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112-639: Bleach is the generic name for any chemical product that is used industrially or domestically to remove color from (i.e. to whiten) fabric or fiber (in a process called bleaching) or to disinfect after cleaning. It often refers specifically to a dilute solution of sodium hypochlorite , also called "liquid bleach". Many bleaches have broad-spectrum bactericidal properties, making them useful for disinfecting and sterilizing. They are used in swimming pool sanitation to control bacteria, viruses, and algae and in many places where sterile conditions are required. They are also used in many industrial processes, notably in

224-616: A $ 5 trillion global enterprise, and the EU and U.S. chemical companies are the world's largest producers. Sales of the chemical business can be divided into a few broad categories, including basic chemicals (about 35% - 37% of dollar output), life sciences (30%), specialty chemicals (20% - 25%) and consumer products (about 10%). Basic chemicals, or "commodity chemicals" are a broad chemical category including polymers, bulk petrochemicals and intermediates, other derivatives and basic industrials, inorganic chemicals , and fertilizers . Polymers are

336-479: A bleach through a process leading to similar results: high-energy photons of light, often in the violet or ultraviolet range, can disrupt the bonds in the chromophore, rendering the resulting substance colorless. Extended exposure often leads to massive discoloration usually reducing the colors to a white and typically very faded blue. The broad-spectrum effectiveness of most bleaches is due to their general chemical reactivity against organic compounds, rather than

448-523: A chemical bleach, most commonly EDTA . A conventional fixer then dissolves the reduced silver but leaves the unexposed silver halide intact. This unexposed halide is then exposed to light or chemically treated so that a second development produces a positive image. In color and chromogenic film, this also generates a dye image in proportion to the silver. Photographic bleaches are also used in black-and-white photography to selectively reduce silver to reduce silver density in negatives or prints. In such cases,

560-462: A colored image. The silver is 'bleached' to a soluble form in a solution of ferric EDTA, which is then dissolved in 'fix', a solution of sodium or ammonium thiosulfate. The procedure is the same for paper processing except that the EDTA and thiosulfate are mixed in 'bleachfix'. In Reversal processing , residual silver in the emulsion after the first development is reduced to a soluble silver salt using

672-413: A cup of water, or 21 ml per litre, or ⁠ 1 / 3 ⁠ cup of bleach in a gallon of water) is effective against many bacteria and some viruses in homes. Even "scientific-grade", commercially produced disinfection solutions such as Virocidin-X usually have sodium hypochlorite as their sole active ingredient, though they also contain surfactants (to prevent beading) and fragrances (to conceal

784-603: A cure-all since 2006. Its main active ingredient is sodium chlorite , which is "activated" with citric acid to form chlorine dioxide. In an attempt to evade health regulations, its inventor, Jim Humble, a former Scientologist , founded the Genesis II Church of Health and Healing , which considers MMS as its sacrament. Industrial chemicals Various professionals are involved in the chemical industry including chemical engineers, chemists and lab technicians. Although chemicals were made and used throughout history,

896-684: A fictionalized account of unsanitary conditions in slaughterhouses and the meatpacking industry during the 1800s. This led directly to an investigation commissioned directly by President Theodore Roosevelt , and to the passage of the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906, which established the Food and Drug Administration . A much larger body of regulation deals with the public health and worker safety regulation and inspection. In 1997, Gail Eisnitz, chief investigator for

1008-413: A hog in the chute that's had the shit prodded out of him and has a heart attack or refuses to move, you take a meat hook and hook it into his bunghole . You try to do this by clipping the hipbone . Then you drag him backwards. You're dragging these hogs alive, and a lot of times the meat hook rips out of the bunghole. I've seen hams – thighs – completely ripped open. I've also seen intestines come out. If

1120-661: A hog in the eye that's walking around in the blood pit with you and think, "God, that really isn't a bad looking animal." You may want to pet it. Pigs down on the kill floor have come up to nuzzle me like a puppy. Two minutes later I had to kill them – beat them to death with a pipe. I can't care. Slaughterhouse workers have a higher prevalence rate of mental health distress, including anxiety , detachment, depression , emotional numbing , perpetrator trauma , psychosocial distress , and PTSD , violence-supportive attitudes, and an increased crime levels. Slaughterhouse workers have adaptive and maladaptive strategies to cope with

1232-666: A major chemicals firm in the early 20th century in America. Polymers and plastics such as polyethylene , polypropylene , polyvinyl chloride , polyethylene terephthalate , polystyrene and polycarbonate comprise about 80% of the industry's output worldwide. Chemicals are used in many different consumer goods, and are also used in many different sectors. This includes agriculture manufacturing, construction, and service industries. Major industrial customers include rubber and plastic products, textiles , apparel, petroleum refining, pulp and paper , and primary metals. Chemicals are nearly

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1344-520: A new cattle-market was constructed in Copenhagen Fields, Islington . The new Metropolitan Cattle Market was also opened in 1855, and West Smithfield was left as waste ground for about a decade, until the construction of the new market began in the 1860s under the authority of the 1860 Metropolitan Meat and Poultry Market Act. The market was designed by architect Sir Horace Jones and was completed in 1868. A cut and cover railway tunnel

1456-601: A powerful oxidizer, is the active agent in many household bleaches. Since pure chlorine is a toxic corrosive gas, these products usually contain hypochlorite , which releases chlorine. "Bleaching powder" usually refers to a formulation containing calcium hypochlorite . Oxidizing bleaching agents that do not contain chlorine are usually based on peroxides , such as hydrogen peroxide , sodium percarbonate , and sodium perborate . These bleaches are called "non-chlorine bleach", " oxygen bleach ", or "color-safe bleach". Reducing bleaches have niche uses, such as sulfur dioxide , which

