Imperial Aramaic as a lingua franca of the Assyrian empire. By the Hellenistic period , the language was largely confined to scholars and priests working in temples in Assyria and Babylonia. The last known Akkadian cuneiform document dates from the 1st century AD. Mandaic spoken by Mandean Gnostics and

6720-533: The Lower Everek Mosque ( Turkish : Aşağı Everek Cami ). Kayseri received notable public investments in the 1920s and 1930s. Sümer Fabric Factory and Kayseri Tayyare Fabrikası ( English : Kayseri Aeroplane Factory) were set up here in the Republican Era with the help of German and particularly Russian experts. The latter manufactured the first aircraft made in Turkey in the 1940s. After

6832-484: The Middle Bronze Age—yielding significant written records, totaling around 22,200 and 560 tablets, respectively. In contrast, only forty scattered tablets were found on the mound, where palaces and temples were uncovered, indicating that there are no surviving archives from the local authorities, if such archives ever existed. This kārum appears to have served as "the administrative and distribution centre of

SECTION 60

#1732771860945

6944-621: The Roman and Byzantine eras see Caesarea (Mazaca) . The Arab general, and later the first Umayyad Caliph , Muawiyah invaded Cappadocia and took Caesarea from the Byzantines temporarily in 647. The city was called Kaisariyah ( قيصرية ) by the Arabs, and later Kayseri ( قیصری ) by the Seljuk Turks after it was captured by Alp Arslan in 1067. Alp Arslan's forces demolished

7056-476: The Turkish economy. Despite setting up their headquarters in cities such as Istanbul and Adana , they often returned to Kayseri to invest. Thanks to the economic liberalisation policies introduced in the 1980s, a new wave of merchants and industrialists from Kayseri joined their predecessors. Most of these new industrialists choose Kayseri as a base of their operations. As a consequence of better infrastructure,

7168-555: The Zalpuwans carried off the city's Šiuš idol. Pitḫana, the king of Kuššara , conquered Neša "in the night, by force", but "did not do evil to anyone in it". Neša revolted against the rule of Pitḫana's son, Anitta , but Anitta quashed the revolt and made Neša his capital. Anitta further invaded Zalpuwa, captured its king Huzziya , and recovered the Šiuš idol for Neša. In the 17th century BC, Anitta's descendants moved their capital to Hattusa , which Anitta had cursed, thus founding

7280-556: The adjacent caravanserai , where merchant traders gathered before forming a caravan, dates from around 1500. The town's older districts which were filled with ornate mansion-houses mostly dating from the 18th and 19th centuries were subjected to wholesale demolition starting in the 1970s. The building that hosted the Kayseri Lyceum was rearranged to host the Turkish Grand National Assembly during

7392-404: The archaeological evidence is typical of Anatolia rather than of Assyria, but the use both of cuneiform and the dialect is the best indication of Assyrian presence. Old Babylonian was the language of king Hammurabi and his code , which is one of the oldest collections of laws in the world. (see Code of Ur-Nammu .) Old Assyrian developed as well during the second millennium BC, but because it

7504-486: The city and massacred its population. The shrine of Saint Basil was also sacked after the fall of the city. As a result, the city remained uninhabited for the next half century. From 1074 to 1178 the area was under the control of the Danishmendids who rebuilt the city in 1134. The Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate controlled the city from 1178 to 1243 and it was one of their most important centres until it fell to

7616-491: The city has achieved remarkable industrial growth since 2000, causing it to be described as one of Turkey's Anatolian Tigers . The pace of growth of the city was so fast that in 2004 the city applied to the Guinness Book of World Records for the most new manufacturing industries started in a single day: 139 factories. Kayseri also has emerged as one of the most successful furniture-making hub in Turkey earned more than

7728-424: The dialects of Akkadian identified with certainty so far. Some researchers (such as W. Sommerfeld 2003) believe that the Old Akkadian variant used in the older texts is not an ancestor of the later Assyrian and Babylonian dialects, but rather a separate dialect that was replaced by these two dialects and which died out early. Eblaite , formerly thought of as yet another Akkadian dialect, is now generally considered

