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102-582: MV Braer was an oil tanker which ran aground during a storm off Shetland , Scotland, in January 1993, and nearly a week later broke up during the most intense extratropical cyclone on record for the northern Atlantic Ocean, the Braer Storm of January 1993 . The MV Braer was originally launched as the Hellespont Pride and was constructed by Oshima Shipbuilding Company in 1975. The Braer

204-570: A 40,000  DWT tanker, $ 60.7 million for a 80,000–95,000  DWT , $ 73 million for a 130,000–150,000  DWT , and $ 116 million for 250,000–280,000  DWT tanker. For a concrete example, in 2006, Bonheur subsidiary First Olsen paid $ 76.5 million for Knock Sheen , a 159,899 DWT tanker. The cost of operating the largest tankers, the Very Large Crude Carriers, is currently between $ 10,000 and $ 12,000 per day. Oil tankers generally have from 8 to 12 tanks. Each tank

306-503: A country, called its flag state . A ship's flag state exercises regulatory control over the vessel and is required to inspect it regularly, certify the ship's equipment and crew, and issue safety and pollution prevention documents. As of 2007, the United States Central Intelligence Agency statistics count 4,295 oil tankers of 1,000 long tons deadweight (DWT) or greater worldwide. Panama

408-588: A large oil spill had for some time planned how to cope with such events. Immediately after Braer grounded, these organisations (under the umbrella of the WRCC), representing the SIC, Sullom Voe Terminal (SVT), Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH), Shetland Oil Terminal Environmental Advisory Group (SOTEAG), Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB), Scottish Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SSPCA), and

510-557: A number of challenges. A primary concern was to keep the cargo and fumes well away from the engine room to avoid fires. Other challenges included allowing for the cargo to expand and contract due to temperature changes, and providing a method to ventilate the tanks. The first successful oil tanker was Zoroaster , built by Sven Alexander Almqvist in Motala Verkstad , which carried its 246 metric tons (242 long tons ) of kerosene cargo in two iron tanks joined by pipes. One tank

612-414: A number of damaging and high-profile oil spills . The technology of oil transportation has evolved alongside the oil industry. Although human use of oil reaches to prehistory, the first modern commercial exploitation dates back to James Young 's manufacture of paraffin in 1850. In the early 1850s, oil began to be exported from Upper Burma, then a British colony. The oil was moved in earthenware vessels to

714-424: A pipeline on the deck broke loose, allowing seawater to enter the vessel's bunker tanks via broken air vents. The loss of power caused the crew to lose control of the ship during a storm. At 05.19 hrs on 5 January 1993, Lerwick coastguard were advised that the tanker, Braer , en route from Bergen , Norway to Quebec , Canada, laden with 85,000 tonnes of Norwegian Gullfaks crude oil , had lost engine power but

816-574: A protected animal species, or to uproot plants. NatureScot's primary role in regard to protected species is to license activities that would otherwise be an offence. NatureScot is responsible for promoting public access and enjoyment of the outdoors. It created and updates the Scottish Outdoor Access Code , which provides detailed guidance on the exercise of the ancient tradition of universal access to land in Scotland, which

918-413: Is more efficient, and better protection in low-impact collisions and grounding. The same report lists the following as some drawbacks to the double-hull design, including higher build costs, greater operating expenses (e.g. higher canal and port tariffs), difficulties in ballast tank ventilation, the fact that ballast tanks need continuous monitoring and maintenance, increased transverse free surface,

1020-454: Is split into two or three independent compartments by fore-and-aft bulkheads. The tanks are numbered with tank one being the forwardmost. Individual compartments are referred to by the tank number and the athwartships position, such as "one port", "three starboard", or "six center". A cofferdam is a small space left open between two bulkheads, to give protection from heat, fire, or collision. Tankers generally have cofferdams forward and aft of

1122-406: Is very bad news for Orkney’s native species. Stoats are accomplished predators and pose a very serious threat to Orkney’s wildlife, including: the native Orkney vole, hen harrier, short-eared owl and many ground nesting birds In 2018, a stoat eradication project was presented by NatureScot to be applied "across Orkney Mainland , South Ronaldsay , Burray , Glimps Holm , Lamb Holm and Hunda , and

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1224-761: The Baltic Sea , Lake Ladoga , Lake Onega , the Rybinsk and Mariinsk Canals and the Volga River . The aft and the stern was put together and then dismantled to make room for the mid-section as the Caspian Sea was reached. In 1883, oil tanker design took a large step forward. Working for the Nobel company, British engineer Colonel Henry F. Swan designed a set of three Nobel tankers. Instead of one or two large holds, Swan's design used several holds which spanned

1326-567: The Braer is on the west coast of Garths Ness, an area with shallow water and very exposed to prevailing winds so the wreckage is smashed flat in less than 10 metres (33 ft) of water with little recognisable remaining. In 1995, British folk-rock band Fairport Convention released the album Jewel in the Crown , including "The Islands" by Ralph McTell and Maartin Allcock . The song commemorates