1568-409: A severe bottleneck in production. Sulfuric acid began to be used as a more efficient agent as well as lime by the middle of the century, but it was the discovery of bleaching powder by Charles Tennant that spurred the creation of the first great chemical industrial enterprise. His powder was made by reacting chlorine with dry slaked lime and proved to be a cheap and successful product. He opened

1680-630: A site separate from the production plant(s). The scale of chemical manufacturing tends to be organized from largest in volume ( petrochemicals and commodity chemicals ), to specialty chemicals , and the smallest, fine chemicals . The petrochemical and commodity chemical manufacturing units are on the whole single product continuous processing plants. Not all petrochemical or commodity chemical materials are made in one single location, but groups of related materials often are to induce industrial symbiosis as well as material, energy and utility efficiency and other economies of scale . Those chemicals made on

1792-457: A slaughterhouse into a single file ready for slaughter. Her corrals employ long sweeping curves so that each animal is prevented from seeing what lies ahead and just concentrates on the hind quarters of the animal in front of it. This design – along with the design elements of solid sides, solid crowd gate, and reduced noise at the end point – work together to encourage animals forward in the chute and to not reverse direction. Beginning in 2008

1904-697: A solution of calcium hypochlorite as an alternative for Javel water, and patented bleaching powder (solid calcium hypochlorite ) in 1799. Around 1820, French chemist Antoine Germain Labarraque discovered the disinfecting and deodorizing ability of hypochlorites and was instrumental in popularizing their use for such purpose. His work greatly improved medical practice, public health, and the sanitary conditions in hospitals, slaughterhouses , and all industries dealing with animal products. Louis Jacques Thénard first produced hydrogen peroxide in 1818 by reacting barium peroxide with nitric acid . Hydrogen peroxide

2016-454: A source that could be important in terms of inhalation exposure to these compounds. While the authors suggested that using these cleaning products may significantly increase the cancer risk, this conclusion appears to be hypothetical: Sodium hypochlorite solution, 3–6%, (common household bleach) is typically diluted for safe use when disinfecting surfaces and when used to treat drinking water. A weak solution of 2% household bleach in warm water

2128-423: A stunning device by a trained person before being hoisted up on the line. There is some debate over the enforcement of this act. This act, like those in many countries, exempts slaughter in accordance to religious law, such as kosher shechita and dhabiha halal . Most strict interpretations of kashrut require that the animal be fully sensible when its carotid artery is cut. The novel The Jungle presented

2240-430: A variety of clothing in a home setting. Most industrial and household bleaches belong to three broad classes: Chlorine-based bleaches are found in many household "bleach" products, as well as in specialized products for hospitals, public health, water chlorination , and industrial processes. The grade of chlorine-based bleaches is often expressed as percent active chlorine . One gram of 100% active chlorine bleach has

2352-529: A weak sulfurous odor. It can be obtained by reacting sodium bisulfite with zinc It is used as such in some industrial dyeing processes to eliminate excess dye, residual oxide, and unintended pigments and for bleaching wood pulp . Reaction of sodium dithionite with formaldehyde produces Rongalite , which is used in bleaching wood pulp , cotton , wool , leather and clay . In Negative film processing , silver halide grains are associated with couplers which, on development, produce metallic silver and

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2464-579: A wide variety of solid, liquid, and gaseous materials. Most of these products serve to manufacture other items, although a smaller number go directly to consumers. Solvents , pesticides , lye , washing soda , and portland cement provide a few examples of products used by consumers. The industry includes manufacturers of inorganic - and organic -industrial chemicals, ceramic products, petrochemicals, agrochemicals, polymers and rubber (elastomers), oleochemicals (oils, fats, and waxes), explosives, fragrances and flavors. Examples of these products are shown in

2576-423: Is a list of the top 25 chemical companies by chemical sales in 2015. (Note: Chemical sales represent only a portion of total sales for some companies.) Top chemical companies by chemical sales in 2015. [REDACTED] London , United Kingdom From the perspective of chemical engineers, the chemical industry involves the use of chemical processes such as chemical reactions and refining methods to produce

2688-418: Is also a matter of some consideration. Frequently, animal rights groups raise concerns about the methods of transport to and from slaughterhouses, preparation prior to slaughter, animal herding, stunning methods, and the killing itself. Until modern times, the slaughter of animals generally took place in a haphazard and unregulated manner in diverse places. Early maps of London show numerous stockyards in

2800-542: Is done at a butchery or other meat preparation facility. The standards and regulations governing slaughterhouses vary considerably around the world. In many countries the slaughter of animals is regulated by custom and tradition rather than by law. In the non-Western world, including the Arab world , the Indian sub-continent , etc., both forms of meat are available: one which is produced in modern mechanized slaughterhouses, and

2912-426: Is easily broken, giving rise to very reactive oxygen species, which are the active agents of this type of bleach. The main products in this class are: In the food industry , other oxidizing products like bromates are used as flour bleaching and maturing agents . Sodium dithionite (also known as sodium hydrosulfite) is one of the most important reductive bleaching agents. It is a white crystalline powder with

3024-519: Is impossible. American slaughterhouse workers are three times more likely to suffer serious injury than the average American worker. NPR reports that pig and cattle slaughterhouse workers are nearly seven times more likely to suffer repetitive strain injuries than average. The Guardian reports that on average there are two amputations a week involving slaughterhouse workers in the United States. On average, one employee of Tyson Foods ,

