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103-612: New branches: Tantric techniques : Fourfold division: Twofold division: Thought forms and visualisation: Yoga : Buddhist Tantric texts may have begun appearing during the Gupta Period (320–550 CE). However, the earliest known datable Buddhist Tantra is the Awakening of Mahāvairocana Tantra , which was mentioned and collected by the Chinese pilgrim Wu-xing (無行) c. 680 CE. Wu-xing also reports that at

206-695: A Buddha statue) and the Yoga tantras which focus on inward contemplative practices in which the yogi visualizes themselves as the deity. The commentator Vilāsavajra meanwhile, sometimes added a third category: Carya, which was intermediate between Kriya and Yoga. In another text meanwhile, Vilāsavajra discusses a different third category: Upaya, which referred to more transgressive tantras that made use of sexual yoga. The Classification of Tantras in Tibetan Buddhism differs by tradition. All traditions agree on three types: Kriyayoga, Caryayoga, and Yogatantra. In

309-456: A legendary heavenly place inaccessible to ordinary mortals. Padmasambhava , the eighth-century Buddhist master who was instrumental in the introduction of Buddhism to Tibet , was believed to have been born in Oddiyana. The Dzogchen Siddha Garab Dorje is likewise attributed to this region. It is ascribed importance in the development and dissemination of Vajrayāna Buddhism . The region

412-415: A liminal zone on the borders between fields and forests. Their rites involved the conjunction of sexual practices and Buddhist mandala visualization with ritual accoutrements made from parts of the human body, so that control may be exercised over the forces hindering the natural abilities of the siddha to manipulate the cosmos at will. At their most extreme, siddhas also represented a defensive position within

515-532: A mantra. Vajrayāna Buddhists developed a large corpus of texts called the Buddhist Tantras , some of which can be traced to at least the 7th century CE but might be older. The dating of the tantras is "a difficult, indeed an impossible task" according to David Snellgrove . Some of the earliest of these texts, Kriya tantras such as the Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa ( c.  6th century ), teach

618-514: A monk Jivaka Odiyanaka , being the earliest epigraphic reference to Uddiyana. It is certainly not in Orissa or Odivisa. The Vihära of Huviska to which Jivaka Odiyanaka made gift of a pillar was in the north-west. Xuanzang entered India from the north-west route and his biographer clearly locates Udyana's capital in North-West. Faxian, who also came from that pass clearly says that Udyana lay in

721-594: A movement called Sahaja -siddhi developed in the 8th century in Bengal . It was dominated by long-haired, wandering mahasiddhas who openly challenged and ridiculed the Buddhist establishment. The mahasiddhas pursued siddhis , magical powers such as flight and extrasensory perception as well as spiritual liberation. Ronald M. Davidson states that Buddhist siddhas demonstrated the appropriation of an older sociological form—the independent sage/magician, who lived in

824-623: A mythic king of Oḍiyāna named Indrabhūti , who received the tantras with the aid of Vajrapani . Furthermore, as Gray writes, "there is another major genre of tantric Buddhist origin myths, which we might term “conversion myths” since they feature the founding figure, an awakened buddha, converting Śaiva Hindu deities to Buddhism". These myths were useful in explaining the many Hindu elements which were found in some Buddhist tantric texts. In one such myth told by Śubhakarasiṃha (善无畏, 637–735) and Yixing (一行, 683– 727), Vairocana Buddha turns himself into Mahākāla in order to swallow and subdue Shiva and

927-644: A native or indigenous person of Oḍra ("Odisha") or from Oṭṭiyam , Telugu for Oḍra . Oḍḍiyāna is also the Middle Indic form of Udyāna "garden," the name by which Xuanzang knew the region around Odisha. Confusion about the identity of Oddiyana is conflated with confusion about the identity of Indrabhuti as Donaldson (2001: p. 11) observes: In his argument, P. C. Bagchi states that there are two distinct series of names in Tibetan: (1) O-rgyān, U-rgyān, O-ḍi-yā-na, and (2) O-ḍi-vi-śā, with

