53-423: Brabejum is a genus of a single species of large evergreen tree, Brabejum stellatifolium in the family Proteaceae , commonly called wild almond , bitter almond or ghoeboontjie . It is restricted in the wild to South Africa 's Western Cape province, where it grows in thickets along the banks of streams. The plant is of botanical interest as being Africa's only member of the large grevilleoid subfamily. It
106-563: A Southern Hemisphere family, with its main centres of diversity in Australia and South Africa. It also occurs in Central Africa, South and Central America , India , eastern and south eastern Asia , and Oceania . Only two species are known from New Zealand, although fossil pollen evidence suggests there were more previously. It is a good example of a Gondwanan family, with taxa occurring on virtually every land mass considered
159-563: A combination of brachy-paracytic stomata and the unusual trichome bases or, in other cases, the unusual structure of pollen tetrads. Xylocaryon was identified as a member of the Proteaceae from the similarity of its fruit to the extant genus Eidothea . Fossils attributable to this family have been found on the majority of areas that formed the Gondwana supercontinent. A wide variety of pollen belonging to this family dating back to
212-444: A common bract . However, a few Grevilleoideae taxa do not have this property, having solitary flowers or inflorescences of unpaired flowers. In most taxa, the flowers occur in densely packed heads or spikes, and the fruit is a follicle . Grevilleoideae are mainly a Southern Hemisphere family. The main centre of diversity is Australia , with around 700 of 950 species occurring there, and South America also contains taxa. However,
265-502: A greater biodiversity for Proteaceae than currently exists, which supports the fact that the distribution of many taxa has changed drastically with the passage of time and that the family has suffered a general decline, including high levels of extinction during the Cenozoic . First described by French botanist Antoine Laurent de Jussieu , the family Proteaceae is a fairly large one, with around 80 genera, but less than 2,000 species. It
318-678: A remnant of the ancient supercontinent Gondwana, except Antarctica . The family and subfamilies are thought to have diversified well before the fragmentation of Gondwana, implying all of them are well over 90 million years old. Evidence for this includes an abundance of proteaceous pollen found in the Cretaceous coal deposits of the South Island of New Zealand . It is thought to have achieved its present distribution largely by continental drift rather than dispersal across ocean gaps. No conclusive studies have been carried out on
371-581: A smaller scale. The name Proteaceae was adapted by Robert Brown from the name Proteae coined in 1789 for the family by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu , based on the genus Protea , which in 1767, Carl Linnaeus derived from the name of the Greek god Proteus , a deity who was able to change between many forms. This is an appropriate image, seeing as the family is known for its astonishing variety and diversity of flowers and leaves. The genera of Proteaceae are highly varied, with Banksia in particular providing
424-456: A source of dyes, firewood and as wood for construction. Aboriginal Australians eat the fruit of Persoonia , and the seeds of species from other genera, including Gevuina and Macadamia , form part of the diet of the indigenous peoples but are also sold throughout the world. The tender shoots of Helicia species are used in Java, and the nectar from the inflorescences of a number of species
477-702: A southern family ". Their classification has been refined somewhat over the ensuing three decades, most notably by Peter H. Weston and Nigel Barker in 2006. The Grevilleoideae are now considered one of five subfamilies of the Proteaceae. The placement and circumscription of the Grevilleoideae in four tribes , according to Weston and Barker can be summarised as: Authority: Meisn. Authority: Rchb. Authority: Rchb. Authority: Venk.Rao The nursery industry cultivates many Grevilleoideae species as barrier plants and for their prominent and distinctive flowers and foliage. Some species are of importance to
530-682: A striking example of adaptive radiation in plants. This variability makes it impossible to provide a simple, diagnostic identification key for the family, although individual genera may be easily identified. Plant stems with two types of radii, wide and multi-serrated or narrow and uni-serrated, phloem stratified or not, trilacunar nodes with three leaf traces (rarely unilacunar with one trace), sclereids frequent; bark with lenticels frequently horizontally enlarged, cork cambium present, usually superficial. Roots lateral and short, often grouped in bundles ( proteoid roots ) with very dense root hairs, rarely with mycorrhiza . Generally speaking,
