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124-509: The Nyasaland Volunteer Reserve (NVR) was a British Colonial Auxiliary Forces unit raised in the British protectorate of Nyasaland (modern-day Malawi ). The British Central Africa Volunteer Reserve was formally established by the colonial government in 1901 and was renamed when the protectorate became Nyasaland in 1907. In the initial years the unit was little more than a rifle shooting club with no uniform and no military training. The NVR

248-695: A Native Tobacco Board in 1926 stimulated the production of fire-cured tobacco. By 1935, 70% of the national tobacco crop was grown in the Central Province where the Board had around 30,000 registered growers. At first, these farmed Crown land, but later estates contracted sharecropping "Visiting Tenants". The number of growers fluctuated until the Second World War then expanded, so by 1950 there were over 104,500 growers planting 132,000 acres and growing 10,000 tons of tobacco. 15,000 were growers in

372-529: A paper tiger . The Yeomanry was maintained as a back-up to the constabulary in maintaining law and order. In the 1850s, the Crimean War highlighted the problems of British military organisation, leading to the abolishment of the Board of Ordnance, with its military corps and various previously civilian transportation, stores, and other departments absorbed by the British Army. The Indian Mutiny led to

496-705: A British ("Home" or "Colonial") military unit or corps was considered part of the British Army was ultimately decided by whether it received Army funds from the War Office. Within and without the British Isles, the British military, (referring to land, rather than naval,components of the British armed forces ) by the end of the Napoleonic Wars (by which time the Kingdom of Ireland had been absorbed into

620-578: A debate developed about the respective needs of European and African communities for land. The protectorate administration suggested that, although the African population might double in 30 years, it would still be possible to form new estates outside the Shire Highlands. Throughout the whole protectorate, the vast majority of its people were rural rather than urban dwellers and over 90% of the rural African population lived on Crown Lands (including

744-401: A longer period of labour to pay the "rent." In 1911 it was estimated that about 9% of the protectorate's Africans lived on estates: in 1945, it was about 10%. These estates comprised 5% of the country by area, but about 15% of the total cultivable land. Estates appeared to have rather low populations relative to the quality of their land. Three major estate companies retained landholdings in

868-616: A minority of nominated "non-official" members was added. Until 1961, the Governor had power to veto any ordinance passed by the Legislative Council. The Executive Council was a smaller body advising on policy. It was formed solely of officials until 1949, when two nominated white "non-official" members were added to eight officials. The composition of the Legislative Council gradually became more representative. In 1930, its six "non-official" members were no longer nominated by

992-567: A particularly active role in recriminatory attacks, being described as acting like a posse on the American frontier , though around 100 KAR soldiers were also involved in such activities. There was widespread burning of African-owned houses. An NVR member named Casson was noted for his attempts to stop the recriminatory attacks. A detachment of the NVR captured Chilembwe's mission at Mbombwe on 26 January 1915 and blew up Chilembwe's church. Chilembwe

1116-488: A rapid rate is contradicted by recent research. This showed that the majority of soils in Malawi were adequate for smallholders to produce maize. Most have sufficient (if barely so) organic material and nutrients, although their low nitrogen and phosphorus favours the use of chemical fertilisers and manure. Although in the early years of the 20th century European estates produced the bulk of exportable cash crops directly, by

1240-423: A regular officer appointed as adjutant. The Volunteer Ordinance was amended in 1914 and the racial origin requirement removed. Attempts were made to provide training to NVR members in modern military weapons, reconnaissance and communications. A Khaki uniform was also introduced. Upon the outbreak of war the unit grew rapidly from 143 men to around 200. Members of the unit participated in the 13 August 1914 attack on

1364-574: A short distance to the south of the port a force of the KAR and NVR launched a bayonet charge on the German fort. The German garrison fled and the Hermann von Wissmann and her slipway were destroyed by dynamite. The British force afterwards boarded their vessels under machine-gun fire and withdrew. One NVR volunteer was wounded in this engagement. A detachment of troops from South Africa was sent to support

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1488-555: A state of emergency, and military forces were brought in from the Rhodesias and Tanganyika . Police manpower was rapidly expanded to about 3,000 through recruiting and training. After the Malawi Congress Party took power in 1962, it inherited a colonial police force of 3,000, including British senior officers. European acquisition and ownership of large areas of land presented a major social and political problem for

1612-411: A supplement of £1 per year and those who scored 25 points from 10 shots fired from a kneeling position at a 200-yard (180 m) target received a supplement of 10 shillings. There was no requirement for training in any formal military drill or to attend parades and no uniform was issued. The new ordinance stipulated that each volunteer had to be of European origin, at least 16 years old and resident in

1736-446: A total area of some 1.3 million acres in the Shire Highlands. But two large belts, one from Zomba town to Blantyre-Limbe the second from Limbe to Thyolo town, were almost entirely estates. In these two significant areas, Trust land for Africans was rare and consequently overcrowded. In the early years of the protectorate, little of the land on estates was planted. Settlers wanted labour and encouraged existing African residents to stay on

1860-680: A war-related cause in March 1919 and is buried in Zomba. The African inhabitants of Nyasaland could serve with the Carrier Corps and during the war around 4,400 were killed or died of disease on service. Nyasaland Volunteer Reserve became known as the Nyasaland Defence Force in official orders from 1920 but little is known of its post-war activities. On 31 December 1921 the unit strength stood at 270, of whom 31 were Indian and

1984-470: A younger and more militant generation revived the NAC. They invited Hastings Banda to return to the country and lead it to independence as Malawi in 1964. The 1911 census was the first after the protectorate was renamed as Nyasaland. The population according to this census was: Africans, classed as "natives": 969,183, Europeans 766, Asians 481. In March 1920, Europeans numbered 1,015 and Asians 515. In 1919,