1428-544: The Habitats Directive and the Birds Directive . The agency currently employs in the region of 700 people, but much of NatureScot's work is carried out in partnership with others including local authorities, Government bodies, voluntary environmental bodies, community groups, farmers and land managers. The body has offices in most parts of Scotland including the main islands. NatureScot works closely with

1530-553: The Hillswick Wildlife Sanctuary , came together to initiate a response at the Boddam Scout hut (it having been identified as a suitable wildlife response "command centre"). From there, they directed all activities relating to wildlife affected by the spill; which was channelled into three categories: The volunteer response from the people of Shetland to walk beaches was excellent, especially considering

1632-725: The Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) and the equivalent bodies for England, Wales, and Northern Ireland to ensure a consistent approach to nature conservation throughout the United Kingdom and towards fulfilling its international obligations. The agency was formed in 1992 as Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH). In November 2019 it was announced that SNH would be re-branded as NatureScot, however its legal persona and statutory functions would remain unchanged. The change took effect on 24 August 2020. The general aims of NatureScot as established in

1734-473: The London Tanker Brokers' Panel (LTBP) . At first, they divided the groups as General Purpose for tankers under 25,000 tons deadweight (DWT); Medium Range for ships between 25,000 and 45,000 DWT and Long Range for the then-enormous ships that were larger than 45,000 DWT. The ships became larger during the 1970s, which prompted rescaling. The system was developed for tax reasons as

1836-522: The Oppama shipyard by Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd. , named Seawise Giant . This ship was built with a capacity of 564,763  DWT , a length overall of 458.45 metres (1,504.1 ft) and a draft of 24.611 metres (80.74 ft). She had 46 tanks, 31,541 square metres (339,500 sq ft) of deck, and at her full load draft, could not navigate the English Channel . Seawise Giant

1938-664: The Protection of Wrecks Act was made on 5 February 1993. This part of the act is used to designate wrecks categorised as dangerous. It was only the second time that section 2 of the Act was used to designate a wreck site, and the designation was imposed because of the presence of the oil. The designation was revoked on 7 October 1994 following dispersal of the oil. The wreck of the Braer remained in an exposed position and finally broke apart and sank on 11 January. The upturned bow remained visible for seven years before sinking. The site of

2040-772: The RSPB (5 NNRs), the Scottish Wildlife Trust (1 NNR), South Lanarkshire Council (1 NNR), and the Woodland Trust (1 NNR). All NNRs in Scotland are also designated as Sites of Special Scientific Interest. Many also form part of the Natura 2000 network, which covers Special Protection Areas and Special Areas of Conservation . Additionally, some of the NNRs are designated as Ramsar sites . There are 40 national scenic areas (NSAs) in Scotland, covering 13% of

2142-531: The Scottish Government responsible for the country's natural heritage , especially its natural , genetic and scenic diversity. It advises the Scottish Government on nature conservation, and acts as a government agent in the delivery of conservation designations , i.e. national nature reserves , local nature reserves , national parks , Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), Special Areas of Conservation , Special Protection Areas and

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2244-671: The Standard Oil Company along with several of her sister ships . After Glückauf was lost in 1893 after being grounded in fog, Standard Oil purchased the sister ships. The 1880s also saw the beginnings of the Asian oil trade. The idea that led to moving Russian oil to the Far East via the Suez Canal was the brainchild of two men: importer Marcus Samuel and shipowner/broker Fred Lane. Prior bids to move oil through

2346-537: The V-Plus size designation. With the exception of the pipeline, the tanker is the most cost-effective way to move oil today. Worldwide, tankers carry some 2 billion barrels (3.2 × 10  L) annually, and the cost of transportation by tanker amounts to only US$ 0.02 per gallon at the pump. In 1954, Shell Oil developed the "average freight rate assessment" (AFRA) system which classifies tankers of different sizes. To make it an independent instrument, Shell consulted

2448-548: The local authorities through which a route passes. NatureScot is governed by its board . As of August 2022, the board is made up of twelve members and is chaired by Prof Colin Galbraith. Board members are appointed by Scottish Government ministers for an initial term of four years and normally serve a maximum of two terms. The primary roles of the board are to determine the objectives, strategies and policies of NatureScot in respect to its statutory obligations and guidance from

2550-596: The national scenic areas . It receives annual funding from the Government in the form of Grant in Aid to deliver Government priorities for the natural heritage. NatureScot is the Scottish Government's adviser on all aspects of nature, wildlife management and landscape across Scotland, and also helps the Scottish Government meet its responsibilities under European environmental laws, particularly in relation to

2652-684: The national scenic areas . The conservation designations overlap considerably with many protected areas covered by multiple designations. In total around 20% of the area of Scotland is covered by some form of protected area designation, with SSSIs alone covering 13%. National nature reserves (NNRs) are areas of land or water designated under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 to contain habitats and species of national importance. NNRs can be owned by public, private, community or voluntary organisations but must be managed to conserve their important habitats and species, as well as providing opportunities for