3136-521: Is not intended for human consumption are sometimes referred to as knacker's yards or knackeries . This is where animals are slaughtered that are not fit for human consumption or that can no longer work on a farm, such as retired work horses . Slaughtering animals on a large scale poses significant issues in terms of logistics, animal welfare , and the environment, and the process must meet public health requirements. Due to public aversion in different cultures, determining where to build slaughterhouses

3248-603: Is still a sensitive issue. Because of this, even the Japanese word for "slaughter" (屠殺 tosatsu ) is deemed politically incorrect by some pressure groups as its inclusion of the kanji for "kill" (殺) supposedly portrays those who practise it in a negative manner. Some countries have laws that exclude specific animal species or grades of animal from being slaughtered for human consumption, especially those that are taboo food . The former Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee suggested in 2004 introducing legislation banning

3360-637: Is typical for sanitizing smooth surfaces before the brewing of beer or wine. US government regulations (21 CFR 178 Subpart C) allow food processing equipment and food contact surfaces to be sanitized with solutions containing bleach, provided that the solution is allowed to drain adequately before contact with food and that the solutions do not exceed 200 parts per million (ppm) available chlorine (for example, one tablespoon of typical household bleach containing 5.25% sodium hypochlorite, per gallon of water). A 1-in-47 dilution of household bleach with water (1 part bleach to 47 parts water: e.g. one teaspoon of bleach in

3472-441: Is used for sterilization purposes and water treatment, its ability to disinfect laundry is limited because the concentration of hydrogen peroxide in laundry products is lower than what is used in other applications. The safety of bleaches depends on the compounds present, and their concentration. Generally speaking, the ingestion of bleaches will cause damage to the esophagus and stomach , possibly leading to death. On contact with

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3584-412: Is used to bleach wool, either as gas or from solutions of sodium dithionite , and sodium borohydride . Bleaches generally react with many other organic substances besides the intended colored pigments, so they can weaken or damage natural materials like fibers, cloth, and leather, and intentionally applied dyes, such as the indigo of denim . For the same reason, ingestion of the products, breathing of

3696-659: The French Academy of Sciences offered a prize of 2400 livres for a method to produce alkali from sea salt ( sodium chloride ). The Leblanc process was patented in 1791 by Nicolas Leblanc who then built a Leblanc plant at Saint-Denis . He was denied his prize money because of the French Revolution . In Britain, the Leblanc process became popular. William Losh built the first soda works in Britain at

3808-621: The Losh, Wilson and Bell works on the River Tyne in 1816, but it remained on a small scale due to large tariffs on salt production until 1824. When these tariffs were repealed, the British soda industry was able to rapidly expand. James Muspratt 's chemical works in Liverpool and Charles Tennant's complex near Glasgow became the largest chemical production centres anywhere. By the 1870s,

3920-559: The St Rollox Chemical Works , north of Glasgow , and production went from just 52 tons in 1799 to almost 10,000 tons just five years later. Soda ash was used since ancient times in the production of glass , textile , soap , and paper , and the source of the potash had traditionally been wood ashes in Western Europe . By the 18th century, this source was becoming uneconomical due to deforestation, and

4032-452: The bleaching of wood pulp . Bleaches also have other minor uses, like removing mildew , killing weeds , and increasing the longevity of cut flowers . Bleaches work by reacting with many colored organic compounds, such as natural pigments, and turning them into colorless ones. While most bleaches are oxidizing agents (chemicals that can remove electrons from other molecules), some are reducing agents (that donate electrons). Chlorine ,

4144-459: The guilds were curtailed. As the meat requirements of the growing number of residents in London steadily expanded, the meat markets both within the city and beyond attracted increasing levels of public disapproval. Meat had been traded at Smithfield Market as early as the 10th century. By 1726, it was regarded as "without question, the greatest in the world", by Daniel Defoe . By the middle of

4256-713: The meat packing industry : "according to some, animal slaughtering became the first mass-production industry in the United States." This expansion has been accompanied by increased concern about the physical and mental conditions of the workers along with controversy over the ethical and environmental implications of slaughtering animals for meat. The Edinburgh abattoir, which was built in 1910, had well lit laboratories, hot and cold water, gas, microscopes and equipment for cultivating organisms. The English 1924 Public Health (Meat) Regulations required notification of slaughter to enable inspection of carcasses and enabled inspected carcasses to be marked. The development of slaughterhouses

4368-518: The "morally dangerous" task of putting animals to death. As a result of this tension, meat markets within the city were closed and abattoirs built outside city limits. An early framework for the establishment of public slaughterhouses was put in place in Paris in 1810, under the reign of the Emperor Napoleon . Five areas were set aside on the outskirts of the city and the feudal privileges of

4480-791: The $ 546 billion global specialty chemical market was 33% Paints, Coating and Surface Treatments, 27% Advanced Polymer, 14% Adhesives and Sealants, 13% additives, and 13% pigments and inks. Speciality chemicals are sold as effect or performance chemicals. Sometimes they are mixtures of formulations, unlike " fine chemicals ," which are almost always single-molecule products. Consumer products include direct product sales of chemicals such as soaps , detergents , and cosmetics . Typical growth rates are 0.8 to 1.0 times GDP. Consumers rarely come into contact with basic chemicals. Polymers and specialty chemicals are materials that they encounter everywhere daily. Examples are plastics, cleaning materials, cosmetics, paints & coatings, electronics, automobiles and

4592-710: The 1862 London International Exhibition, anticipated many of the modern aesthetic and utility uses of plastics. The industrial production of soap from vegetable oils was started by William Lever and his brother James in 1885 in Lancashire based on a modern chemical process invented by William Hough Watson that used glycerin and vegetable oils . By the 1920s, chemical firms consolidated into large conglomerates ; IG Farben in Germany, Rhône-Poulenc in France and Imperial Chemical Industries in Britain. Dupont became