2108-546: The 11 November general armistice . The Commonwealth War Graves Commission recorded that sixteen NVR members died on active service during the war, fifteen volunteers/privates and one second lieutenant. Thirteen of the men are buried in Nyasaland (three at Zomba, six at Karonga and four at Fort Johnston) and three are buried in Tanganyika (two at Iringa and one at Dar es Salaam ). One further NVR volunteer died from

2232-632: The Bermuda Volunteer Engineers with the Royal Engineers in the official Army Lists, which also listed the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps and Bermuda Militia Infantry officers as part of the British Army, whereas most colonial units were listed separately or did not appear at all), whereas others that did not receive Army Funds were considered auxiliaries (British military units, but not part of

2356-659: The Board of Ordnance , and the British Army (mostly composed of cavalry and infantry regiments), administered and funded under the War Office. Most were Home corps and units (i.e., those depoted and recruited in the British Isles, wherever they might be deployed) though some were raised in colonies. The regular forces also included at various times, usually in particular locations, invalid , fencible , and other units, utilised primarily for garrison or defensive duties. Some regular forces raised in colonies, such as those grouped in

2480-632: The British Empire were militia formations in England's American colonies (specifically, in the Colony of Virginia , settled in 1607, and Bermuda, which was settled by shipwreck of the Sea Venture in 1609, becoming an extension of Virginia in 1612) a century before the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland unified to create the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 (at which point

2604-555: The British South Africa Company for its mineral potential; it was never turned into plantations . But much of the remaining land, some 867,000 acres, or over 350,000 hectares of estates, included a large proportion of the best arable lands in the Shire Highlands , which was the most densely populated part of the country and where Africans had relied on subsistence farming. The first Commissioner of

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2728-484: The First World War show the uniform to consist of a long-sleeved khaki shirt, khakit shorts, a solar topee , blue puttees and black boots. A leather belt and ammunition bandolier were also worn. The shoulder straps were yellow with the letters 'NVR' stencilled on in black (yellow and black being colours associated with the protectorate). A metal 'NVR' badge later replaced the stencilling. In December 1913

2852-806: The Kingdom of Great Britain , forming the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , and the Irish military forces had been absorbed into those of Great Britain), included two regular forces (employed in the garrisoning and defence of the British Isles, other parts of the British Empire, and deploying to foreign countries as required), the Ordnance Military Corps (including the Royal Artillery , Royal Engineers , and Royal Sappers and Miners ), administered and funded under

2976-657: The Malawi Congress Party won 22 of 28 seats. The party was also nominated to seven of the 10 Executive Council seats. The protectorate was divided into districts from 1892, with a Collector of Revenue (later called District Commissioner in charge of each. There were originally around a dozen districts, but the number had increased to some two dozen at independence. The 12 Collectors and 26 assistants in 1907 were responsible for collecting Hut tax and customs duties; they also had judicial responsibilities as magistrates , although few had any legal training. From 1920

3100-538: The Permanent Active Militia of the Province of Canada . These units consisted of professional soldiers . They supplied a reserve force either to be called up in war time to reinforce regular British Army garrisons for home defence, or in some cases were entirely responsible for home defence. Many units, however, took part in active campaigns outside of the role of home defence in various conflicts

3224-1129: The Royal Bermuda Regiment ; the Royal Gibraltar Regiment ; the Falkland Islands Defence Force ; and the Royal Montserrat Defence Force . The British Government is currently (2020) working with the local governments of the Turks and Caicos Islands and the Cayman Islands to raise reserve military units in those territories, also, with recruitment for the new Cayman Islands Regiment starting in January 2020. Nyasaland#Central administration 13°30′S 34°00′E  /  13.500°S 34.000°E  / -13.500; 34.000 Nyasaland ( / n ɪ ˈ æ s ə l æ n d , n aɪ ˈ æ s ə -/ )

3348-745: The Royal West African Frontier Force , were funded only by the Colonial Office or local Governments and therefore not considered part of the British Army. Additional to the Regular military forces, the British Military also included various Reserve Forces. The main ones by the time of the Napoleonic Wars included the Militia (or Constitutional Force , composed of infantry regiments), mounted Yeomanry , and

3472-520: The United Kingdom , became increasingly politically active and vocal about gaining independence. They established associations and, after 1944, the Nyasaland African Congress (NAC). When Nyasaland became part of a federation with Southern and Northern Rhodesia in 1953, there was a rise in civic unrest, as this was deeply unpopular among the people of the territory. The failure of the NAC to prevent this caused its collapse. Soon,

3596-664: The Volunteer Force , although there were various others at different times and places. The Militia system was duplicated in many colonies, many of which would also raise volunteer units. These Reserve Forces were under the control of local authorities (the Lords Lieutenant of counties in the British Isles, and Governors in their separate offices of Commanders-in-Chief of colonies; Normally, neither Lords Lieutenant nor colonial Governors had any authority over regular forces in their territories), and locally funded. After

3720-719: The governor the power to call out the unit. It also established a fifth section in Neno District and two years later the NVR stood at 140 strong. The NVR members competed in shooting competitions against the volunteer reserves of the British East African colonies of Kenya and Uganda . The NVR seems to have had some, perhaps informal, oversight from the King's African Rifles (KAR), the African-manned regular army regiment of British East Africa. In 1911

3844-452: The 1930s, a large proportion of many of these crops (particularly tobacco) was produced by Africans, either as smallholders on Crown land or as tenants on the estates. The first estate crop was coffee, grown commercially in quantity from around 1895, but competition from Brazil which flooded the world markets by 1905 and droughts led to its decline in favour of tobacco and cotton. Both these crops had previously been grown in small quantities, but