7840-402: The dialects spoken by the extant Assyrians ( Suret ) are three extant Neo-Aramaic languages that retain Akkadian vocabulary and grammatical features, as well as personal and family names. These are spoken by Assyrians and Mandeans mainly in northern Iraq , southeast Turkey , northeast Syria , northwest Iran , the southern Caucasus and by communities in the Assyrian diaspora . Akkadian

7952-401: The earlier stages of the language, the dual number is vestigial, and its use is largely confined to natural pairs (eyes, ears, etc.). Adjectives are never found in the dual. In the dual and plural, the accusative and genitive are merged into a single oblique case . Akkadian, unlike Arabic , has only "sound" plurals formed by means of a plural ending. Broken plurals are not formed by changing

8064-462: The entire Assyrian colony network in Anatolia". A late record, from circa 1400 BC, recounts the story of a king of Kaneš called Zipani, with seventeen local city-kings who rose up against Naram-Sin of Akkad , who ruled circa 2254–2218 BC. During the kārum period, and before the conquest of Pitḫana , these local kings reigned in Kaneš: The king of Zalpuwa , Uḫna , raided Kaneš, after which

8176-466: The fall of Assur, other nearby kings and eventually to Hammurabi of Babylon. To date, over 22,000 cuneiform tablets have been recovered from the site, mainly from the kārum , with only 40 found in the Upper city. Subsequent excavations attested the following stratigraphy of Kültepe: Recently, in "a small cell-plan structure cutting the walls of the monumental building [o]f Kültepe [Level 13], dated to

8288-592: The fall of the Akkadian Empire, Akkadian, in its Assyrian and Babylonian varieties, was the native language of the Mesopotamian empires ( Old Assyrian Empire , Babylonia , Middle Assyrian Empire ) throughout the later Bronze Age, and became the lingua franca of much of the Ancient Near East by the time of the Bronze Age collapse c.  1150 BC . However, its gradual decline began in

8400-420: The first one bears stress. A rule of Akkadian phonology is that certain short (and probably unstressed) vowels are dropped. The rule is that the last vowel of a succession of syllables that end in a short vowel is dropped, for example the declinational root of the verbal adjective of a root PRS is PaRiS- . Thus the masculine singular nominative is PaRS-um (< *PaRiS-um ) but the feminine singular nominative

8512-451: The formation of the modern Turkish state. The Grand Mosque ( Turkish : Ulu Cami ) was started by the Danişmend emir Melik Mehmed Gazi who is buried beside it although it was only completed by the Seljuks after his death. There are many magnificent reminders of the Seljuk supremacy in and around the walls as well as many much smaller kümbets (domed tombs) of which the most impressive

8624-540: The fricatives *ʕ , *h , *ḥ are lost as consonants, either by sound change or orthographically, but they gave rise to the vowel quality e not exhibited in Proto-Semitic. The voiceless lateral fricatives ( *ś , *ṣ́ ) merged with the sibilants as in Canaanite , leaving 19 consonantal phonemes. Old Akkadian preserved the /*ś/ phoneme longest but it eventually merged with /*š/ , beginning in

8736-789: The language from Northwest Semitic languages and Hurrian . However, the use of these words was confined to the fringes of the Akkadian-speaking territory. From 1500 BC onwards, the Assyrian language is termed Middle Assyrian. It was the language of the Middle Assyrian Empire . However, the Babylonian cultural influence was strong and the Assyrians wrote royal inscriptions, religious and most scholarly texts in Middle Babylonian, whereas Middle Assyrian

8848-482: The languages as a Sprachbund . Akkadian proper names are first attested in Sumerian texts in the mid-3rd millennium BC, and inscriptions ostensibly written in Sumerian but whose character order reveals that they were intended to be read in East Semitic (presumably early Akkadian) date back to as early as c.  2600 BC . From about the 25th century BC, texts fully written in Akkadian begin to appear. By

8960-454: The last syllable is superheavy, it is stressed, otherwise the rightmost heavy non-final syllable is stressed. If a word contains only light syllables, the first syllable is stressed. It has also been argued that monosyllabic words generally are not stressed but rather function as clitics . The special behaviour of /V̂/ syllables is explained by their functioning, in accordance with their historical origin, as sequences of two syllables, of which

9072-404: The latter being used for long vowels arising from the contraction of vowels in hiatus. The distinction between long and short is phonemic , and is used in the grammar; for example, iprusu ('that he decided') versus iprusū ('they decided'). There is broad agreement among most Assyriologists about Akkadian stress patterns. The rules of Akkadian stress were originally reconstructed by means of