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4704-481: The 1980s, Cargill , Conagra Brands , Tyson Foods and other large food companies moved most slaughterhouse operations to rural areas of the Southern United States which were more hostile to unionization efforts. Slaughterhouses in the United States commonly illegally employ and exploit underage workers and undocumented immigrants. In 2010, Human Rights Watch described slaughterhouse line work in

4816-444: The 19th century, in the course of a single year 220,000 head of cattle and 1,500,000 sheep would be "violently forced into an area of five acres, in the very heart of London, through its narrowest and most crowded thoroughfares". By the early 19th century, pamphlets were being circulated arguing in favor of the removal of the livestock market and its relocation outside of the city due to the extremely low hygienic conditions as well as

4928-525: The British soda output of 200,000 tons annually exceeded that of all other nations in the world combined. These huge factories began to produce a greater diversity of chemicals as the Industrial Revolution matured. Originally, large quantities of alkaline waste were vented into the environment from the production of soda, provoking one of the first pieces of environmental legislation to be passed in 1863. This provided for close inspection of

5040-531: The European Chemical industry saw its sales increase from 295 billion Euros to 539 billion Euros, a picture of constant growth. Despite this, the European industry's share of the world chemical market has fallen from 36% to 20%. This has resulted from the huge increase in production and sales in emerging markets like India and China. The data suggest that 95% of this impact is from China alone. In 2012

5152-788: The Food and Drug Administration. Pesticides, also called "crop protection chemicals", are about 10% of this category and include herbicides , insecticides , and fungicides . Specialty chemicals are a category of relatively high-valued, rapidly growing chemicals with diverse end product markets. Typical growth rates are one to three times GDP with prices over a dollar per pound. They are generally characterized by their innovative aspects. Products are sold for what they can do rather than for what chemicals they contain. Products include electronic chemicals, industrial gases , adhesives and sealants as well as coatings, industrial and institutional cleaning chemicals, and catalysts. In 2012, excluding fine chemicals,

5264-678: The Humane Farming Association (HFA), released the book Slaughterhouse . It includes interviews of slaughterhouse workers in the U.S. who say that, because of the speed with which they are required to work, animals are routinely skinned while apparently alive and still blinking, kicking and shrieking. Eisnitz argues that this is not only cruel to the animals but also dangerous for the human workers, as cows weighing several thousands of pounds thrashing around in pain are likely to kick out and debilitate anyone working near them. This would imply that certain slaughterhouses throughout

5376-458: The Leblanc method, and its use spread. In the same year, Ludwig Mond visited Solvay to acquire the rights to use his process, and he and John Brunner formed Brunner, Mond & Co. , and built a Solvay plant at Winnington , England. Mond was instrumental in making the Solvay process a commercial success. He made several refinements between 1873 and 1880 that removed byproducts that could inhibit

5488-698: The Local Infrastructure for Local Agriculture, a non-profit committed to revitalizing opportunities for "small farmers and strengthening the connection between local supply and demand", constructed a mobile slaughterhouse facility in efforts for small farmers to process meat quickly and cost effectively. Named the Modular Harvest System, or M.H.S., it received USDA approval in 2010. The M.H.S. consists of three separate trailers: One for slaughtering, one for consumable body parts, and one for other body parts. Preparation of individual cuts

5600-483: The Model Abattoir Society in 1882 to investigate and campaign for humane methods of slaughter. The invention of refrigeration and the expansion of transportation networks by sea and rail allowed for the safe exportation of meat around the world. Additionally, meat-packing millionaire Philip Danforth Armour 's invention of the "disassembly line" greatly increased the productivity and profit margin of

5712-468: The PTSD Journal explain, "These employees are hired to kill animals, such as pigs and cows that are largely gentle creatures. Carrying out this action requires workers to disconnect from what they are doing and from the creature standing before them. This emotional dissonance can lead to consequences such as domestic violence, social withdrawal, anxiety, drug and alcohol abuse, and PTSD." Starting in

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5824-462: The Table below. Related industries include petroleum , glass , paint , ink , sealant , adhesive , pharmaceuticals and food processing . Chemical processes such as chemical reactions operate in chemical plants to form new substances in various types of reaction vessels. In many cases, the reactions take place in special corrosion-resistant equipment at elevated temperatures and pressures with

5936-505: The U.S. there are 170 major chemical companies. They operate internationally with more than 2,800 facilities outside the U.S. and 1,700 foreign subsidiaries or affiliates operating. The U.S. chemical output is $ 750 billion a year. The U.S. industry records large trade surpluses and employs more than a million people in the United States alone. The chemical industry is also the second largest consumer of energy in manufacturing and spends over $ 5 billion annually on pollution abatement. In Europe,

6048-593: The United States, may legally operate under USDA exemptions not available to red meat processors. Several MPPUs have been in operation since before 2010, under various models of operation and ownership. Most countries have laws in regard to the treatment of animals in slaughterhouses. In the United States , there is the Humane Slaughter Act of 1958, a law requiring that all swine, sheep, cattle, and horses be stunned unconscious with application of

6160-584: The animals. The eminent physician, Benjamin Ward Richardson , spent many years in developing more humane methods of slaughter. He brought into use no fewer than fourteen possible anesthetics for use in the slaughterhouse and even experimented with the use of electric current at the Royal Polytechnic Institution . As early as 1853, he designed a lethal chamber that would gas animals to death relatively painlessly , and he founded