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3968-528: The Abrahams Commission divided opinion. Africans were generally in favour of its proposals, as was the governor from 1942 to 1947, Edmund Richards (who had proposed the establishment of a Land Commission) and the incoming governor, Geoffrey Colby . Estate owners and managers were strongly against it, and many European settlers bitterly attacked it. As a result of the Abrahams report, in 1947

4092-437: The African population, probably under-estimated absentees, and under-counted in remote areas. The census of 1945 was better, but still not a true record of the African population. The censuses of 1921, 1931 and 1945 all recorded the numbers of Mozambique immigrants. Those conducted before 1945 may have substantially under-recorded the number of Africans and also the full extent of labour emigration out of Nyasaland. Throughout

4216-616: The Blantyre District who had been served with notices to quit refused to leave since there was no other land for them. Two years later the same difficulty arose in the densely populated Cholo District, two-thirds of whose land constituted private estates. In 1946 the Nyasaland government appointed a commission, the Abrahams Commission (also known the Land Commission) to inquire into land issues following

4340-510: The British Army). Many colonial units started out as auxiliaries and later became regular units and forerunners to the current militaries of those colonies which have become politically independent. While most of the units listed here were army units, colonial marines were raised at various times, as were colonial naval and air force reserve units. Today, only four British Overseas Territories regiments remain (not including cadet corps):

4464-551: The British Empire was involved in, including the two world wars. Some of the reserve colonial units, especially in the strategically important imperial fortress colonies (consisting of Halifax, Gibraltar, Bermuda and Malta), were funded by the War Department out of Army Funds and considered part of the British Army (by example, the Bermuda Militia Artillery was grouped with the Royal Artillery and

4588-498: The Collectors. From 1912, Collectors were able to nominate principal headmen and village headmen as local intermediaries between the protectorate administration and local people, in an early form of Indirect rule . Each Collector could determine what powers to delegate to headmen in his district. Some appointed existing traditional chiefs as Principal headmen, who had significant authority locally. Another version of indirect rule

4712-678: The District Commissioners reported to three Provincial Commissioners for the Northern, Central and Southern provinces. They, in turn, reported to the Chief Secretary in Zomba. The numbers of District Commissioners and their assistants rose slowly to 51 in 1937 and about 120 in 1961. In many parts of the protectorate, there were few strong chiefs. At first the British tried to evade the powers of existing chiefs who were powerful, minimising them in favour of direct rule by

4836-740: The English Empire became the British Empire). By the Victorian era , the colonial auxiliary military forces were generally followed the pattern of the auxiliary military forces of the British Isles. There were also British military units, separate from those of the British Army (such as the West India Regiments and the Canadian Regiment of Fencible Infantry ) that were raised and recruited in colonies, such as

4960-410: The German rear at Karonga which caused them to retreat into Barton's ambush. A short engagement resulted in at least 7 German officers and 51 soldiers killed and 3 officers, 31 rifle-armed askari and 42 spear-armed askari captured. British losses amounted to 2 officers, 3 NVR and 8 KAR askari killed with 3 officers, 4 NVR and 42 askari wounded. One NVR soldier, who had been left to man a supply barge,

5084-420: The German steamship Hermann von Wissmann at Sphinx Hafen , the first naval action of the war. The unit also fought in the 9 September Battle of Karonga , defeating a German force sent into northern Nyasaland. The NVR and the King's African Rifles (KAR) were involved in the suppression of the January 1915 Chilembwe uprising against British rule in Nyasaland. The NVR participated in recriminatory attacks and

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5208-521: The Governors' former powers was transferred to the Federal government. This had sole responsibility for external affairs, defence, immigration, higher education, transport, posts and major aspects of economic policy, and the predominant role in health, industrial development and electricity. The Colonial Office retained ultimate power over African affairs and the African ownership of land. The Federation

5332-460: The KAR memorial at Zomba and appear to be unattached government officers. After the Battle of Karonga the NVR served on the northern frontier of Nyasaland taking part in patrols and skirmishes until December 1914 when the rainy season put a halt to operations and many of the NVR were permitted to return to their peacetime work. During the early stages of the war the position of organising secretary

5456-436: The KAR's inspector-general, Colonel George Thesiger , recommended that the NVR received military training and practice drills, but this was not implemented. However, the NVR was placed on a more military-style footing from 1913 when, on 24 July, former KAR officer Captain C. W. Barton was appointed adjutant and intelligence officer and, on 28 August, the post of organising secretary was abolished. One of Barton's first actions

5580-601: The Land Commission did not consider that the country was inherently overcrowded, it noted that, in congested districts where a large proportion of the working population was employed, particularly on tea estates or near towns, families had only 1 to 2 acres to farm. By 1946, the congested districts were even more crowded. From 1938, the protectorate administration began to purchase small amounts of under-used estate land for resettlement of those evicted. These purchases were insufficient and, in 1942, hundreds of Africans in

5704-482: The NVR had a strength of 143 men. It was considered too small to function as a separate unit on active service and so, in times of war, the plan was to use the unit as a source of officers for new battalions of native troops, with a residual unit of 50 men to serve as local guards. Following the outbreak of the First World War in late July 1914 Charles Thorburn, formerly of the Royal Scots Fusiliers ,

5828-499: The NVR had ten sections stationed at Zomba, Blantyre, Port Herald, Namwera, Mlanje, Chiradzulu, Limbe, Mikalongwe, Fort Lister and Dedza. Greene remained in post as commander of the NVR until at least 1932 but was gone by November 1935 at which point the position was vacant. A P. L. Batcock was appointed paymaster and quartermaster on 1 May 1938. The later history of the unit is not known but it remained in existence until at least 1941. British Colonial Auxiliary Forces Whether