583-792: A thick rootstock buried in the ground that shoots up new stems after a fire, and others are reseeders , meaning the adult plants are killed by the fire, but disperse their seeds, which are stimulated by the smoke to take root and grow. The heat was previously thought to have stimulated growth, but the chemicals in the smoke have now been shown to cause it. There are four dioecious genera ( Aulax , Dilobeia , Heliciopsis and Leucadendron ), 11 andromonoecious genera and some other genera have species that are cryptically andromonoecious: two species are sterile and only reproduce vegetatively ( Lomatia tasmanica , Hakea pulvinifera ). The species vary between being autocompatible and autoincompatible, with intermediate situations; these situations sometimes occur in
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#1732793971814636-447: Is a bushy small tree with branches widely at ground level and numerous erect vigorous stems. Leaves grow up to 6 in (15 cm) long, narrow and bluntly toothed, appear at intervals along the branches, mostly in whorls of 6. In summer, the plant bears white flowers densely crowded on spikes arising from rusty buds at the leaf axils. The fruits to 2 in (5 cm) long, magenta to reddish brown, similar to an almond, appear in autumn. The nut
689-701: Is also cultivated for its edible nuts, in Chile and New Zealand , and they are also used in the pharmaceutical industry for their humectant properties and as an ingredient in sunscreens . It is the most cold-resistant of the tree families that produce nuts. It is also planted in the British Isles and on the Pacific coast of the United States for its tropical appearance and its ability to grow in cooler climates . Many Proteaceae species are cultivated by
742-617: Is carried out by bees , beetles , flies , moths , birds ( honeyeaters , sunbirds , sugarbirds and hummingbirds ) and mammals (rodents, small marsupials , elephant shrews and bats ). The latter two means were evolutionarily derived from entomophily in different, independent events. The dispersion of some species exhibit serotiny , which is associated with their pyrophytic behaviour. These trees accumulate fruits on their branches whose outer layers or protective structures ( bracts ) are highly lignified and resistant to fire. The fruit only release their seeds when they have been burnt and when
795-452: Is drunk in Australia. Traditional medicines can be obtained from infusions of the roots, bark, leaves, or flowers of many species that are used as topical applications for skin conditions or internally as tonics, aphrodisiacs, and galactogens to treat headaches, cough, dysentery, diarrhea, indigestion, stomach ulcers, and kidney disease. The wood from the trees of this family is widely used in construction and for internal uses such as decoration;
848-432: Is highly specialised. It usually involves the use of a "pollen-presenter", an area on the style -end that presents the pollen to the pollinator. Proteaceae flower parts occur in fours. The four tepals are fused into a long, narrow tube with a closed cup at the top, and the filaments of the four stamens are fused to the tepals in such a way that the anthers are enclosed within the cup. The pistil initially passes along
901-510: Is in fact a member of the Proteaceae . It acquired the name "wild almond" simply because its fruits vaguely resemble almonds. The part-Khoi local name "ghoeboontjie" also refers to the fruit kernels and their use in traditional coffee. The origin of the tree's genus name is uncertain, but its species name "stellatifolium" (meaning "star-leaved" or " stellate-leaved" ) is a reference to the star-shaped whorls in which its leaves grow. This
954-655: Is not currently listed as threatened. The natural occurrence of these trees in South Africa is of considerable interest to biologists. This is because Brabejum has no close relatives in Africa - within the enormous Protea family its nearest relative is the Macadamia tree of Australia and New Caledonia . Its other more distant relatives likewise exist only in Australasia and South America . In fact, not only
1007-469: Is recognised by virtually all taxonomists . Firmly established under classical Linnaean taxonomy , it is also recognised by the cladistics -based APG and APG II systems. It is placed in the order Proteales , whose placement has itself varied. A classification of the genera within Proteaceae was made by Lawrie Johnson and Barbara Briggs in their influential 1975 monograph " On the Proteaceae:
1060-531: Is sufficiently unusual among tree species, that its whorled phyllotaxis is the most conveniently diagnostic characteristic of Brabejum stellatifolium in regions where the tree is common. Brabejum is a spreading, multi-stemmed, well-shaped evergreen tree . It may grow as tall as 15 meters, but has wide spreading branches and a sprawling habit. The smooth bark is pale greyish-brown and attractively mottled. The green, leathery leaves are toothed and lance-shaped. They appear in whorls of about six, at intervals along