6272-541: The appointment of slaughterhouse inspectors and the establishment of centralised abattoirs took place much earlier in the British colonies, such as the colonies of New South Wales and Victoria, and in Scotland where 80% of cattle were slaughtered in public abattoirs by 1930. In Victoria the Melbourne Abattoirs Act 1850 (NSW) "confined the slaughtering of animals to prescribed public abattoirs, while at

6384-407: The birth of the heavy chemical industry (production of chemicals in large quantities for a variety of uses) coincided with the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution . One of the first chemicals to be produced in large amounts through industrial processes was sulfuric acid . In 1736 pharmacist Joshua Ward developed a process for its production that involved heating sulfur with saltpeter, allowing

6496-474: The bleach composition is typically an acid solution of potassium dichromate . A Risk Assessment Report (RAR) conducted by the European Union on sodium hypochlorite conducted under Regulation EEC 793/93 concluded that this substance is safe for the environment in all its current, normal uses. This is due to its high reactivity and instability. The disappearance of hypochlorite is practically immediate in

6608-427: The bleach smell). See hypochlorous acid for a discussion of the mechanism for disinfectant action. An oral rinse with a 0.05% dilute solution of household bleach is shown to treat gingivitis . Color-safe bleach is a solution with hydrogen peroxide as the active ingredient (for stain removal) rather than sodium hypochlorite or chlorine. It also has chemicals in it that help brighten colors. Though hydrogen peroxide

6720-458: The brutal treatment of the cattle. In 1843, the Farmer's Magazine published a petition signed by bankers, salesmen, aldermen, butchers and local residents against the expansion of the livestock market. The Town Police Clauses Act 1847 created a licensing and registration system, though few slaughter houses were closed. An Act of Parliament was eventually passed in 1852. Under its provisions,

6832-440: The chemical, plastics, and rubber sectors are among the largest industrial sectors. Together they generate about 3.2 million jobs in more than 60,000 companies. Since 2000 the chemical sector alone has represented 2/3 of the entire manufacturing trade surplus of the EU. In 2012, the chemical sector accounted for 12% of the EU manufacturing industry's added value. Europe remains the world's biggest chemical trading region with 43% of

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6944-553: The clustering and integration mentioned above, some 50% of the United Kingdom's petrochemical and commodity chemicals are produced by the Northeast of England Process Industry Cluster on Teesside . Specialty chemical and fine chemical manufacturing are mostly made in discrete batch processes. These manufacturers are often found in similar locations but in many cases, they are to be found in multi-sector business parks. In

7056-486: The concept of the slaughterhouse as a freezing works. Prior to this, canning was an option. Freezing works are common in New Zealand, Australia and South Africa. In countries where meat is exported for a substantial profit the freezing works were built near docks, or near transport infrastructure. Mobile poultry processing units (MPPUs) follow the same principles, but typically require only one trailer and, in much of

7168-410: The concerns raised regarding hygiene and disease, there were also criticisms of the practice on the grounds that the effect that killing had, both on the butchers and the observers, "educate[d] the men in the practice of violence and cruelty, so that they seem to have no restraint on the use of it." An additional motivation for eliminating private slaughter was to impose a careful system of regulation for

7280-884: The consumer. Annually the American Chemistry Council tabulates the US production volume of the top 100 chemicals. In 2000, the aggregate production volume of the top 100 chemicals totaled 502 million tons, up from 397 million tons in 1990. Inorganic chemicals tend to be the largest volume but much smaller in dollar revenue due to their low prices. The top 11 of the 100 chemicals in 2000 were sulfuric acid (44 million tons), nitrogen (34), ethylene (28), oxygen (27), lime (22), ammonia (17), propylene (16), polyethylene (15), chlorine (13), phosphoric acid (13) and diammonium phosphates (12). The largest chemical producers today are global companies with international operations and plants in numerous countries. Below

7392-662: The country are not following the guidelines and regulations spelled out by the Humane Slaughter Act , requiring all animals to be put down and thus insusceptible to pain by some form, typically electronarcosis, before undergoing any form of violent action. According to the HFA, Eiznitz interviewed slaughterhouse workers representing over two million hours of experience, who, without exception, told her that they have beaten, strangled, boiled and dismembered animals alive or have failed to report those who do. The workers described

7504-779: The data from the European Chemical Industry Council shows that five European countries account for 71% of the EU's chemicals sales. These are Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Italy and the Netherlands. The chemical industry has seen growth in China, India, Korea, the Middle East, South East Asia, Nigeria and Brazil. The growth is driven by changes in feedstock availability and price, labor and energy costs, differential rates of economic growth and environmental pressures. Just as companies emerge as

7616-546: The dollar output of the chemistry business) include differentiated chemical and biological substances, pharmaceuticals , diagnostics, animal health products , vitamins , and pesticides . While much smaller in volume than other chemical sectors, their products tend to have high prices - over ten dollars per pound - growth rates of 1.5 to 6 times GDP , and research and development spending at 15 to 25% of sales. Life science products are usually produced with high specifications and are closely scrutinized by government agencies such as

7728-487: The effects the violence has had on their personal lives, with several admitting to being physically abusive or taking to alcohol and other drugs. The HFA alleges that workers are required to kill up to 1,100 hogs an hour and end up taking their frustration out on the animals. Eisnitz interviewed one worker, who had worked in ten slaughterhouses, about pig production. He told her: Hogs get stressed out pretty easy. If you prod them too much, they have heart attacks. If you get

7840-624: The factories and imposed heavy fines on those exceeding the limits on pollution. Methods were devised to make useful byproducts from the alkali. The Solvay process was developed by the Belgian industrial chemist Ernest Solvay in 1861. In 1864, Solvay and his brother Alfred constructed a plant in Charleroi Belgium. In 1874, they expanded into a larger plant in Nancy , France. The new process proved more economical and less polluting than