9184-434: The locative. Later, the nominative and accusative singular of masculine nouns collapsed to -u and in Neo-Babylonian most word-final short vowels were dropped. As a result, case differentiation disappeared from all forms except masculine plural nouns. However, many texts continued the practice of writing the case endings, although often sporadically and incorrectly. As the most important contact language throughout this period

9296-498: The natives (nowadays known as Cappadocian Greeks , due to their spoken language, but then referred to as Rum due to their previous Roman citizenship) until their expulsion from Turkey in 1924. (Note that letter C in classical Latin was pronounced K. When the first Turks arrived in the region in 1080 AD, they adapted this pronunciation, which eventually became Kayseri in Turkish, remaining as such ever since.) Kayseri experienced three golden ages. The first, dating to 2000 BC,

9408-597: The older la-prus . While generally more archaic, Assyrian developed certain innovations as well, such as the "Assyrian vowel harmony ". Eblaite was even more so, retaining a productive dual and a relative pronoun declined in case, number and gender. Both of these had already disappeared in Old Akkadian. Over 20,000 cuneiform tablets in Old Assyrian have been recovered from the Kültepe site in Anatolia . Most of

9520-516: The oldest realization of emphatics across the Semitic languages. One piece of evidence for this is that Akkadian shows a development known as Geers's law , where one of two emphatic consonants dissimilates to the corresponding non-emphatic consonant. For the sibilants, traditionally ⟨ š ⟩ has been held to be postalveolar /ʃ/ , and ⟨ s ⟩, ⟨ z ⟩, ⟨ ṣ ⟩ analyzed as fricatives; but attested assimilations in Akkadian suggest otherwise. For example, when

9632-487: The only remaining possible chronologies that fit these new data. Kayseri Kayseri ( Turkish pronunciation: [ˈkajseɾi] ) is a large city in Central Anatolia , Turkey , and the capital of Kayseri province . Historically known as Caesarea , it has been the historical capital of Cappadocia since ancient times. The Kayseri Metropolitan Municipality area is composed of five districts:

9744-464: The original meaning of the root. The middle radical can be geminated, which is represented by a doubled consonant in transcription, and sometimes in the cuneiform writing itself. The consonants ʔ , w , j and n are termed "weak radicals" and roots containing these radicals give rise to irregular forms. Formally, Akkadian has three numbers (singular, dual and plural) and three cases ( nominative , accusative and genitive ). However, even in

9856-463: The possessive suffix -šu is added to the root awat ('word'), it is written awassu ('his word') even though šš would be expected. The most straightforward interpretation of this shift from tš to ss , is that ⟨ s, ṣ ⟩ form a pair of voiceless alveolar affricates /t͡s/ /t͡sʼ/ , ⟨ š ⟩ is a voiceless alveolar sibilant /s/ , and ⟨ z ⟩ is a voiced alveolar affricate or fricative /d͡z/~/z/ . The assimilation

9968-461: The prepositions bi/bə and li/lə (locative and dative, respectively). The origin of the Akkadian spatial prepositions is unknown. In contrast to most other Semitic languages, Akkadian has only one non-sibilant fricative : ḫ [x] . Akkadian lost both the glottal and pharyngeal fricatives, which are characteristic of the other Semitic languages. Until the Old Babylonian period, the Akkadian sibilants were exclusively affricated . Old Akkadian

10080-413: The region including Eblaite , Hurrian , Elamite , Old Persian and Hittite . The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian went beyond just the cuneiform script; owing to their close proximity, a lengthy span of contact and the prestige held by the former, Sumerian significantly impacted Akkadian phonology, vocabulary and syntax. This mutual influence of Akkadian and Sumerian has also led scholars to describe

10192-483: The same syllable in the same text. Cuneiform was in many ways unsuited to Akkadian: among its flaws was its inability to represent important phonemes in Semitic, including a glottal stop , pharyngeals , and emphatic consonants . In addition, cuneiform was a syllabary writing system—i.e., a consonant plus vowel comprised one writing unit—frequently inappropriate for a Semitic language made up of triconsonantal roots (i.e., three consonants plus any vowels). Akkadian