5952-728: The NVR in Northern Nyasaland in August 1915 and was known as the Union Central African Imperial Service Contingent. One member of this unit, Owen Letcher, wrote a book about his experiences. He described the NVR of this period as being formed of railway workers and farmers from Nyasland, Northern Rhodesia, the Belgian Congo and Portuguese African territories, together with a number of Frenchmen and 1-2 Russians. Letcher noted

6076-501: The NVR on 1 August and, on 17 August, this offer was accepted by Thorburn who authorised a new sub-section of the unit at Limbe. Within a week 16 Indian employees of the Shire Highlands Railway Company had enlisted. In September a shooting range was constructed at Limbe by the railway and Imperial Tobacco , this was also used by forces of the KAR. The Limbe section proved popular with British residents of

6200-547: The NVR, KAR, colonial police and civilians carried out patrols, some by motorcycle. One NVR member apparently escaped an attack by his servants when a plot was revealed by his junior pantry servant. The volunteer's cook, house and pantry servants were arrested and shot dead by an NVR firing party. Four rebels caught in Mandala were summarily executed by a detachment of the NVR and other prisoners are known to have been subject to summary executions . The Mikalongwe NVR section took

6324-420: The Nyasaland government set up a Land Planning Committee of civil servants to advise on implementing its proposals and deal with the acquisition of land for resettlement. It recommended the re-acquisition only of land which was either undeveloped or occupied by large numbers of African residents or tenants. Land capable of future development as estates was to be protected against unorganised cultivation. From 1948,

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6448-694: The Protectorate, Sir Harry Johnston, had hoped that the Shire Highlands would become an area for large-scale European settlement. He later considered it was too unhealthy. He acknowledged that it had a large African population who required sufficient land for their own use, although his successors did not share this view. Additional land alienations were much smaller. Around 250,000 acres of former Crown Lands were sold as freehold land or leased, and almost 400,000 acres more, originally in Certificates of Claim, were sold or leased in holdings whose average size

6572-594: The Reserve Forces were generally referred to as the Auxiliary Forces (i.e., auxiliary to, but not part of, the British Army), or as the Local Forces (as they were originally all for home defence). With the threat of invasion by France, the Reserve Forces in the British Isles were also re-organised throughout the latter half of the 19th Century, into the first decade of the 20th Century. The Militia

6696-441: The Second World War, the government increased expenditures on the police and expanded its forces into rural areas. A Police Training School was opened in 1952, police man-power increased to 750 by 1959, and new units were set up (the Special Branch and the Police Mobile Force for riot control). These changes proved insufficient when major disturbances took place in 1959, as support began to grow for independence. The government declared

6820-435: The Shire Highlands rose from 4,500 acres in 1911 to 14,200 acres in 1920, yielding 2,500 ton of tobacco. Before 1920, about 5% of the crop sold was dark-fired tobacco produced by African farmers, and this rose to 14% by 1924. The First World War boosted the production of tobacco, but post-war competition from United States Virginia required a rebate of import duty under Imperial Preference to assist Nyasaland growers. Much of

6944-445: The Shire Highlands. The British Central Africa Company once owned 350,000 acres, but before 1928 it had sold or leased 50,000 acres. It retained two large blocks of land, each around 100,000 acres, in the Shire Highlands. The rest of its properties were in or near to the Shire valley. From the late 1920s, it obtained cash rents from African tenants on crowded and unsupervised estates. A L Bruce Estates Ltd owned 160,000 acres, mostly in

7068-427: The Southern Province. About three-quarters were smallholders on Native Trust Land, the rest estate tenants. Numbers declined later, but there were still 70,000 in 1965, producing 12,000 tons. Although the value of tobacco exports continued to rise, they decreased as a proportion of the total after 1935 because of the increased importance of tea. Egyptian cotton was first grown commercially by African smallholders in

7192-434: The Tropics . In May 1916 British forces, acting in conjunction with Belgian troops from the Congo, crossed into German East Africa as part of the Tabora Offensive . It was decided at this point that the NVR should cease to act as an independent unit and it was broken up with individuals serving as officers in the KAR or as logistics or intelligence officers with other units. The NVR was demobilised on 27 November 1918, after

7316-425: The Zomba section claimed to have been the first to have been established. At first the unit operated as little more than a continuation of the rifle clubs but in 1902 they received government issue Martini–Enfield single-shot breach-loading rifles. The volunteer reserve continued its civilian traditions; it was managed by an "organising secretary" and members in this period paid a subscription, much like they had to

7440-420: The abolishment of the East India Company, with the India Office taking over administration of India. The company's military forces were split, with the white units absorbed into the British Army and the native ones composing the Indian Army . The British Army saw significant change through the latter half of the century, with the British Army Regular Reserve formed in the 1850s, following which, to avoid confusion,

7564-418: The benefit of African communities, and it was not until 1936 that all conversion of Native Trust Land to freehold was prohibited by the 1936 Native Trust Lands Order. The aims of this legislation were to reassure the African people of their rights in land and to relieve them of fears of its alienation without their consent. Reassurance was needed, because in 1920 when Native Trust Land covered 6.6 million acres,

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7688-606: The colonial period and up to the present, the rural population density of Nyasaland/Malawi has been among the highest in sub-Saharan Africa. Although the population increased quite rapidly, doubling between 1901 and 1931, high infant mortality and deaths from tropical diseases restricted the natural increase to no more than 1 to 2 percent a year. The rest of the increase seems to have resulted from immigration from Mozambique . From 1931 to 1945, natural increase doubled, probably through improved medical services, and infant mortality gradually decreased. Although immigration continued throughout

7812-447: The colonial period, although with less millet and more maize. Tobacco and a local variety of cotton were grown widely. Throughout the protectorate, the colonial Department of Agriculture favoured European planter interests. Its negative opinion of African agriculture, which it failed to promote, helped to prevent the creation of a properly functioning peasant economy. It criticised the practice of shifting cultivation in which trees on