1113-489: Is this species alone in its genus Brabejum , it is also the only member of its subfamily, Grevilleoideae , in Africa (the proteas that surround it in South Africa are relatively distant relatives). It seems that the ancient and spectacular Protea family originated in Gondwanaland , hundreds of millions of years ago. The different species were gradually separated by plate tectonics and their descendants still occur on
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#17327939718141166-525: Is thought to be extinct. The species of this family are particularly susceptible to the destruction or fragmentation of their habitat , fire, parasitic diseases, competition from introduced plants, soil degradation and other damage provoked by humans and their domesticated animals. The species are also affected by climate change . The Proteaceae have a rich fossil record, despite the inherent difficulties in identifying remains that do not show diagnostic characteristics. Identification usually comes from using
1219-522: Is too bitter to eat; however, in earlier times it was boiled, roasted, and ground to make a "coffee" drink. This tree has special significance in Cape Town 's heritage, as it was used to make Van Riebeeck's Hedge - the Cape's first formal boundary. Parts of this original hedge can still be seen growing today at Kirstenbosch . Despite its common name, this tree is not a member of the almond family, and
1272-444: Is valued for its vivid yellow flowers and grape-like fruit. Adenanthos sericeus (woolly bush) is planted for its attractive soft leaves and its small red or orange flowers. Hicksbeachia pinnatifolia (beef nut, red bauple nut) is commonly planted for its foliage and edible nuts. The Proteaceae are particularly susceptible to certain parasites, in particular the oomycete Phytophthora cinnamomi , which causes severe root rot in
1325-462: The Faroe Islands at a latitude of 62° north. Among the banksias , many of which grow in temperate and Mediterranean climates, the vast majority are shrubs; only a few are trees that are valued for their height. Among the tallest species are: B. integrifolia with its subspecies B. integrifolia subsp. monticola , which is noteworthy as the plants that form the subspecies are
1378-501: The Southern Hemisphere , it contains around 46 genera and about 950 species . Genera include Banksia , Grevillea , and Macadamia . The Grevilleoideae grow as trees , shrubs , or subshrubs . They are highly variable, making a simple, diagnostic identification key for the subfamily essentially impossible to provide. One common and fairly diagnostic characteristic is the occurrence of flowers in pairs that share
1431-417: The nursery industry as barrier plants and for their prominent and distinctive flowers and foliage. Some species are of importance to the cut flower industry , especially some Banksia and Protea species. Sugarbushes ( Protea ), pincushions ( Leucospermum ) and conebushes ( Leucadendron ), as well as others like pagodas ( Mimetes ), Aulax and blushing brides ( Serruria ), comprise one of
1484-441: The Cape, South Africa . Here they are often a component of the local Afro-montane forests . They prefer moist areas, and commonly occur near streams in sheltered gorges and on lower mountain slopes. In Cape Town they are still abundant on the eastern slopes of Table Mountain , although at one time large numbers were felled in this area to make way for commercial pine plantations. However, despite its limited range, this species
1537-508: The Grevilleoideae are barely present in Africa , where almost all of Proteaceae taxa belong to the subfamily Proteoideae . The lone exception and only grevilleoid in Africa is the Brabejum tree of Cape Town . The framework for classification of the Proteaceae was laid by L.A.S. Johnson and Barbara Briggs in their 1975 monograph " On the Proteaceae: the evolution and classification of
1590-432: The Proteaceae are one of few flowering plant families that do not form symbioses with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. They exude large amounts of organic acids ( citric acid and malic acid ) every 2–3 days in order to aid the mobilization and absorption of phosphate. Many species are fire-adapted ( pyrophytes ), meaning they have strategies for surviving fires that sweep through their habitat. Some are resprouters , and have
1643-609: The Upper Cretaceous ( Campanian - Maastrichtian ) from the south east of Australia and pollen from the Middle Cretaceous ( Cenomanian - Turonian ) from northern Africa and Peru described as Triorites africaensis . The first macrofossils appear twenty million years later in the Palaeocene of South America and the north east of Australia. The fossil record of some areas, such as New Zealand and Tasmania, show