1030-729: A special category of scripture which were discovered or revealed in Tibet, known as Terma . Some of these are classified as "tantras" but were composed in Tibetan by Tibetans. Meanwhile, in Shingon Buddhism and Chinese Esoteric Buddhism , these classifications are not used. These traditions mainly rely on the Mahāvairocana Sūtra ( 大日経 , Dainichi-kyō ) , the Vajraśekhara Sūtra ( 金剛頂経 , Kongōchō-kyō ) , and

1133-457: Is Abhayakaragupta's Niṣpannayogāvalī , which contains details on 26 different mandalas. As Buddhist Tantra became more widely practiced in the middle of the seventh century, pandits (scholars) at mainstream Buddhist institutions like Nālandā , Vikramaśilā and Somapura began to write treatises, commentaries and other works on Vajrayana Buddhism. Other tantric works were written by lay yogis, yoginis , and mahasiddhas which were outside of

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1236-952: Is Kūkai (774–835), the founder of the Shingon school. Kūkai 's numerous works and commentaries on tantric practice are foundational texts for the Shingon tradition. One of the most important works of Kūkai is his magnum opus, the Jūjū shinron (Treatise on Ten Levels of Mind) , along with its summary, the Hizō hōyaku (Precious Key to the Secret Treasury) . The Tendai school meanwhile also maintains its own collection of Mantrayāna texts, commentaries and practice manuals, composed by traditional figures like Saicho , Ennin and Annen . The original works of Annen (841–889?) are particularly important for Tendai esotericism, especially his Shingonshū kyōjigi (On

1339-407: Is "obscured by discursive thought". This doctrine is often associated with the idea of the inherent or natural luminosity ( Skt: prakṛti-prabhāsvara-citta , T. ’od gsal gyi sems ) or purity of the mind ( prakrti-parisuddha ). Another fundamental theory of Tantric practice is that of transformation. In Vajrayāna, negative mental factors such as desire, hatred, greed, pride are used as part of

1442-677: Is a Buddhist tradition of tantric practice that developed in Medieval India . Tantrism, which originated within Hinduism during the first millennium CE, significantly influenced South Asian Mahāyāna Buddhism, giving rise to distinct Buddhist tantric traditions. Emerging in the 7th century CE, these traditions spread across Southeast, East, and Central Asia, leading to distinct East Asian and Tibetan practices. Vajrayāna practices are connected to specific lineages in Buddhism, through

1545-523: Is a method which works faster. Various classifications are possible when distinguishing Vajrayāna from the other Buddhist traditions. Vajrayāna can be seen as a third yana , next to Śrāvakayāna and Mahayana . Vajrayāna can be distinguished from the Sutrayana . The Sutrayana is the method of perfecting good qualities, where the Vajrayāna is the method of taking the intended outcome of Buddhahood as

1648-615: Is a mythical weapon associated with Indra which was said to be indestructible and unbreakable (like a diamond) and extremely powerful (like thunder). Thus, the term is variously translated as Diamond Vehicle, Thunderbolt Vehicle, Indestructible Vehicle and so on. Chinese Esoteric Buddhism it is generally known by various terms such as Zhēnyán ( Chinese : 真言, literally "true word", referring to mantra), Tángmì or Hanmì (唐密 - 漢密, " Tang Esotericism" or " Han Esotericism") , Mìzōng (密宗, "Esoteric Sect") or Mìjiao (Chinese: 密教; Esoteric Teaching). The Chinese term mì 密 ("secret, esoteric")

1751-609: Is a translation of the Sanskrit term Guhya ("secret, hidden, profound, abstruse"). In Japan , Buddhist esotericism is known as Mikkyō ( 密教 , secret teachings) or by the term Shingon (a Japanese rendering of Zhēnyán ), which also refers to a specific school of Shingon-shū ( 真言宗 ) . The term "Esoteric Buddhism" is first used by Western occultist writers, such as Helena Blavatsky and Alfred Percy Sinnett , to describe theosophical doctrines passed down from "supposedly initiated Buddhist masters." Tantric Buddhism