7952-433: The first synthetic perfumes. German industry quickly began to dominate the field of synthetic dyes. The three major firms BASF , Bayer , and Hoechst produced several hundred different dyes. By 1913, German industries produced almost 90% of the world's supply of dyestuffs and sold approximately 80% of their production abroad. In the United States, Herbert Henry Dow's use of electrochemistry to produce chemicals from brine

8064-772: The fumes, or contact with skin or eyes can cause bodily harm and damage health. The earliest form of bleaching involved spreading fabrics and cloth out in a bleachfield to be whitened by the action of the Sun and water . In the 17th century, there was a significant cloth bleaching industry in Western Europe, using alternating alkaline baths (generally lye ) and acid baths (such as lactic acid from sour milk, and later diluted sulfuric acid ). The whole process lasted up to six months. Chlorine-based bleaches, which shortened that process from months to hours, were invented in Europe in

8176-430: The hog collapses near the front of the chute, you shove the meat hook into his cheek and drag him forward. Animal rights activists , anti-speciesists , vegetarians and vegans are prominent critics of slaughterhouses and have created events such as the march to close all slaughterhouses to voice concerns about the conditions in slaughterhouses and ask for their abolition. Some have argued that humane animal slaughter

8288-410: The household) during the use of bleach-containing products. The increase in chlorinated volatile organic compound concentrations was the lowest for plain bleach and the highest for the products in the form of "thick liquid and gel ". The significant increases observed in indoor air concentrations of several chlorinated VOCs (especially carbon tetrachloride and chloroform) indicate that bleach use may be

8400-622: The largest meat producer in America, is injured and amputates a finger or limb per month. The Bureau of Investigative Journalism reported that over a period of six years, in the UK 78 slaughter workers lost fingers, parts of fingers or limbs, more than 800 workers had serious injuries, and at least 4,500 had to take more than three days off after accidents. In a 2018 study in the Italian Journal of Food Safety, slaughterhouse workers are instructed to wear ear protectors to protect their hearing from

8512-688: The largest of scales are made in a few manufacturing locations around the world, for example in Texas and Louisiana along the Gulf Coast of the United States , on Teesside ( United Kingdom ), and in Rotterdam in the Netherlands . The large-scale manufacturing locations often have clusters of manufacturing units that share utilities and large-scale infrastructure such as power stations , port facilities , and road and rail terminals. To demonstrate

8624-697: The largest revenue segment and includes all categories of plastics and human-made fibers. The major markets for plastics are packaging , followed by home construction, containers, appliances, pipe, transportation, toys, and games. Principal raw materials for polymers are bulk petrochemicals like ethylene, propylene and benzene. Petrochemicals and intermediate chemicals are primarily made from liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas and crude oil fractions. Large volume products include ethylene , propylene , benzene , toluene , xylenes , methanol , vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), styrene , butadiene , and ethylene oxide . These basic or commodity chemicals are

8736-459: The late 18th century. Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele discovered chlorine in 1774, and in 1785 Savoyard scientist Claude Berthollet recognized that it could be used to bleach fabrics. Berthollet also discovered sodium hypochlorite , which became the first commercial bleach, named Eau de Javel ("Javel water") after the borough of Javel , near Paris, where it was produced. Scottish chemist and industrialist Charles Tennant proposed in 1798

8848-416: The latter part of the 20th century, the layout and design of most U.S. slaughterhouses was influenced by the work of Temple Grandin . She suggested that reducing the stress of animals being led to slaughter may help slaughterhouse operators improve efficiency and profit. In particular she applied an understanding of animal psychology to design pens and corrals which funnel a herd of animals arriving at

8960-558: The loud noises in the facility. A 2004 study in the Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine found that "excess risks were observed for mortality from all causes, all cancers, and lung cancer" in workers employed in the New Zealand meat processing industry. The worst thing, worse than the physical danger, is the emotional toll. If you work in the stick pit [where hogs are killed] for any period of time – that lets you kill things but doesn't let you care. You may look

9072-443: The lungs. Mixing bleach with rubbing alcohol or acetone makes chloroform , while mixing with hydrogen peroxide results in an exothermic and potentially explosive chemical reaction that releases oxygen . Miracle Mineral Supplement (MMS), also promoted as "Master Mineral Solution" or "Chlorine Dioxide Solution" or CDS, to evade restrictions by online retail platforms, is a bleach solution that has been fraudulently promoted as

9184-450: The main producers of the chemical industry, we can also look on a more global scale at how industrialized countries rank, with regard to the billions of dollars worth of production a country or region could export. Though the business of chemistry is worldwide in scope, the bulk of the world's $ 3.7 trillion chemical output is accounted for by only a handful of industrialized nations. The United States alone produced $ 689 billion, 18.6 percent of

9296-535: The manufacture of superphosphate of lime . Processes for the vulcanization of rubber were patented by Charles Goodyear in the United States and Thomas Hancock in England in the 1840s. The first synthetic dye was discovered by William Henry Perkin in London . He partly transformed aniline into a crude mixture which, when extracted with alcohol, produced a substance with an intense purple colour. He also developed

9408-606: The materials used in home construction. These specialty products are marketed by chemical companies to the downstream manufacturing industries as pesticides , specialty polymers , electronic chemicals, surfactants , construction chemicals, Industrial Cleaners, flavours and fragrances , specialty coatings, printing inks, water-soluble polymers, food additives , paper chemicals , oil field chemicals, plastic adhesives, adhesives and sealants , cosmetic chemicals , water management chemicals , catalysts , and textile chemicals. Chemical companies rarely supply these products directly to