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1696-826: The chemical substances present in this broad family. The genera Protea and Faurea are unusual as they use xylose as the main sugar in their nectar and as they have high concentrations of polygalactol, while sucrose is the main sugar present in Grevillea . Cyanogenic glycosides , derived from tyrosine , are often present, as are proanthocyanidines ( delphinidin and cyanidin ), flavonols ( kaempferol , quercetin and myricetin ) and arbutin . Alkaloids are usually absent. Iridoids and ellagic acid are also absent. Saponins and sapogenins can be either present or absent in different species. Many species accumulate aluminium . Many traditional cultures have used Proteaceae as sustenance, medicine, for curing animal hides, as
1749-415: The cup splits apart, and the pistil is released to spring more or less upright. Many of the Proteaceae have specialised proteoid roots , masses of lateral roots and hairs forming a radial absorptive surface, produced in the leaf litter layer during seasonal growth, and usually shrivelling at the end of the growth season. They are an adaptation to growth in poor, phosphorus-deficient soils, greatly increasing
1802-438: The cut, so it is readily shaped into a good screen. Older trees form an enormous jungle of giant tangled boughs and sprawling branches, making the trees popular with children. Brabejum is best propagated by fresh seed. The nuts can simply be pushed into the ground as they are, and they germinate as soon as they are on firm, damp soil. However, the seeds do not survive long if they cannot germinate or if they dry out. Ensure that
1855-413: The diagnostic feature of Proteaceae is the compound pseudanthium . In many genera, the most obvious feature is the large and often very showy inflorescences , consisting of many small flowers densely packed into a compact head or spike. This character does not occur in all Proteaceae, however; Adenanthos species, for example, have solitary flowers. In most Proteaceae species, the pollination mechanism
1908-426: The evolution and classification of a southern family ", until it was largely superseded by the molecular studies of Peter H. Weston and Nigel Barker in 2006. Proteaceae are now divided into five subfamilies: Bellendenoideae , Persoonioideae , Symphionematoideae , Proteoideae and Grevilleoideae . In 2008 Mast and colleagues updated Macadamia and related genera in tribe Macadamieae. Furthermore, Orites megacarpus
1961-839: The greatest concentrations of diversity. Together with the Platanaceae (plane trees), Nelumbonaceae (the sacred lotus) and in the recent APG IV system the Sabiaceae , they make up the order Proteales . Well-known Proteaceae genera include Protea , Banksia , Embothrium , Grevillea , Hakea , and Macadamia . Species such as the New South Wales waratah ( Telopea speciosissima ), king protea ( Protea cynaroides ), and various species of Banksia , Grevillea , and Leucadendron are popular cut flowers . The nuts of Macadamia integrifolia are widely grown commercially and consumed, as are those of Gevuina avellana on
2014-504: The ground has been fertilized with ashes from the fire and is free from competitors. Many species have seeds with elaiosomes that are dispersed by ants ; the seeds with wings or thistledown exhibit anemochory , while the drupes and other fleshy fruit exhibit endozoochory as mammals and birds ingest them. Some African and Australian rodents are known to accumulate fruit and seeds of these plants in their nests in order to feed on them, although some manage to germinate. Proteaceae are mainly
2067-417: The inside of the perianth tube, so the stigma, too, is enclosed within the cup. As the flower develops, the pistil grows rapidly. Since the stigma is trapped, the style must bend to elongate, and eventually it bends so far, the perianth is split along one seam. The style continues to grow until anthesis , when the nectaries begin to produce nectar . At this time, the perianth splits into its component tepals,
2120-409: The nectar-feeders act as pollinators. The downside of this pollination strategy is that the probability of self-fertilisation is greatly increased; many Proteaceae counter this with strategies such as protandry , self-incompatibility, or preferential abortion of selfed seed. The systems for presenting pollen are usually highly diverse, corresponding to the diversification of the pollinators. Pollination
2173-525: The pieces of land that are now separated by thousands of miles of ocean. Brabejum is the lone survivor of its branch of the family on the African remnant of Gondwanaland. This is a relatively fast growing tree and is not suitable for the small garden. It has a tendency to spread out sideways and it can be used to form an impenetrable hedge . If correctly pruned, it can form a well-shaped tree. Wherever side branches are cut, more branches will grow from below
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2226-624: The plants that grow in Mediterranean climates. Fusarium oxysporum causes a disease called fusariosis in roots that causes a yellowing and wilting, with serious ecological damages to woodland plants and economic losses in plants of commercial interest. Other common infections are caused by species of Botryosphaeria , Rhizoctonia , Armillaria , Botrytis , Calonectria and other fungi. The IUCN considers that 47 Proteaceae species are threatened, of which one species, Stenocarpus dumbeensis Guillaumin , 1935, from New Caledonia,