1854-404: Is also often used for tantric songs and poems. Tantric scriptures were also considered to be secret by tantric Buddhist communities, and would only be revealed to disciples which had gone through the necessary initiations. Buddhist tantras promise both the ability to attain worldly magical powers (laukikasiddhi) and the surepeme achievement (lokottarasiddhi) of Buddhahood in one lifetime. Some of

1957-553: Is associated with groups of wandering yogis called mahasiddhas in medieval India . According to Robert Thurman , these tantric figures thrived during the latter half of the first millennium CE. According to John Myrdhin Reynolds, the mahasiddhas date to the medieval period in North India and used methods that were radically different from those used in Buddhist monasteries, including practicing on charnel grounds . Since

2060-494: Is bound, by passion too it is released, but by heretical Buddhists this practice of reversals is not known. The Hevajra further states that "one knowing the nature of poison may dispel poison with poison." As Snellgrove notes, this idea is already present in Asanga 's Mahayana-sutra-alamkara-karika and therefore it is possible that he was aware of Tantric techniques, including sexual yoga. According to Buddhist Tantra, there

2163-530: Is developed. Other early tantras include the Mahāvairocana Abhisaṃbodhi and the Guhyasamāja (Gathering of Secrets). The Guhyasamāja is a Mahayoga class of Tantra, which features forms of ritual practice considered "left-hand" ( vamachara ) such as the use of taboo substances like alcohol, consort practices, and charnel ground practices which evoke wrathful deities . Ryujun Tajima divides

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2266-604: Is included in the Chinese Tripitaka's Esoteric Sutra category. The Śūraṅgama text contains indic materials, but may have been compiled or heavily edited in China. Another class of tantric texts are verses, songs and other original compositions by tantric sages known as mahasiddhas ("greatly accomplished ones"). Their tantric songs, variously called dohā (rhyming couplets), caryāgīti (songs of realization), and vajragīti, were often grouped together into collections, like

2369-534: Is more common for a yogi or yogini to use an imagined consort (a buddhist tantric deity, i.e. a yidam). These later tantras such as the Hevajra Tantra and the Chakrasamvara are classed as " Yogini tantras" and represent the final form of development of Indian Buddhist tantras in the ninth and tenth centuries. The Kalachakra tantra developed in the 10th century. It is farthest removed from

2472-444: Is more complex than a simple process of religious imitation and textual appropriation. There can be no question that the Buddhist tantras were heavily influenced by Kapalika and other Saiva movements, but the influence was apparently mutual. Perhaps a more nuanced model would be that the various lines of transmission were locally flourishing and that in some areas they interacted, while in others they maintained concerted hostility. Thus

2575-496: Is no strict separation of the profane or samsara and the sacred or nirvana , rather they exist in a continuum. All individuals are seen as containing the seed of enlightenment within, which is covered over by defilements . Douglas Duckworth notes that Vajrayana sees Buddhahood not as something outside or an event in the future, but as immanently present. Indian Tantric Buddhist philosophers such as Buddhaguhya , Vimalamitra , Ratnākaraśānti and Abhayakaragupta continued

2678-672: Is not specifically Buddhist, Shaiva or Vaishnava . According to Alexis Sanderson , various classes of Vajrayāna literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Shaivism. The relationship between the two systems can be seen in texts like the Mañjusrimulakalpa , which later came to be classified under Kriya tantra , and states that mantras taught in the Shaiva, Garuda and Vaishnava tantras will be effective if applied by Buddhists since they were all taught originally by Manjushri . Sanderson notes that

2781-582: Is now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan. Laurence Waddell , Sylvain Lévi , Giuseppe Tucci , and Prabodh Chandra Bagchi have shown that the Tibetan name Urgyan and the Chinese name Wutch'ang correspond to Uddiyana which is identical with the modern-day Swat Valley. Alexis Sanderson revisited the issue of the location, taking note of the various far-flung locations that have been identified with Oddiyana at different times and by different sources. He came to