9520-563: The national regulations. In some societies, traditional cultural and religious aversion to slaughter led to prejudice against the people involved. In Japan , where the ban on slaughter of livestock for food was lifted in the late 19th century, the newly found slaughter industry drew workers primarily from villages of burakumin , who traditionally worked in occupations relating to death (such as executioners and undertakers). In some parts of western Japan , prejudice faced by current and former residents of such areas ( burakumin "hamlet people")

9632-442: The natural aquatic environment, reaching in a short time concentration as low as 10 μg/L or less in all emission scenarios. In addition, it was found that while volatile chlorine species may be relevant in some indoor scenarios, they have a negligible impact in open environmental conditions. Further, the role of hypochlorite pollution is assumed as negligible in soils. Industrial bleaching agents can be sources of concern. For example,

9744-607: The operating area of blood and offal. Veterinary scientists, notably George Fleming and John Gamgee, campaigned for stringent levels of inspection to ensure that epizootics such as rinderpest (a devastating outbreak of the disease covered all of Britain in 1865) would not be able to spread. By 1874, three meat inspectors were appointed for the London area, and the Public Health Act 1875 required local authorities to provide central slaughterhouses (they were only given powers to close unsanitary slaughterhouses in 1890). Yet

9856-465: The orders of Napoleon III at the Parc de la Villette and heavily influenced the subsequent development of the institution throughout Europe. These slaughterhouses were regulated by law to ensure good standards of hygiene, the prevention of the spread of disease and the minimization of needless animal cruelty. The slaughterhouse had to be equipped with a specialized water supply system to effectively clean

9968-616: The other from local butcher shops. In some communities animal slaughter and permitted species may be controlled by religious laws , most notably halal for Muslims and kashrut for Jewish communities. This can cause conflicts with national regulations when a slaughterhouse adhering to the rules of religious preparation is located in some Western countries . In Jewish law, captive bolts and other methods of pre-slaughter paralysis are generally not permissible, due to it being forbidden for an animal to be stunned prior to slaughter. Various halal food authorities have more recently permitted

10080-414: The periphery of the city, where slaughter occurred in the open air or under cover such as wet markets . A term for such open-air slaughterhouses was shambles , and there are streets named " The Shambles " in some English and Irish towns (e.g., Worcester , York , Bandon ) which got their name from having been the site on which butchers killed and prepared animals for consumption. Fishamble Street , Dublin

10192-437: The product line. The late 19th century saw an explosion in both the quantity of production and the variety of chemicals that were manufactured. Large chemical industries arose in Germany and later in the United States. Production of artificial manufactured fertilizer for agriculture was pioneered by Sir John Lawes at his purpose-built Rothamsted Research facility. In the 1840s he established large works near London for

10304-578: The product will meet required specifications . More organizations within the industry are implementing chemical compliance software to maintain quality products and manufacturing standards. The products are packaged and delivered by many methods, including pipelines, tank-cars, and tank-trucks (for both solids and liquids), cylinders, drums, bottles, and boxes. Chemical companies often have a research-and-development laboratory for developing and testing products and processes. These facilities may include pilot plants and such research facilities may be located at

10416-691: The production of sodium carbonate in the process. The manufacture of chemical products from fossil fuels began at scale in the early 19th century. The coal tar and ammoniacal liquor residues of coal gas manufacture for gas lighting began to be processed in 1822 at the Bonnington Chemical Works in Edinburgh to make naphtha , pitch oil (later called creosote ), pitch , lampblack ( carbon black ) and sal ammoniac ( ammonium chloride ). Ammonium sulphate fertiliser, asphalt road surfacing , coke oil and coke were later added to

10528-400: The revenue output) make up the oldest of the chemical categories. Products include salt , chlorine , caustic soda , soda ash , acids (such as nitric acid , phosphoric acid , and sulfuric acid ), titanium dioxide , and hydrogen peroxide . Fertilizers are the smallest category (about 6 percent) and include phosphates , ammonia , and potash chemicals. Life sciences (about 30% of

10640-407: The same bleaching power as one gram of elemental chlorine . The most common chlorine-based bleaches are: Other examples of chlorine-based bleaches, used mostly as disinfectants, are monochloramine , halazone , and sodium dichloroisocyanurate . Peroxide-based bleaches are characterized by the peroxide chemical group , namely two oxygen atoms connected by a single bond , (–O–O–). This bond

10752-529: The same time prohibiting the killing of sheep, lamb, pigs or goats at any other place within the city limits". Animals were shipped alive to British ports from Ireland, from Europe and from the colonies and slaughtered in large abattoirs at the ports. Conditions were often very poor. Attempts were also made throughout the British Empire to reform the practice of slaughter itself, as the methods used came under increasing criticism for causing undue pain to

10864-604: The selective inhibitory or toxic actions of antibiotics . They irreversibly denature or destroy many proteins , including all prions , making them extremely versatile disinfectants. Hypochlorite bleaches in low concentration were also found to attack bacteria by interfering with heat shock proteins on their walls. According to 2013 Home Hygiene and Health report, using bleach, whether chlorine- or peroxide-based, significantly increases germicidal efficiency of laundry even at low temperatures (30-40 degrees Celsius), which makes it possible to eliminate viruses, bacteria, and fungi from

10976-466: The skin or eyes, it causes irritation, drying, and potentially burns. Inhalation of bleach fumes can cause mild irritation of the upper airways. Personal protective equipment should always be used when using bleach. Bleach should never be mixed with vinegar or other acids, as this will create highly toxic chlorine gas , which can cause severe burns internally and externally. Mixing bleach with ammonia similarly produces chloramine gas, which can burn