10304-415: The school is no longer active, its historical contributions to education in Kayseri continue to be remembered. Kayseri is home to four public universities and one private university . Abdullah Gül University , established in 2010, is the first public university in Turkey with legal provisions for support by a philanthropic foundation dedicated entirely to its work. Erciyes University , founded in 1978,

10416-404: The script practically became a fully fledged syllabic script , and the original logographic nature of cuneiform became secondary , though logograms for frequent words such as 'god' and 'temple' continued to be used. For this reason, the sign AN can on the one hand be a logogram for the word ilum ('god') and on the other signify the god Anu or even the syllable -an- . Additionally, this sign

10528-433: The second half of the 3rd Millennium BC, statuettes made of alabaster with various attributes and ritual vessels in unprecedented forms were found in situ," and inside a "monumental building [d]iscovered in 2018 [which] contains a room called the 'idol room,' [a] collection of the largest number of idols and statuettes ever discovered in the ancient Near East [was found]." The quarter of the city that most interests historians

10640-407: The superimposition of the Sumerian phonological system (for which an /o/ phoneme has also been proposed), rather than a separate phoneme in Akkadian. All consonants and vowels appear in long and short forms. Long consonants are transliterated as double consonants, and inconsistently written as such in cuneiform. Long vowels are transliterated with a macron (ā, ē, ī, ū) or a circumflex (â, ê, î, û),

10752-591: The texts contained several royal names, isolated signs could be identified, and were presented in 1802 by Georg Friedrich Grotefend . By this time it was already evident that Akkadian was a Semitic language, and the final breakthrough in deciphering the language came from Edward Hincks , Henry Rawlinson and Jules Oppert in the middle of the 19th century. In the early 21st century it was shown that automatic high-quality translation of Akkadian can be achieved using natural language processing methods such as convolutional neural networks . The following table summarises

10864-437: The two central districts of Kocasinan and Melikgazi , and since 2004, also outlying Hacılar , İncesu , and Talas . As of 31 December 2021, the province had a population of 1,434,357 of whom 1,175,886 live in the four urban districts, excluding İncesu which is not conurbated, meaning it is not contiguous and has a largely non-protected buffer zone . Kayseri sits at the foot of Mount Erciyes ( Turkish: Erciyes Dağı ),

10976-564: The wood from buildings of the Waršama Sarayi to 1832 BC, with further refurbishments up to 1779 BC. In 2016 new research using radiocarbon dating and dendrology on timber used in this site and the palace in Acemhöyük show the likely earliest use of the palace as not before 1851–1842 BC (68.2% hpd) or 1855–1839 BC (95.4% hpd). In combination with the many Assyrian objects found here, this dating shows that only middle or low-middle chronology are

11088-434: The word stem. As in all Semitic languages, some masculine nouns take the prototypically feminine plural ending ( -āt ). The nouns šarrum (king) and šarratum (queen) and the adjective dannum (strong) will serve to illustrate the case system of Akkadian. As is clear from the above table, the adjective and noun endings differ only in the masculine plural. Certain nouns, primarily those referring to geography, can also form

11200-476: Was Aramaic , which itself lacks case distinctions, it is possible that Akkadian's loss of cases was an areal as well as phonological phenomenon. As is also the case in other Semitic languages, Akkadian nouns may appear in a variety of "states" depending on their grammatical function in a sentence. The basic form of the noun is the status rectus (the governed state), which is the form as described above, complete with case endings. In addition to this, Akkadian has

11312-405: Was a purely popular language — kings wrote in Babylonian — few long texts are preserved. It was, however, notably used in the correspondence of Assyrian traders in Anatolia in the 20th-18th centuries BC and that even led to its temporary adoption as a diplomatic language by various local Anatolian polities during that time. The Middle Babylonian period started in the 16th century BC. The division

11424-603: Was changed by Archelaus (d. 17 AD), the last King of Cappadocia (r. 36 BC–14 AD) and a Roman vassal, to " Caesarea in Cappadocia " (to distinguish it from other cities with the name Caesarea in the Roman Empire) in honour of Caesar Augustus upon his death. This name was rendered as Καισάρεια ( Kaisáreia ) in Koine Greek , the dialect of the later Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire , and it remained in use by