2754-550: The Dale of Walls (west Mainland) were checked during the course of the spill, which prompted the setting up of a forward "command post" at Holmsgarth, Lerwick from where surveys of the "northern" coasts were co-ordinated. By 26 January focus had shifted from wildlife rescue to human health, economic and ecological issues, and the Secretary of State for Scotland announced the establishment of an Ecological Steering Group to co-ordinate

2856-621: The Ecological Adviser to the Scottish Office; and Bobby Tulloch MBE, a Shetland naturalist and author. The total number of dead birds recovered from beaches during January was 1,538. Of these, 805 (52%) were found between Sumburgh Head and Garths Ness . Only 60 corpses (3.8%) were collected from beaches along the east coast, with the remainder scattered fairly evenly along the west coast between Spiggie and Sandsound, with smaller numbers further north and west to Dale. During

2958-476: The Greek Captain Alexandros S. Gkelis to abandon ship. However, because of strong northwest local currents, Braer moved against the prevailing wind and missed Horse Island, drifting towards Quendale Bay . With the arrival on scene of the anchor handling vessel Star Sirius , it was decided to attempt to establish a tow. There was a breakdown in communication between the local police and

3060-530: The Greek Hellespont Steamship Corporation. Hellespont sold these ships to Overseas Shipholding Group and Euronav in 2004. Each of the sister ships has a capacity of over 441,500  DWT , a length overall of 380.0 metres (1,246.7 ft) and a cargo capacity of 3,166,353 barrels (503,409,900 L). They were the first ULCCs to be double-hulled. To differentiate them from smaller ULCCs, these ships are sometimes given

3162-576: The Marine Board of the National Academy of Sciences conducted a survey of industry experts regarding the pros and cons of double-hull design. Some of the advantages of the double-hull design that were mentioned include ease of ballasting in emergency situations, reduced practice of saltwater ballasting in cargo tanks decreases corrosion, increased environmental protection, cargo discharge is quicker, more complete and easier, tank washing

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3264-663: The Natural Heritage (Scotland) Act 1991 are to: For the purposes of the Act, Scotland's natural heritage is defined as the flora and fauna of Scotland, its geological and physiographical features and its natural beauty and amenity. Specific responsibilities of NatureScot include: NatureScot has responsibility for the delivery of conservation designations in Scotland, i.e. national nature reserves , local nature reserves , long distance routes , national parks , Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), Special Areas of Conservation , Special Protection Areas and

3366-628: The Protected Areas Committee, and the Audit and Risk Committee. NatureScot programmes and priorities have a strong focus on helping to deliver the Scottish Government's National Outcomes and Targets which comprise the National Performance Framework. NatureScot is also a member of SEARS (Scotland's Environmental and Rural Services) . The agency was formed as Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) in 1992 from

3468-696: The Scottish Government. Meetings of the NatureScot Board are open to the public to attend as observers. Day-to-day operations are led by the Senior Leadership Team, consisting of a chief executive, who is appointed by the board, and a number of directors and deputy directors. As of August 2022 the Senior Leadership Team comprised: Supporting the Board are three committee, the Scientific Advisory Committee,

3570-755: The Suez Canal contributed, as did nationalization of Middle East oil refineries . Fierce competition among shipowners also played a part. But apart from these considerations is a simple economic advantage: the larger an oil tanker is, the more cheaply it can move crude oil, and the better it can help meet growing demands for oil. In 1955 the world's largest supertanker was 30,708  GRT and 47,500 LT  DWT : SS Spyros Niarchos launched that year by Vickers Armstrongs Shipbuilders Ltd in England for Greek shipping magnate Stavros Niarchos . In 1958 United States shipping magnate Daniel K. Ludwig broke

3672-448: The United Kingdom consumed about 1.6 million barrels (250,000 m ) of oil per day in 2009. ULCCs commissioned in the 1970s were the largest vessels ever built, but have all now been scrapped. A few newer ULCCs remain in service, none of which are more than 400 meters long. Because of their size, supertankers often cannot enter port fully loaded. These ships can take on their cargo at offshore platforms and single-point moorings . On

3774-519: The United States and the United Kingdom only had 59 and 27 registered oil tankers, respectively. In 2005, the average age of oil tankers worldwide was 10 years. Of these, 31.6% were under 4 years old and 14.3% were over 20 years old. In 2005, 475 new oil tankers were built, accounting for 30.7 million  DWT . The average size for these new tankers was 64,632  DWT . Nineteen of these were VLCC size, 19 were Suezmax, 51 were Aframax, and

3876-581: The amalgamation of the Nature Conservancy Council for Scotland and the Countryside Commission for Scotland to "secure the conservation and enhancement of, and to foster understanding and facilitate the enjoyment of the natural heritage of Scotland". In March 2003, Scottish Ministers announced their decision to transfer SNH's headquarters from Edinburgh to Inverness , with around 270 jobs to be transferred. Prior to

3978-623: The appalling weather conditions during much of January. From outside Shetland came several "walk-in" helpers, a team of five from the Scottish Wildlife Trust and two from British Gas , while some staff members from organisations such as the RSPB came north and helped out both on beaches and in key duties at the WRC. Volunteers were organised into teams of at least two and collected all dead and any live birds and animals from accessible beaches. Where possible, beaches were checked at least twice per day. During