11088-404: The slaughter of cows throughout India , as Hinduism holds cows as sacred and considers their slaughter unthinkable and offensive. This was often opposed on grounds of religious freedom. The slaughter of cows and the importation of beef into the nation of Nepal are strictly forbidden. Refrigeration technology allowed meat from the slaughterhouse to be preserved for longer periods. This led to

11200-475: The starting materials used to manufacture many polymers and other more complex organic chemicals particularly those that are made for use in the specialty chemicals category. Other derivatives and basic industrials include synthetic rubber , surfactants , dyes and pigments , turpentine , resins , carbon black , explosives , and rubber products and contribute about 20 percent of the basic chemicals' external sales. Inorganic chemicals (about 12% of

11312-546: The sulfur to oxidize and combine with water. It was the first practical production of sulphuric acid on a large scale. John Roebuck and Samuel Garbett were the first to establish a large-scale factory in Prestonpans, Scotland , in 1749, which used leaden condensing chambers for the manufacture of sulfuric acid. In the early 18th century, cloth was bleached by treating it with stale urine or sour milk and exposing it to sunlight for long periods of time, which created

11424-429: The total world chemical output in 2008. Slaughterhouse In livestock agriculture and the meat industry , a slaughterhouse , also called an abattoir ( / ˈ æ b ə t w ɑːr / ), is a facility where livestock animals are slaughtered to provide food. Slaughterhouses supply meat, which then becomes the responsibility of a meat-packing facility . Slaughterhouses that produce meat that

11536-458: The use of catalysts . The products of these reactions are separated using a variety of techniques including distillation especially fractional distillation , precipitation , crystallization , adsorption , filtration , sublimation , and drying . The processes and products or products are usually tested during and after manufacture by dedicated instruments and on-site quality control laboratories to ensure safe operation and to assure that

11648-483: The use of a recently developed fail-safe system of head-only stunning where the shock is non-fatal, and where it is possible to reverse the procedure and revive the animal after the shock. The use of electronarcosis and other methods of dulling the sensing has been approved by the Egyptian Fatwa Committee. This allows these entities to continue their religious techniques while keeping accordance to

11760-951: The use of elemental chlorine in the bleaching of wood pulp produces organochlorines and persistent organic pollutants , including dioxins . According to an industry group, the use of chlorine dioxide in these processes has reduced the dioxin generation to under-detectable levels. However, the respiratory risk from chlorine and highly toxic chlorinated byproducts still exists. A European study conducted in 2008 indicated that sodium hypochlorite and organic chemicals (e.g., surfactants , fragrances ) contained in several household cleaning products can react to generate chlorinated volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These chlorinated compounds are emitted during cleaning applications, some of which are toxic and probable human carcinogens . The study showed that indoor air concentrations significantly increase (8–52 times for chloroform and 1–1170 times for carbon tetrachloride , respectively, above baseline quantities in

11872-738: The workplace environment and associated stressors. Working at slaughterhouses often leads to a high amount of psychological trauma. A 2016 study in Organization indicates, "Regression analyses of data from 10,605 Danish workers across 44 occupations suggest that slaughterhouse workers consistently experience lower physical and psychological well-being along with increased incidences of negative coping behavior." A 2009 study by criminologist Amy Fitzgerald indicates, "slaughterhouse employment increases total arrest rates, arrests for violent crimes, arrests for rape, and arrests for other sex offenses in comparison with other industries." As authors from

11984-430: The world's exports and 37% of the world's imports, although the latest data shows that Asia is catching up with 34% of the exports and 37% of imports. Even so, Europe still has a trading surplus with all regions of the world except Japan and China where in 2011 there was a chemical trade balance. Europe's trade surplus with the rest of the world today amounts to 41.7 billion Euros. Over the 20 years between 1991 and 2011,

12096-440: Was a commercial success that helped to promote the country's chemical industry. The petrochemical industry can be traced back to the oil works of Scottish chemist James Young , and Canadian Abraham Pineo Gesner . The first plastic was invented by Alexander Parkes , an English metallurgist . In 1856, he patented Parkesine , a celluloid based on nitrocellulose treated with a variety of solvents. This material, exhibited at

12208-479: Was constructed beneath the market to create a triangular junction with the railway between Blackfriars and King's Cross . This allowed animals to be transported into the slaughterhouse by train and the subsequent transfer of animal carcasses to the Cold Store building, or direct to the meat market via lifts. At the same time, the first large and centralized slaughterhouse in Paris was constructed in 1867 under

12320-527: Was first used for bleaching in 1882, but did not become commercially important until after 1930. Sodium perborate as a laundry bleach has been used in Europe since the early twentieth century, and became popular in North America in the 1980s. Colors of natural organic materials typically arise from organic pigments , such as beta carotene . Chemical bleaches work in one of two ways: Sunlight acts as

12432-458: Was formerly a fish-shambles . Sheffield had 183 slaughterhouses in 1910, and it was estimated that there were 20,000 in England and Wales. The slaughterhouse emerged as a coherent institution in the 19th century. A combination of health and social concerns, exacerbated by the rapid urbanisation experienced during the Industrial Revolution , led social reformers to call for the isolation, sequester and regulation of animal slaughter. As well as

12544-463: Was linked with industrial expansion of by-products. By 1932 the British by-product industry was worth about £97 million a year, employing 310,000 people. The Aberdeen slaughterhouse sent hooves to Lancashire to make glue, intestines to Glasgow for sausages and hides to the Midland tanneries. In January 1940 the British government took over the 16,000 slaughterhouses and by 1942 there were only 779. In

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