7936-756: The colonial period, it was a less significant factor. The 1921 census listed 108,204 "Anguru" ( Lomwe -speaking immigrants from Mozambique). It is likely that a large number of those listed under other tribal names had crossed the border from Mozambique as well. It is also likely that the numbers of immigrants from tribal groups believed to belong to surrounding territories, mainly Mozambique and Northern Rhodesia , had doubled between 1921 and 1931. Most of this large migratory movement took place after 1926. The Anguru population further increased by more than 60 percent between 1931 and 1945. The 1966 census recorded 283,854 foreign-born Africans, of whom about 70 percent were born in Mozambique. This inward immigration of families

8060-483: The community members, but limit its allocation to outsiders. Customary law had little legal status in the early colonial period and little recognition or protection was given to customary land or the communities that used it then. It has been claimed that throughout the colonial period and up to 1982 Malawi had sufficient arable land to meet the basic food needs of its population, if the arable land were distributed equally and used to produce food. As early as 1920, while

8184-417: The conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars and the American War of 1812 , the British Government slashed defence spending, down-sizing the regular forces, including disbanding the fencibles (most of which units had been raised in Scotland due to the lack of Militia there in the 18th Century as a result of fears of rebellion), disbanding the Volunteer Force in the British Isles, and allowing the Militia there to become

8308-481: The de jure population by subtraction of those known to be abroad. +derived from the de facto population by addition of those known to be abroad. Source: Final Report of the 1966 Census of Malawi, Zomba, 1968. The colonial censuses were imprecise: those of 1901 and 1911 estimated the African population based on hut tax records, and adult male tax defaulters (up to 10% of the total) went unrecorded. The censuses of 1921, 1926 and 1931 did not make individual counts of

8432-426: The decline of coffee prompted planters to turn to tobacco in the Shire Highlands and cotton in the Shire Valley. Tea was also first planted commercially in 1905 in the Shire Highlands, with significant development of tobacco and tea growing taking place after the opening of the Shire Highlands Railway in 1908. During the 56 years that the protectorate existed, tobacco, tea and cotton were the main export crops, and tea

8556-501: The early British settlers of the British Central Africa Protectorate to form their own unit in 1900. This grew from a number of private rifle shooting clubs that had formed by 1897. The aim of the members was to form a reserve of trained marksmen for use by the government of the protectorate in times of emergency. The government supported these efforts and, in the Nyasaland Government Gazette, called for an initial meeting of potential members on 17 October 1901. This proved successful and

8680-401: The early colonial period. In January 1915, the Reverend John Chilembwe staged an attempted rebellion to protest against colonial forced labour and discrimination against Africans, among other grievances. Although the rebellion was unsuccessful, colonial authorities responded by reassessing some of their policies. Throughout the 1930s, a growing class of educated African elite, many educated in

8804-436: The end of 1963, Nyasaland was part of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, which was not a fully independent state as it was constitutionally subordinate to the British government. Nyasaland remained a protectorate and its Governors retained responsibilities for local administration, labour and trade unions, African primary and secondary education, African agriculture and forestry, and internal policing. The greater part of

8928-438: The estates. Earlier African residents who had fled to more defensible areas usually avoided returning to settle on estates. New workers (often the so-called "Anguru" migrants from Mozambique) were encouraged to move onto estates and grow their own crops but were required to pay rent. In the early years, this was usually satisfied by two months' labour annually, under the system known as thangata . Later, many owners required

9052-472: The former estimate was probably undercounting the total number of workers in other countries. In 1937, it was estimated that over 90,000 adult males were migrant workers: of these a quarter was thought not to have been in touch with their families for more than five years. By 1945 almost 124,000 adult males and almost 9,500 adult females were known to be absent, excluding those who were not in touch with their families. The great bulk of migrant workers came from

9176-478: The fort with small arms and four obsolete muzzle-loading cannon. Gunfire from this engagement alerted Barton to the presence of the Germans to his rear. He sent the 1st battalion of the KAR cross country to the fort while he led the remainder of the force, which included the NVR, to the coast of Lake Nyasa to cut off the German line of retreat. Both sides were around 350-400 men strong. The KAR battalion fell upon

9300-627: The government proclaimed the establishment of the British Central Africa Volunteer Reserve. It was organised around "sections", the first of which was established at Chiromo on 28 October (this was later known as the Lower Shire and then the Port Herald section). Other sections were formed at Blantyre on 6 November, Fort Johnston on 21 November and Zomba on 30 November; though in later times

9424-462: The governor but were selected by as association representing white planters and businessmen. Until 1949, African interests were represented by one white missionary. That year the governor appointed three Africans and an Asian to join six white "non-official" and 10 official members. From 1955, its six white "non-official" members were elected; five Africans (but no Asians) were nominated. Only in 1961 were all Legislative Council seats filled by election:

9548-483: The land to be cultivated were cut down and burnt and their ashes dug into the soil to fertilise it. The land was used for a few years after another section of land was cleared. Compared with European, North American and Asian soils many sub-Saharan African soils are low in natural fertility, being poor in nutrients, low in organic matter and liable to erosion. The best cultivation technique for such soils involves 10 to 15 years of fallow between 2 or 3 years of cultivation,

9672-458: The lesser status of British protected person . The term 'native' was used in all colonial censuses up to and including 1945. Census data from colonial censuses and the first census after independence in the table below show a population that increased quite rapidly. The de facto populations count those who are resident; the de jure populations include absent migrant workers who gave addresses in Malawi as their permanent home. @derived from

9796-478: The new rules each section had to maintain a minimum of ten men and each new member had to be nominated by two existing volunteers and receive the approval of a central committee. The volunteers were required to attend six marksmanship sessions a year at which each would fire a minimum of 21 rounds. Volunteers who achieved a score of 45 (under National Rifle Association of the United Kingdom rules) received