4080-485: The availability of local tugs. At the Coast Guard's suggestion, the master agreed that non-essential personnel should be removed from the vessel—14 of the 34 crew were taken off by the coastguard helicopter from Sumburgh at 08:25. At 08:50 it was feared that the ship would run aground near Horse Island , and the experience of Aegean Sea which burst into flames shortly after grounding led the coastguard to persuade

4182-452: The average cost of transport of crude oil by tanker amounts to only US$ 5 to $ 8 per cubic metre ($ 0.02 to $ 0.03 per US gallon). Some specialized types of oil tankers have evolved. One of these is the naval replenishment oiler , a tanker which can fuel a moving vessel . Combination ore-bulk-oil carriers and permanently moored floating storage units are two other variations on the standard oil tanker design. Oil tankers have been involved in

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4284-507: The biosecurity activities delivered on the non-linked islands of the archipelago". The project, which is run by a partnership including NatureScot, RSPB Scotland and Orkney Islands Council , uses "humane DOC150 and DOC200 traps". A report issued in October 2020 stated that over 5,000 traps had been deployed. Specifics were provided as to the locations. Not all was going well as of 15 January 2021, according to The Times which stated that

4386-534: The canal had been rejected by the Suez Canal Company as being too risky. Samuel approached the problem a different way: asking the company for the specifications of a tanker it would allow through the canal. Armed with the canal company's specifications, Samuel ordered three tankers from William Gray & Company in northern England. Named Murex , Conch and Clam , each had a capacity of 5,010 long tons of deadweight. These three ships were

4488-487: The cargo tanks, and sometimes between individual tanks. A pumproom houses all the pumps connected to a tanker's cargo lines. Some larger tankers have two pumprooms. A pumproom generally spans the total breadth of the ship. A major component of tanker architecture is the design of the hull or outer structure. A tanker with a single outer shell between the product and the ocean is said to be "single-hulled". Most newer tankers are " double hulled ", with an extra space between

4590-489: The charterer. Time charter arrangements specify a daily rate, and port costs and voyage expenses are also generally paid by the charterer. The Worldwide Tanker Normal Freight Scale, often referred to as Worldscale, is established and governed jointly by the Worldscale Associations of London and New York. Worldscale establishes a baseline price for carrying a metric ton of product between any two ports in

4692-424: The coastguards which caused a 90-minute delay at this point. However the master and some personnel were then taken out by helicopter and were put back on board the vessel. Efforts to attach a heaving line were unsuccessful, and at 11:19 the vessel was confirmed as being grounded at Garths Ness, with oil being seen to flow out into the sea from the moment of impact. At this time, the would-be rescue team were rescued by

4794-519: The company had 34 steam-driven oil tankers, compared to Standard Oil's four case-oil steamers and 16 sailing tankers. Until 1956, tankers were designed to be able to navigate the Suez Canal. This size restriction became much less of a priority after the closing of the canal during the Suez Crisis of 1956. Forced to move oil around the Cape of Good Hope , shipowners realized that bigger tankers were

4896-416: The crew and maintaining the vessel. Finally, in a contract of affreightment or COA, the charterer specifies a total volume of cargo to be carried in a specific time period and in specific sizes, for example a COA could be specified as 1 million barrels (160,000 m ) of JP-5 in a year's time in 25,000-barrel (4,000 m ) shipments. One of the key aspects of any charter party is the freight rate , or

4998-499: The demand for new ships started to grow, resulting in 2007 in a record breaking order backlog for shipyards, exceeding their capacity with rising newbuilding prices as a result. This resulted in a glut of ships when demand dropped due to a weakened global economy and dramatically reduced demand in the United States. The charter rate for very large crude carriers, which carry two million barrels of oil, had peaked at $ 309,601 per day in 2007 but had dropped to $ 7,085 per day by 2012, far below

5100-691: The design including achieving an 'Excellent' rating under the BREEAM system. The final design met all criteria and achieved the highest ever BREEAM rating for a public building in the UK. On 1 August 2010, the functions of the Deer Commission for Scotland were transferred to SNH by section 1 of the Public Services (Reform) (Scotland) Act 2010 and the Commission was dissolved. In 2020 SNH

5202-713: The environmental assessment. This was chaired by Professor William Ritchie of Aberdeen University, and its membership included Dr John Davies of the Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen; Martin Hall the Director of Environmental Services of Shetland Islands Council; Dr Paul Kingston of Heriot-Watt University; Dr Patricia Monaghan, a zoologist from Glasgow University; Professor Michael Usher, the Chief Scientific Adviser to Scottish Natural Heritage; Dr John Miles,

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5304-509: The first few days of the spill, efforts were concentrated in the south-west Mainland, from Sandwick round to Maywick ; but the northward spread of the oil up the west side meant that, by 12 January, surveys had been extended to cover the longer stretches of accessible coastline in the Burra, Scalloway, Whiteness and Weisdale areas, and westwards as far as Culswick. In total, all the accessible beaches from Leebitten (east Mainland) round Sumburgh to