2884-468: Is said to be the purpose of all the various tantric techniques practiced in the Vajrayana. Oddiyana Udiana (also: Uḍḍiyāna , Uḍḍāyāna , Udyāna or ' Oḍḍiyāna' ), a small region in early medieval India , is ascribed importance in the development and dissemination of Vajrayāna Buddhism . Tibetan Buddhist traditions view it as a Beyul (Tibetan: སྦས་ཡུལ, Wylie: sbas-yul),

2987-522: Is the superiority of Tantric methods, which provide a faster vehicle to liberation and contain many more skillful means ( upaya ). The importance of the theory of emptiness is central to the Tantric Buddhist view and practice. The Buddhist emptiness view sees the world as being fluid, without an ontological foundation or inherent existence, but ultimately a fabric of constructions. Because of this, tantric practice such as self-visualization as

3090-522: Is to become a Sammāsambuddha (fully awakened Buddha ); those on this path are termed Bodhisattvas . As with the Mahayana, motivation is a vital component of Vajrayāna practice. The Bodhisattva-path is an integral part of the Vajrayāna, which teaches that all practices are to be undertaken with the motivation to achieve Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings. In the vehicle of Sutra Mahayana,

3193-739: The Adhyardhaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (150 lines), the Heart Sutra ( Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya ), the Ekaślokikā prajñāpāramitā, Svalpākṣarā Prajñāpāramitā, Kauśikā Prajñāpāramitā, Saptaślokikā Prajñāpāramitā , the *Prajñāpāramitānāmāṣṭaśataka and the Candragarbha Prajñāpāramitā. Other "tantric" sutras include the Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra , the source of the famous Mani mantra , and the Śūraṅgama Sūtra , which

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3296-463: The Hīnayāna ) and Mahāyāna (a.k.a. Pāramitāyāna ). There are several Buddhist tantric traditions that are currently practiced, including Tibetan Buddhism , Chinese Esoteric Buddhism , Shingon Buddhism and Newar Buddhism . Historically, there were also other esoteric Buddhist traditions, such as that of maritime Southeast Asia , which are no longer practiced today. In India, the initial term

3399-494: The Lotus Sutra , and thus pre-date the development of Buddhist tantra. Dhāraṇī practices and texts were part of mainstream Mahayana Buddhism well before the rise of Vajrayana, and as such, are not "tantric" works nor specifically connected to esoteric or Mantrayāna Buddhism. However, some tantras and tantric works do make use of dhāraṇīs in a broader tantric context and later canonical collections included numerous dhāraṇīs into

3502-991: The Susiddhikara Sūtra ( 蘇悉地経 , Soshitsuji-kyō ) . While traditional schemas classify tantric texts based on whether it is focused on "kriya" (ritual action) or "yoga" (contemplative practice), this does not mean that ritual topics are absent in the yoga tantras, which themselves contain extensive sections on ritual . Likewise, texts labeled "kriya tantra" also contain teachings on yoga. Many tantric Buddhist texts have titles other than "Tantra", including sutra, kalpa, rajñi, stotra , and doha . The Major Buddhist Tantras also accumulated secondary literature, such as 'Explanatory Tantras' ( vyākhyātantra ), commentaries (pañjikās, ṭīkās etc.) and sadhana literature which outline specific tantric ritual practices and meditations. Dhāraṇīs are an earlier class of Buddhist texts which are not specifically "tantric" or "Vajrayanist" in nature. They may be found in classic Mahayana sutras like

3605-755: The Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra and the Vajrasekhara Sutra , and also composed practice manuals and commentaries in Chinese. They are considered to be the founding patriarchs of Chinese Esoteric Buddhism and their writings are central to the East Asian Mantrayāna traditions. The tradition was passed on from later figures like Huiguo to various Japanese Buddhist disciples who founded the Mantrayāna lineages in Japan. One important figure