9920-424: The number of Africans was estimated at 561,600 males and 664,400 females, a total of 1,226,000. Blantyre , the chief town, had some 300 European residents. The number of resident Europeans was always small (only 1,948 in 1945). By 1960 their numbers rose to about 9,500, but they declined afterward following the struggle for independence. The number of ethnic Asian residents, many of whom were traders and merchants ,

10044-645: The oversight of District Commissioners, and they were generally used by the colonial administration to enforce unpopular agricultural rules. They dealt with the vast bulk of civil disputes in the protectorate. From 1902, the British established English law as the official legal code, and set up a High Court on the English model, with a Chief Justice and other judges. Appeals were heard by the East African Appeals Court in Zanzibar . Customary law

10168-540: The period 1907 to 1953, Nyasaland was subject to direct superintendence and control by the Colonial Office and the United Kingdom parliament. Its administration was headed by a Governor, appointed by the British Government and responsible to the Colonial Office. As Nyasaland needed financial support through grants and loans, Governors also reported to HM Treasury on financial matters. From 1953 to

10292-490: The presence of a number of missionaries in the NVR where they were employed in transport and logistics roles and also that of the Nyasaland government hangman who Letcher regarded as particularly adept at motivating the porters. Letcher the African Chewa and Swahili languages , which made them valuable as interpreters to the porters and local population, and that the volunteers wore no badges of rank and each received

10416-410: The present and future needs of the African people were met. This plan was rejected by the Colonial Office. Much of the best land in the Shire Highlands was alienated to Europeans at the end of the 19th century. Of more than 860,000 acres, over (350,000 hectares) of estates in the Shire Highlands, only a quarter was poor-quality land. The other 660,000 acres were in areas of more fertile soils, which had

10540-526: The prevailing annual rent was 6 shillings (30 pence). After 1928, maximum cash rents were fixed at £1 for a plot of 8 acres, although some estates charged less. The "equivalent" rents in kind required delivering crops worth between 30 and 50 shillings instead of £1 cash, to discourage this option. Estate owners could expel up to 10% of their tenants every five years without showing any cause, and could expel male children of residents at age 16, and refuse to allow settlement to husbands of residents' daughters. The aim

10664-644: The programme of land acquisition intensified, assisted by an increased willingness of estate owners who saw no future in merely leasing land and marketing their tenants' crops. In 1948, it was estimated that 1.2 million acres (or 487,000 hectares) of freehold estates remained, with an African population of 200,000. At independence in 1964, only some 422,000 acres (171,000 hectares) of European-owned estates remained, mainly as tea estates or small estates farmed directly by their owners. Although Nyasaland has some mineral resources, particularly coal, these were not exploited in colonial times. Without economic mineral resources,

10788-485: The protectorate's economy had to be based on agriculture, but in 1907 most of its people were subsistence farmers. In the mid-to-late 19th century, cassava , rice, beans and millet were grown in the Shire Valley, maize, cassava, sweet potatoes and sorghum in the Shire Highlands, and cassava, millet and groundnuts along the shores of Lake Nyasa (now Lake Malawi). These crops continued to be staple foods throughout

10912-409: The protectorate, as Africans increasingly challenged this takeover of their land. Between 1892 and 1894, 3,705,255 acres, almost 1.5 million hectares or 15% of the total land area of the Protectorate, was alienated as European-owned estates through the colonial grant of Certificates of Claim . Of this, 2,702,379 million acres, over 1 million hectares, in the north of the protectorate had been acquired by

11036-406: The protectorate. An oath had to be sworn by each man and a £20 bond lodged to receive a rifle from government stocks. Each man received 200 rifles rounds per year for private practice and were required to maintain a minimum of 100 rounds in case of emergency mobilisation. The volunteers could purchase an additional 300 rounds each year at cost-price from the government. The Volunteer Ordinance gave

11160-454: The remainder European. It proved difficult to interest settlers in joining the unit after the war with some blaming the splitting of the unit in 1916 as affecting its reputation. At one point the Nyasaland legislative council discussed abolishing the unit or merging it with the police force. On 19 December 1921 Major A. A. Fen was appointed as staff officer and organising secretary, being replaced by Major H. E. Greene on 24 August 1924. By 1930

11284-426: The reserves). Their access to land for farming was governed by customary law. This varied, but generally entitled a person granted or inheriting the use of land (not its ownership) the exclusive right to farm it for an indefinite period, with the right to pass it to their successors, unless it was forfeited for a crime, neglect or abandonment. There was an expectation that community leaders would allocate communal land to

11408-513: The rifle clubs. The protectorate was renamed as Nyasaland in 1907 and the unit became the Nyasaland Volunteer Reserve (NVR). In 1907-08 the government issued newer Lee–Enfield magazine-fed rifles. In November 1908 the Nyasaland government placed the volunteer reserve on a more formal standing. The rules governing the unit were replaced by a Volunteer Ordinance passed by the protectorate's legislative council . Under

11532-520: The riots and disturbances by tenants on European-owned estates in 1943 and 1945. It had only one member, Sir Sidney Abrahams, who proposed that the Nyasaland government should purchase all unused or under-used freehold land on European-owned estates which would become Crown land , available to African farmers. The Africans on estates were to be offered the choice of remaining on the estate as workers or tenants or of moving to Crown land. These proposals were not implemented in full until 1952. The report of

11656-592: The rural Northern and Central regions: in 1937, out of 91,000 Africans recorded as absent, fewer than 11,000 were from districts in the south, where there were more jobs available. Labour migration continued up to and after independence. It was estimated that in 1963, some 170,000 men were absent and working abroad: 120,000 in Southern Rhodesia, 30,000 in South Africa, and 20,000 in Zambia . Throughout