5406-469: The first oil-tank steamer, Vaderland (Fatherland), which was built by Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company for Belgian owners. The vessel's use was curtailed by US and Belgian authorities citing safety concerns. By 1871, the Pennsylvania oil fields were making limited use of oil tank barges and cylindrical railroad tank-cars similar to those in use today. The modern oil tanker was developed in

5508-572: The first tankers of the Tank Syndicate, forerunner of today's Royal Dutch Shell company. With facilities prepared in Jakarta , Singapore , Bangkok , Saigon , Hong Kong , Shanghai , and Kobe , the fledgling Shell company was ready to become Standard Oil's first challenger in the Asian market. On August 24, 1892, Murex became the first tanker to pass through the Suez Canal . By the time Shell merged with Royal Dutch Petroleum in 1907,

5610-462: The first week of the spill (6–12 January), very few dead birds were found away from the area between Scatness and St. Ollie's Isle , and even in this area the majority were collected from the West Voe of Sumburgh, Scatness and Quendale. In the second week (13–19 January), fewer corpses were collected close to Braer , and there was a corresponding increase in the number collected from further north on

5712-412: The greater number of surfaces to maintain, the risk of explosions in double-hull spaces if a vapor detection system not fitted, and that cleaning ballast tanks is more difficult for double hull ships. NatureScot NatureScot ( Scottish Gaelic : NàdarAlba ) is the operating name for the body formally called Scottish Natural Heritage . It is an executive non-departmental public body of

5814-459: The helicopter. The Gulfaks crude Braer was carrying was not a typical North Sea oil . Gulfaks crude is lighter, more easily dispersible and more biodegradable than other North Sea crude oils, and this, in combination with some of the worst storms seen in Shetland (naturally dispersing the oil by wave action and evaporation), prevented the event from having greater impacts on the shore. However,

5916-469: The higher percentage of volatile compounds may relate to the high rate of respiratory distress noted in seals in the area. The following is a brief account of the spread and eventual dispersion of the oil. Initially the local authorities informed the UK Maritime and Coastguard Agency Marine Pollution Control Unit, the Director of Marine Emergencies Operation and various UK Ministries. In order to lead

6018-547: The hull and the storage tanks. Hybrid designs such as "double-bottom" and "double-sided" combine aspects of single and double-hull designs. All single-hulled tankers around the world will be phased out by 2026, in accordance with the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 (MARPOL). The United Nations has decided to phase out single hull oil tankers by 2010. In 1998,

6120-534: The key to more efficient transport. While a typical T2 tanker of the World War II era was 162 metres (532 ft) long and had a capacity of 16,500  DWT , the ultra-large crude carriers (ULCC) built in the 1970s were over 400 metres (1,300 ft) long and had a capacity of 500,000  DWT . Several factors encouraged this growth. Hostilities in the Middle East which interrupted traffic through

6222-486: The land area of Scotland. The 40 NSAs were originally identified in 1978 by the Countryside Commission for Scotland in 1978 as areas of "national scenic significance... of unsurpassed attractiveness which must be conserved as part of our national heritage". Vulnerable plant and animal species in Scotland are protected under various legislation. In many cases it is an offence to kill or capture members of

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6324-503: The larger gulls , and an unknown but almost certainly significant proportion will have been swept out to sea. The Steering Group published an interim report in May 1993 and a final report in 1994, which contains details of the monitoring strategy and methods. It found that: The Steering Group concluded that although there were local and limited adverse effects the overall impact of the spill had been minimal. A designation under section 2 of

6426-403: The move, relocation costs were variously estimated at between £22 million and £40 million. The decision to transfer SNH's headquarters was heavily criticized by MSPs , unions, Edinburgh civic leaders and staff. Criticism focused on the cost of the move, the disruption to staff and the risk of compromising the effectiveness of SNH's work. Up to 75% of headquarters staff were reported to be against

6528-503: The move. Relocation took place between 2003 and 2006, many staff left at this point as they did not wish to, or were unable to transfer location. In 2006, SNH headquarters staff moved into Great Glen House, a £15 million purpose-built headquarters building in Inverness. Great Glen House was built by Robertson Property, working with Keppie Design. As part of the tendering process, SNH set seven environmental and sustainability criteria for

6630-422: The oil started on day two. Solo , a Greenpeace ship also arrived in Shetland on day two with facilities to help mammals and birds affected by the oil spill. 23,000 sheep were removed from the area. Fuelled by intense media coverage over the new year holiday when news is in short supply, initial response also focused on wildlife rescue. The various local organisations that are involved in the wildlife aspects of

6732-438: The operating costs of these ships. As a result, several tanker operators laid up their ships. Prices rose significantly in 2015 and early 2016, but delivery of new tankers was projected to keep prices in check. Owners of large oil tanker fleets include Teekay Corporation , A P Moller Maersk , DS Torm , Frontline , MOL Tankship Management , Overseas Shipholding Group , and Euronav . In 2005, oil tankers made up 36.9% of