2279-548: The plants' access to scarce water and nutrients by exuding carboxylates that mobilise previously unavailable phosphorus. They also increase the root's absorption surface, but this is a minor feature, as it also increases competition for nutrients against its own root clusters. However, this adaptation leaves them highly vulnerable to dieback caused by the Phytophthora cinnamomi water mould , and generally intolerant of fertilization . Due to these specialized proteoid roots,
2332-425: The same species. The flowers are usually protandrous. Just before anthesis, the anthers release their pollen , depositing it onto the stigma, which in many cases has an enlarged fleshy area specifically for the deposition of its own pollen. Nectar-feeders are unlikely to come into contact with the anthers themselves, but can hardly avoid contacting the stigma; thus, the stigma functions as a pollen-presenter , ensuring
2385-430: The seedlings get sufficient water in their first few years, preferably by planting them in a damp, shady area like a river bank. Proteaceae About 80, see text The Proteaceae / ˌ p r oʊ t i ˈ eɪ s iː / form a family of flowering plants predominantly distributed in the Southern Hemisphere . The family comprises 83 genera with about 1,660 known species . Australia and South Africa have
2438-448: The species of this genus, around 170 species, are shrubs, although some of them are valued for their flowers. Another species that is cultivated in some parts of the world, although it is smaller, is Telopea speciosissima (Waratah), from the mountains of New South Wales , Australia . Some temperate climate species are cultivated more locally in Australia for their attractive appearance: Persoonia pinifolia (pine-leaved geebung )
2491-422: The stems, radiating out from the branch like a star. Young leaves are soft, velvety and golden. The tiny, white, sweetly scented, bisexual flowers appear in summer , in dense racemes. The nut-like fruits look similar to almonds and grow in clusters at the tips of branches. They are densely covered with chocolate-brown velvety hairs. The young fruits are an attractive magenta or lilac-purple colour and mature to
2544-439: The tallest trees of the banksias and they are more frost-resistant than other banksias, B. seminuda , B. littoralis , B. serrata ; among those that can be considered small trees or large shrubs: B. grandis , B. prionotes , B. marginata , B. coccinea and B. speciosa ; all of these are planted in parks and gardens and even along roadsides because of their size. The rest of
2597-747: The three main plant groups of fynbos , which forms part of the Cape Floral Kingdom , the smallest but richest plant kingdom for its size and the only kingdom contained within a single country. The other main groups of plants in fynbos are the Ericaceae and the Restionaceae . South African proteas are thus widely cultivated due to their many varied forms and unusual flowers. They are popular in South Africa for their beauty and their usefulness in wildlife gardens for attracting birds and useful insects. The species most valued as ornamentals are
2650-529: The trees that grow in southern latitudes as they give landscapes in temperate climates a tropical appearance; Lomatia ferruginea (Fuinque), Lomatia hirsuta (Radal) have been introduced in Western Europe and to the western United States . Embothrium coccineum (Chilean Firetree or Notro ) is highly valued in the British Isles for its dark red flowers and can be found as far north as
2703-417: The typical brown later in the summer. The fruits are short-lived, germinate quickly and are often dispersed by rivers. The leaves of Brabejum are frequently disfigured by small knobs. These bubbles are the residences of tiny symbiotic mites. They do not harm the tree, but affected branches can be removed if they are found to be unsightly. The natural range of these trees is confined to the fynbos biome of
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#17327939718142756-590: The wood from species of Protea , Leucadendron and Grevillea is especially popular. Many species are used in gardening, particularly genera of Banksia , Embothrium , Grevillea , and Telopea . This use has resulted in the introduction of exotic species that have become invasive; examples include the hakea willow ( Hakea salicifolia ) and the silky hakea ( Hakea sericea ) in Portugal. Two species of Macadamia are cultivated commercially for their edible nuts. Gevuina avellana (Chilean hazel)
2809-425: Was found not to be within the genus Orites , nor in the tribe Roupaleae, instead in the tribe Macadamieae, hence given the new species name Nothorites megacarpus . The full arrangement, according to Weston and Barker (2006) with the updates to genera from Mast et al. (2008), is as follows: Grevilleoideae See text The Grevilleoideae are a subfamily of the plant family Proteaceae . Mainly restricted to
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