11780-543: The same pay (10 shillings a day). Upon first arriving the South Africans referred to the NVR volunteers as the "Never Very Reliables" as they thought they were suited only to guarding the lines of communication . Letcher writes that this practice soon stopped after the NVR proved themselves in action. Letcher's report appeared in the newspapers in September 1917 and parts were published in his 1930 book Cohort of

11904-626: The same regimental name). Although the Auxiliary forces remained organised as, and nominally, separate forces (until the Territorial Army was renamed the British Army Reserve in 2014), their being funded by the War Office meant they were also considered parts of the British Army. Outside the British Isles, the funding of auxiliary forces remained largely with the local governments. The first colonial units established in

12028-564: The same time the Nyasaland Field Force moved north to engage the Germans that Barton thought were posted to Kaporo. Barton's single column marched right in between the two southbound German columns, unnoticed in the dense bush despite passing within 1 mile (1.6 km) of each other. On 9 September the German columns launched an attack on the British left to guard the fort at Karonga. This small force, of just 11 Europeans (with three women), 39 KAR askari and 32 policemen held

12152-569: The single Magomero estate in Zomba, and Chiradzulu districts. Before the 1940s, it had sold little of its land and preferred to farm it directly; by 1948 the estate was largely let to tenants, who produced all its crops. Blantyre and East Africa Ltd had once owned 157,000 acres in Blantyre and Zomba districts, but sales to small planters reduced this to 91,500 acres by 1925. Until around 1930, it marketed its tenants' crops, but after this sought cash rents. The 1920 Land Commission also considered

12276-412: The situation of Africans living on private estates and proposed to give all tenants some security of tenure. Apart from the elderly or widows, all tenants would pay rents in cash by labour or by selling crops to the owner, but rent levels would be regulated. These proposals were enacted in 1928 after a 1926 census had shown that over 115,000 Africans (10% of the population) lived on estates. Before 1928,

12400-572: The summary execution of suspected rebels. Some NVR members also fought in the May 1915 attack on Sphinx Hafen which destroyed the Hermann von Wissmann . After the start of the Anglo-Belgian Tabora Offensive in May 1916 it was decided that the NVR was too small to function as an independent unit and its personnel were detached to become KAR officers, or to function as intelligence and transport specialists in other units. The NVR

12524-418: The system of shifting cultivation and fallowing that was common in Nyasaland as long as there was sufficient land to practice it. As more intensive agricultural use began in the 1930s, the amounts and duration of fallow were progressively reduced in more populous areas, which placed soil fertility under gradually increasing pressure. The Department of Agriculture's prediction that soil fertility would decline at

12648-545: The tobacco produced by the European estates was of low-grade. In 1921, 1,500 tons of a 3,500-ton crop was saleable and many smaller European growers went out of business. Between 1919 and 1935 their numbers fell from 229 to 82. The decline in flue-cured tobacco intensified throughout the 1920s. Europeans produced 86% of Malawi's tobacco in 1924, 57% in 1927, 28% in 1933, and 16% in 1936. Despite this decline, tobacco accounted for 65–80% of exports from 1921 to 1932. Formation of

12772-412: The town who had previously travelled to the Blantyre section house. The Limbe sub-section was established as a formal section of the NVR by order of 31 March 1916 and during the war peaked at 43 members, of whom 30 were of Indian ethnicity. During the war almost the entire British male military age population of the protectorate served in the NVR (the total British population, including women and children,

12896-411: The undeveloped land. According to L. White, by the 1880s, large areas of the Shire Highlands may have become underpopulated through fighting or slave raiding. It was these almost empty and indefensible areas that Europeans claimed in the 1880s and 1890s. Few Africans were resident on estate lands at that time. After Europeans introduced the requirement for rent payments by tenant farmers, many Africans left

13020-466: The use of Maxim and Nordenfelt machine guns and field artillery ; and Morse code. Also in February 1914 Barton finally found enough men to establish the sixth section at Magomero and a seventh at Mikalongwe . Khaki uniforms were also introduced around this time, apparently to be provided at the cost of the volunteer (though from 1917 the government issued uniforms free of charge). Photographs from

13144-607: Was a British protectorate located in Africa that was established in 1907 when the former British Central Africa Protectorate changed its name. Between 1953 and 1963, Nyasaland was part of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland . After the Federation was dissolved, Nyasaland became independent from Britain on 6 July 1964 and was renamed Malawi . Nyasaland's history was marked by the massive loss of African communal lands in

13268-465: Was allowed (but not mandatory) in cases involving Africans, if native law or custom was not repugnant to English legal principles. Order was at first maintained by soldiers of the King's African Rifles , some of whom were seconded to assist the District Commissioners, or by poorly trained police recruited by the District Commissioners. A better-trained central colonial police force was set up in 1922, but in 1945 it still had only 500 constables . After

13392-525: Was also small. The category of 'native' was large, but there was no general definition of the term. In a Nyasaland court case in 1929, the judge opined that, "A native means a native of Africa who is not of European or Asiatic race or origin; all others are non-natives. A person's race or origin does not depend on where he or she is born. Race depends on the blood in one's veins ...". Unlike Europeans of British origin, Nyasaland natives did not hold British citizenship under British nationality law , but had

13516-544: Was appointed commanding officer of the NVR on 5 August. The NVR were mobilised by Nyasaland governor Sir George Smith on 20 August, by which point some members of the unit had already participated in action, on their own initiative. In one of the opening actions of the East African campaign , a number of NVR men helped man the steamship Gwendolen during a 13 August attack on the German vessel Hermann von Wissmann at Sphinx Hafen on Lake Nyasa . The German vessel