6834-430: The other end of the journey, they often pump their cargo off to smaller tankers at designated lightering points off-coast. Supertanker routes are typically long, requiring them to stay at sea for extended periods, often around seventy days at a time. The act of hiring a ship to carry cargo is called chartering. (The contract itself is known as a charter party . ) Tankers are hired by four types of charter agreements:

6936-425: The past, ships of the smaller Aframax and Suezmax classes are no longer regarded as supertankers. "Supertankers" are the largest oil tankers, and the largest mobile man-made structures. They include very large and ultra-large crude carriers (VLCCs and ULCCs – see above) with capacities over 250,000 DWT. These ships can transport 2,000,000 barrels (320,000 m ) of oil/318,000 metric tons. By way of comparison,

7038-503: The period from 1877 to 1885. In 1876, Ludvig and Robert Nobel , brothers of Alfred Nobel , founded Branobel (short for Brothers Nobel) in Baku , Azerbaijan . It was, during the late 19th century, one of the largest oil companies in the world. Ludvig was a pioneer in the development of early oil tankers. He first experimented with carrying oil in bulk on single-hulled barges. Turning his attention to self-propelled tankships, he faced

7140-581: The price specified for carriage of cargo. The freight rate of a tanker charter party is specified in one of four ways: by a lump sum rate, by rate per ton, by a time charter equivalent rate, or by Worldscale rate. In a lump sum rate arrangement, a fixed price is negotiated for the delivery of a specified cargo, and the ship's owner/operator is responsible to pay for all port costs and other voyage expenses. Rate per ton arrangements are used mostly in chemical tanker chartering, and differ from lump sum rates in that port costs and voyage expenses are generally paid by

7242-403: The project "has been hit by alleged sabotage after the destruction and theft of traps that have also killed and injured household pets and other animals" but added that the £6 million programme was supported by most islanders. Another news item stated that some of the traps had "caught and killed family pets as well as hundreds of other animals". A subsequent report confirmed that "Police Scotland

7344-529: The public to enjoy and engage with nature. There are currently 43 NNRs in Scotland, which cover 154,250 hectares (1,542.5 km ). NatureScot is responsible for designating NNRs in Scotland and for overseeing their maintenance and management. The majority of NNRs are directly managed by NatureScot; however, some are managed by, or in co-operation with other bodies, including the National Trust for Scotland (7 NNRs), Forestry and Land Scotland (5 NNRs),

7446-528: The record of 100,000 long tons of heavy displacement. His Universe Apollo displaced 104,500 long tons, a 23% increase from the previous record-holder, Universe Leader which also belonged to Ludwig. The first tanker over 100,000 dwt built in Europe was the British Admiral . The ship was launched at Barrow-in-Furness in 1965 by Elizabeth II . The world's largest supertanker was built in 1979 at

7548-406: The response they set up a Joint Response Centre (made up of local councillors, managers, environmentalists and technicians). There were fears that the oil could set off an explosion and the area around Quendale beach was closed off. Evacuation of residents from housing in the area was considered if pollution levels became too high but not put into action. Aircraft were immediately ordered to monitor

7650-788: The rest consisted of refined petroleum products. This amounted to 34.1% of all seaborne trade for the year. Combining the amount carried with the distance it was carried, oil tankers moved 11,705 billion metric-ton-miles of oil in 2005. By comparison, in 1970 1.44 billion metric tons of oil were shipped by tanker. This amounted to 34.1% of all seaborne trade for that year. In terms of amount carried and distance carried, oil tankers moved 6,487 billion metric-ton-miles of oil in 1970. The United Nations also keeps statistics about oil tanker productivity, stated in terms of metric tons carried per metric ton of deadweight as well as metric-ton-miles of carriage per metric ton of deadweight. In 2005, for each 1  DWT of oil tankers, 6.7 metric tons of cargo

7752-434: The rest were smaller designs. By comparison, 8.0 million  DWT , 8.7 million  DWT , and 20.8 million  DWT worth of oil tanker capacity was built in 1980, 1990, and 2000 respectively. Ships are generally removed from the fleet through a process known as scrapping . Ship-owners and buyers negotiate scrap prices based on factors such as the ship's empty weight (called light ton displacement or LDT) and prices in

7854-500: The river bank where it was then poured into boat holds for transportation to Britain. In the 1860s, Pennsylvania oil fields became a major supplier of oil, and a center of innovation after Edwin Drake had struck oil near Titusville, Pennsylvania . Break-bulk boats and barges were originally used to transport Pennsylvania oil in 40-US-gallon (150 L) wooden barrels. But transport by barrel had several problems. The first problem

7956-488: The scrap metal market. In 1998, almost 700 ships went through the scrapping process at shipbreakers in places such as Gadani , Alang and Chittagong . In 2004 and 2005, 7.8 million  DWT and 5.7 million  DWT respectively of oil tankers were scrapped. Between 2000 and 2005, the capacity of oil tankers scrapped each year has ranged between 5.6 million  DWT and 18.4 million  DWT . In this same timeframe, tankers have accounted for between 56.5% and 90.5% of