11536-569: Was excavated by a team from the Turkish Historical Society and the General Directorate of Antiquities and Museums. The team was led by Tahsin Özgüç until his death, in 2005. After 2005 the excavation was directed by Fikri Kulakoğlu. Some attribute Level II's burning to the conquest of the city of Assur by the kings of Eshnunna , but Bryce blames it on the raid of Uhna . Some attribute Level Ib's burning to

11648-487: Was home to the poet and politician Ahmed Midhad Güpgüpoğlu. Close to the walls is Kayseri's own Kapalı Çarşı ( Turkish : Kapalı Çarşı ), still a bustling commercial centre selling cheap clothes, shoes and much else. Deep inside it is the older and very atmospheric Vezir Han which was commissioned in the early 18th century by Nevşehir -born Damad İbrahim Paşa who became a grand vizier to Sultan Ahmed III before being assassinated in 1730. The Kayseri suburb of Talas

11760-528: Was originally called Mazaka or Mazaca ( Armenian : Մաժաք , romanized :  Mažak' ; according to Armenian tradition, it was founded by and named after Mishak) and was known as such to the geographer Strabo , during whose time it was the capital of the Roman province of Cappadocia , known also as Eusebia at the Argaeus ( Εὐσέβεια ἡ πρὸς τῷ Ἀργαίῳ in Greek ), after Ariarathes V Eusebes , King of Cappadocia (r. 163–130 BC). In 14 AD its name

11872-670: Was promoted to the Women's First League for the 2020–21 League season. Kayseri High School ( Ottoman Turkish : Kayseri Mekteb-i Sultanisi , lit. the Imperial School of Kayseri), founded in 1893, is one of Turkey's oldest high schools. It has a long history of providing quality education and has played a key role in the region's educational development. Nuh Mehmet Küçükçalık Anadolu Lisesi , established in 1984, offers education in English . TED Kayseri College , founded in 1966,

11984-628: Was the ancestral home of Calouste Gulbenkian , Aristotle Onassis and Elia Kazan . Once ruinous following the expulsion of its Armenian population in 1915 and then of its Greek population in 1923, it was largely reconstructed in the early 21st century. The Greek Orthodox Church of Saint Mary , built in 1888, has been converted into the Yaman Dede Mosque. Similarly attractive is the suburb of Germir , home to three 19th-century churches and many fine old stone houses. Mount Erciyes ( Turkish : Erciyes Dağı ) looms over Kayseri and serves as

12096-472: Was the birthplace in 1490 of the great Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan , and a house traditionally associated with him is open to the public as a museum. Beneath it there is one of the 'underground cities' so typical of Cappadocia . The restored Church of Saint Procopius dates back to 1857 and serves as a cultural centre. The small town of Develi also contains some attractive old houses. The 19th-century Armenian Church of Saint Mary has been turned into

12208-441: Was the driving force behind the development of modern capitalism. In a similar vein, these scholars suggest that the religious and cultural practices in Kayseri, rooted in a modern interpretation of Islam, fostered values such as hard work, thrift, and entrepreneurial spirit, which contributed to the city's economic growth. In Kayseri, a notable characteristic of the local culture is a form of austerity, which can be observed alongside

12320-441: Was used as a determinative for divine names. Another peculiarity of Akkadian cuneiform is that many signs do not have a well defined phonetic value. Certain signs, such as AḪ , do not distinguish between the different vowel qualities. Nor is there any coordination in the other direction; the syllable -ša- , for example, is rendered by the sign ŠA , but also by the sign NĪĜ . Both of these are often used for

12432-505: Was used mostly in letters and administrative documents. During the first millennium BC, Akkadian progressively lost its status as a lingua franca . In the beginning, from around 1000 BC, Akkadian and Aramaic were of equal status, as can be seen in the number of copied texts: clay tablets were written in Akkadian, while scribes writing on papyrus and leather used Aramaic. From this period on, one speaks of Neo-Babylonian and Neo-Assyrian . Neo-Assyrian received an upswing in popularity in

12544-654: Was when the city formed a trade post between the Assyrians and the Hittites . The second came under Roman rule from the 1st to the 11th centuries. The third golden age was during the reign of the Seljuks (1178–1243), when the city was the second capital of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum . The relatively short Seljuk period left a large number of historic landmarks including the Hunat Hatun Complex ,

#944055