13640-464: Was around 1,000 acres. Many of these were smaller farms operated by Europeans who came to Nyasaland after the First World War to grow tobacco . As late as 1920, a Land Commission set up by the Nyasaland authorities proposed further land alienation, to promote the development of small to medium-size European plantations, from the 700,000 acres of Crown Land which it said were available after

13764-548: Was around 800). Later in August German forces crossed into Nyasaland from Tanganyika . A force of the NVR numbering around 2 officers and 54 men underwent 10 days of training at Zomba before being dispatched by steamship to Karonga in northern Nyasaland. They arrived on 5 September to join the Nyasaland Field Force, led by Barton, which included troops from the KAR. The German Massoko Schutztruppe company advanced on Karonga, which they expected to be undefended. At

13888-496: Was captured by the German force. Corporal Stima of the NVR received the African Distinguished Conduct Medal for taking over a Maxim gun from a mortally wounded comrade (he received a bar for further bravery in action at Tandala on 19 February 1917). The two officers killed at Karonga are sometimes misidentified as NVR men as the unit is stated on their gravestones. However they are alo named on

14012-415: Was demobilised on 27 November 1918, having suffered 16 war-related deaths. Post-war the unit struggled to attract volunteers and the Nyasaland government proposed abolishing the NVR or merging it with the police. It is not known when the unit was disestablished, but it remained in existence as late as 1941. The volunteer movement saw reserve units formed across the British Empire from 1859. The movement led

14136-462: Was formally dissolved on 31 December 1963; at the same time Nyasaland's independence was fixed for 6 July 1964. Most governors spent the bulk of their career in other territories but were assisted by heads of departments who spent their working life in Nyasaland. Some of these senior officials also sat on the two councils that advised governors. The Legislative Council was formed solely of officials in 1907 to advise governors on legislation; from 1909

14260-489: Was instituted in 1933. The government authorized the chiefs and their councils as Native Authorities, but they had few real powers and little money to enforce them. The Native Authorities could set up Native Courts to decide cases under local customary law. But Sir Charles Golding , governor from 1924 to 1929, believed that the system of traditional chiefs was in decay and could not be relied on. Native Courts had no jurisdiction over European-owned estates. They were subject to

14384-485: Was placed on a more formal standing in 1908 under the Volunteer Ordinance. This implemented residency and racial requirements for membership and made provision for the unit to be mobilised by the governor. The unit was initially formed of four sections but grew to seven sections by 1914 and by 1930 the unit had ten. In the lead-up to the First World War the NVR was placed on a more military footing, with

14508-782: Was re-organised as a voluntary force from the 1850s, and the Volunteer Force restored as a permanent part of the peacetime military establishment. Both now included units other than infantry. These changes were copied to some degree in the colonial Reserve Forces. From the 1870s, administration and funding of the Auxiliary Forces in the British Isles passed from the Lords Lieutenant to the War Office and their units were increasingly integrated into British Army units (new infantry regiments, by example, being formed to include two regular battalions, with one or more Militia battalions and one or more Volunteer Force battalions, all bearing

14632-661: Was reinstated and a transport officer and supply officer appointed to the NVR. The NVR were deployed during the Chilembwe uprising , a rebellion against British colonial rule launched by African preacher John Chilembwe . It began with an attack on the Bruce Estates at Magomero on 23 January 1915, apparently in an attempt to seize the NVR arsenal there, during which three European planters were killed. European civilians withdrew to fortified locations in Blantyre, Limbe, Zomba, Cholo, Mlanje and elsewhere while armed parties of

14756-612: Was shot dead by a police patrol on 3 February and the uprising ceases by 6 February. Those NVR men involved in suppressing the Chilembwe Uprising received the Africa General Service Medal with the "Nyasaland 1915" clasp. In May 1915 some of the NVR took part in the second attack on Sphinx Hafen, once again travelling on board the Gwendolen as well as the steamer Chauncy Maples . Having landed

14880-405: Was somewhat balanced by outward labour emigration, mainly by men, to Southern Rhodesia and South Africa . The development of Nyasaland was likely adversely affected by the drain of workers to other countries. The Nyasaland government estimated that 58,000 adult males were working outside Nyasaland in 1935. The Southern Rhodesian census of 1931 alone recorded 54,000 male Nyasaland Africans there, so

15004-523: Was temporarily disabled in the first naval action of the war. The membership of the NVR rose rapidly in the first weeks of the war. The Magomero section rose from 10 members in February 1914 to 14 in July and 21 in August. The Port Herald section role from 11 to 28 and the Mlanje section from 12 to 24; giving a total strength of around 200 men. Indian residents at Blantyre and Limbe offered their services to

15128-409: Was the only one that remained an estate crop throughout. The main barriers to increasing exports were the high costs of transport from Nyasaland to the coast, the poor quality of much of the produce and, for African farmers, the planters' opposition to them growing cotton or tobacco in competition with the estates. The areas of flue-cured brightleaf or Virginia tobacco farmed by European planters in

15252-584: Was to attempt to form a sixth section at Magomero , where A. L. Bruce Estates had donated land for a shooting range, but he was unable to find the ten recruits necessary. He succeeded in raising a section at Mlanje on 16 February 1914. The Volunteer Ordinance was amended in February 1914. The racial origin requirements and oath of allegiance were abolished and volunteers were required to participate in 15 hours of military instruction per year. Five shilling supplements were paid to volunteers who completed 15-hour courses in semaphore; map making and reconnaissance;

15376-411: Was to prevent overcrowding, but there was little land available to resettle those expelled. From 1943, evictions were resisted. British legislation of 1902 treated all the land in Nyasaland not already granted as freehold as Crown Land, which could be alienated regardless of its residents' wishes. Only in 1904 did the Governor receive powers to reserve areas of Crown Land (called Native Trust Land ) for

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