8058-626: The spread of the oil and to spray chemical dispersants on the oil. Alternative methods of dispersing the oil were considered (mechanical methods or burning) but were rejected because they were thought to be ineffective in the bad weather or dangerous. Authorisation to use dispersant sprays was obtained from the Marine Emergencies Operation, Scottish Natural Heritage and the Scottish Office Agriculture and Fisheries Department. Spraying of dispersants on

8160-572: The supply and demand of oil as well as the supply and demand of oil tankers. Some particular variables include winter temperatures, excess tanker tonnage, supply fluctuations in the Persian Gulf , and interruptions in refinery services. In 2006, time-charters tended towards long term. Of the time charters executed in that year, 58% were for a period of 24 or more months, 14% were for periods of 12 to 24 months, 4% were from 6 to 12 months, and 24% were for periods of less than 6 months. From 2003,

8262-457: The surf. When tides did drop, many beaches had been completely rearranged, or buried in tonnes of kelp by the heavy seas. At Scatness , dead shags had been driven deep into cracks and crevices in the rocks or buried beneath the kelp , and sometimes just parts of a bird were found. In addition, the many small boulder beaches along the south-west coast were too inaccessible to be checked at all, several corpses were likely to have been scavenged by

8364-713: The system is still used today. Besides that, there is the flexible market scale, which takes typical routes and lots of 500,000 barrels (79,000 m ). Merchant oil tankers carry a wide range of hydrocarbon liquids ranging from crude oil to refined petroleum products. Crude carriers are among the largest, ranging from 55,000 DWT Panamax -sized vessels to ultra-large crude carriers (ULCCs) of over 440,000 DWT. Smaller tankers, ranging from well under 10,000 DWT to 80,000 DWT Panamax vessels, generally carry refined petroleum products, and are known as product tankers. The smallest tankers, with capacities under 10,000 DWT generally work near-coastal and inland waterways. Although they were in

8466-584: The tax authorities wanted evidence that the internal billing records were correct. Before the New York Mercantile Exchange started trading crude oil futures in 1983, it was difficult to determine the exact price of oil, which could change with every contract. Shell and BP , the first companies to use the system, abandoned the AFRA system in 1983, later followed by the US oil companies. However,

8568-466: The vessel hull instead of being loaded in barrels or drums. It was also the first tanker with a horizontal bulkhead; its features included cargo valves operable from the deck, cargo main piping, a vapor line, cofferdams for added safety, and the ability to fill a ballast tank with seawater when empty of cargo. The ship was built in Britain, and was purchased by Wilhelm Anton Riedemann, an agent for

8670-424: The voyage charter, the time charter, the bareboat charter , and contract of affreightment . In a voyage charter the charterer rents the vessel from the loading port to the discharge port. In a time charter the vessel is hired for a set period of time, to perform voyages as the charterer directs. In a bareboat charter the charterer acts as the ship's operator and manager, taking on responsibilities such as providing

8772-624: The west coast. This trend continued into the third week (20–26 January), but, by the fourth week (27–31 January), very few birds were found anywhere and there was no obvious tendency for more to be found in one area than another. In any oil spill, it is difficult to estimate the proportion of the actual mortality found on beach surveys, and several factors made that even harder in the case of Braer . The almost constant storms made it difficult to search shorelines as thoroughly as could have been done in calmer weather, and also made it much more difficult to catch live birds, some of which were driven inland by

8874-444: The width, or beam, of the ship. These holds were further subdivided into port and starboard sections by a longitudinal bulkhead. Earlier designs suffered from stability problems caused by the free surface effect , where oil sloshing from side to side could cause a ship to capsize. But this approach of dividing the ship's storage space into smaller tanks virtually eliminated free-surface problems. This approach, almost universal today,

8976-509: The wind. The weather also prevented systematic searches of the islands in Quendale Bay and further north, where birds were likely to have come ashore and died, while the exceptionally high tides at the time also compounded the problem, especially if they occurred in the middle of the day. For several days, beaches were completely under water for the 6–7 hours of daylight available for surveys, with unreachable corpses moving back and forth in

9078-401: The world's fleet in terms of deadweight tonnage. The world's total oil tankers deadweight tonnage has increased from 326.1 million  DWT in 1970 to 960.0 million  DWT in 2005. The combined deadweight tonnage of oil tankers and bulk carriers, represents 72.9% of the world's fleet. In 2005, 2.42 billion metric tons of oil were shipped by tanker. 76.7% of this was crude oil, and

9180-610: The world's total scrapped ship tonnage. In this period the average age of scrapped oil tankers has ranged from 26.9 to 31.5 years. In 2005, the price for new oil tankers in the 32,000–45,000  DWT , 80,000–105,000  DWT , and 250,000–280,000  DWT ranges were $ 43 million, $ 58 million, and $ 120 million respectively. In 1985 these vessels would have cost $ 18 million, $ 22 million, and $ 47 million respectively. Oil tankers are often sold second hand. In 2005, 27.3 million  DWT worth of oil tankers were sold used. Some representative prices for that year include $ 42.5 million for

9282-490: The world. In Worldscale negotiations, operators and charterers will determine a price based on a percentage of the Worldscale rate. The baseline rate is expressed as WS 100. If a given charter party settled on 85% of the Worldscale rate, it would be expressed as WS 85. Similarly, a charter party set at 125% of the Worldscale rate would be expressed as WS 125. The market is affected by a wide variety of variables such as

9384-693: The wreck of Braer , personifying the sea as the protector of the Shetland Islands . 59°53′00″N 1°21′00″W  /  59.88333°N 1.35000°W  / 59.88333; -1.35000 Oil tanker Oil tankers are often classified by their size as well as their occupation. The size classes range from inland or coastal tankers of a few thousand metric tons of deadweight (DWT) to ultra-large crude carriers (ULCCs) of 550,000  DWT . Tankers move approximately 2.0  billion metric tons (2.2 billion short tons ) of oil every year. Second only to pipelines in terms of efficiency,

9486-731: Was carried. Similarly, each 1  DWT of oil tankers was responsible for 32,400 metric-ton miles of carriage. The main loading ports in 2005 were located in Western Asia, Western Africa, North Africa, and the Caribbean, with 196.3, 196.3, 130.2 and 246.6 million metric tons of cargo loaded in these regions. The main discharge ports were located in North America, Europe, and Japan with 537.7, 438.4, and 215.0 million metric tons of cargo discharged in these regions. International law requires that every merchant ship be registered in

9588-441: Was first used by Swan in the Nobel tankers Blesk , Lumen , and Lux . Others point to Glückauf , another design of Colonel Swan, as being the first modern oil tanker. It adopted the best practices from previous oil tanker designs to create the prototype for all subsequent vessels of the type. It was the first dedicated steam-driven ocean-going tanker in the world and was the first ship in which oil could be pumped directly into

9690-601: Was formally codified by the Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003 . It also hosts the National Access Forum, which brings together all bodies with an interest in land access issues. NatureScot also support the management of the three regional parks . It acts as the "custodian" of Scotland's Great Trails , maintaining the official list and providing some finance and publicity to the trails, although responsibility for creating and maintaining each route lies with

9792-524: Was forward of the midships engine room and the other was aft. The ship also featured a set of 21 vertical watertight compartments for extra buoyancy . The ship had a length overall of 56 metres (184 ft), a beam of 8.2 metres (27 ft), and a draft of 2.7 metres (9 ft). Unlike later Nobel tankers, the Zoroaster design was built small enough to sail from Sweden to the Caspian by way of

9894-431: Was in no immediate danger. Her estimated position then was 10 nautical miles (19 km) south of Sumburgh Head , although the initial position given to the coastguards was off by 5 nautical miles (9 km), and she was drifting in predominantly southwesterly winds of 24 to 33 metre per second ( Beaufort scale 10–11). The coastguard alerted rescue helicopters from Sumburgh and RAF Lossiemouth , and made enquiries about

9996-631: Was originally owned by Tucana Shipping Company of Singapore before being purchased by the Hancock Shipping Company registered in Monrovia when she was renamed Brae Trader. She was named Braer when she was acquired by the Braer Corporation in 1990. During the enquiry after the ship's loss, it was stated that the ship lost power due to seawater contamination of the ship's heavy fuel oil on 3 January. This occurred after

10098-496: Was re-branded as NatureScot. In support of its statutory duties, NatureScot undertakes many individual projects across Scotland, often in collaboration with land managers, charities and local communities. The introduction of alien stoats since 2010 has created serious problems for native species in Orkney : The introduction of a ground predator like the stoat to islands such as Orkney, where there are no native ground predators,

10200-496: Was renamed Happy Giant in 1989, Jahre Viking in 1991, and Knock Nevis in 2004 (when she was converted into a permanently moored storage tanker). In 2009 she was sold for the last time, renamed Mont , and scrapped . As of 2011, the world's two largest working supertankers are the TI-class supertankers TI Europe and TI Oceania . These ships were built in 2002 and 2003 as Hellespont Alhambra and Hellespont Tara for

10302-674: Was the world's largest flag state for oil tankers, with 528 of the vessels in its registry. Six other flag states had more than 200 registered oil tankers: Liberia (464), Singapore (355), China (252), Russia (250), the Marshall Islands (234) and the Bahamas (209). The Panamanian, Liberian, Marshallese and Bahamian flags are open registries and considered by the International Transport Workers' Federation to be flags of convenience . By comparison,

10404-545: Was weight: they weighed 29 kilograms (64 lb), representing 20% of the total weight of a full barrel. Other problems with barrels were their expense, their tendency to leak, and the fact that they were generally used only once. The expense was significant: for example, in the early years of the Russian oil industry, barrels accounted for half the cost of petroleum production. In 1863, two sail-driven tankers were built on England's River Tyne . These were followed in 1873 by

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