3708-577: The Cakrasaṃvara Tantra . Tāranātha's list: Kazi Dawasamdup's list: Other important Indian tantric authors include: Tantric Buddhism arrived in China during the Tang dynasty , when numerous esoteric works were translated into Chinese. During this era, three great tantric masters ( vajracharyas ) came from India to China: Śubhakarasiṃha (637–735), Vajrabodhi (671–741) and Amoghavajra (705–774). They worked on translations of classic tantras like

3811-712: The Guhyasiddhi of Padmavajra, a work associated with the Guhyasamaja tradition , which prescribes acting as a Shaiva guru and initiating members into Saiva Siddhanta scriptures and mandalas. Sanderson says that the Samvara tantra texts adopted the pitha list from the Shaiva text Tantrasadbhāva , introducing a copying error where a deity was mistaken for a place. Ronald M. Davidson meanwhile, argues that Sanderson's arguments for direct influence from Shaiva Vidyapitha texts are problematic because "the chronology of

3914-663: The Mahayana sutras , and older Buddhist esoteric practices like dhāraṇī recitation texts. Furthermore, earlier Buddhist traditions had maintained a collection of scriptures focused on magical practices, called the Vidyādhara Piṭaka (Wizardry Collection) which included various types of rituals and spells (vidyā). In the account of a Buddhist spell master by Yijing , he even mentions erotic practices associated with this collection. Buddhist tantras were also influenced by non-buddhist traditions, including Śaiva and Śakta sources,

4017-606: The Mantrayana leads one to Buddhahood in a single lifetime. According to the literature, the mantra is an easy path without the difficulties innate to the Paramitayana . Mantrayana is sometimes portrayed as a method for those of inferior abilities. However the practitioner of the mantra still has to adhere to the vows of the Bodhisattva . The goal of spiritual practice within the Mahayana and Vajrayāna traditions

4120-606: The Sādhanamālā , he further points out, Uḍḍiyāna is also spelt as Oḍrayāna while in the Kālikā Purāṇa , as indicated earlier, it is spelt either Uḍḍiyāna or Oḍra. There is also evidence, Sahu continues, that Indrabhūti is the king of Odisha rather than of the Swāt valley. The Caturāsiti-siddha-Pravṛtti , for example, mentions him as the king of Oḍiviśa while Cordier, in his Bṣtān-ḥgyur catalogue, gives sufficient indications of his being

4223-561: The Vidyapitha tantras is by no means so well established" and that "the available evidence suggests that received Saiva tantras come into evidence sometime in the ninth to tenth centuries with their affirmation by scholars like Abhinavagupta (c. 1000 c.e.)" Davidson also notes that the list of pithas or sacred places "are certainly not particularly Buddhist, nor are they uniquely Kapalika venues, despite their presence in lists employed by both traditions." Davidson further adds that like

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4326-511: The subtle body and other secret methods with which to achieve swift Buddhahood . Some Tantras contain antinomian and transgressive practices such as ingesting alcohol and other forbidden substances as well as sexual rituals. Some of these later Buddhist Tantras (especially the Yoginītantras) are clearly influenced by Śaiva Vidyāpīṭha scriptures. Buddhist Tantra quickly spread out of India into nearby countries like Tibet and Nepal in

4429-433: The "Ancient" ( Nyingma ) school, these three "outer tantras" are followed three further "inner tantras": Mahayoga , Anuyoga , and Atiyoga . In the "New Translation" (Sarma) schools, the "higher" classes are called "supreme yoga tantras" ( anuttarayogatantra ). The Sarma classification systems was constructed by Indo-Tibetan scholastics and date to the mid-12th century based on Indian works. A fourfold schema can be found in

4532-563: The "early translations" and "second dissemination" texts). Buddhist tantra remains the main Buddhist tradition in Nepal , Mongolia and Tibet where it is known as Vajrayana . Buddhist sources told various myths about the origin of the tantras. One origin myth states that the tantras were initially taught by the Buddha but were hidden away. Then they were rediscovered by Nāgārjuna in an iron stupa in south India. Other origin myths focus around

4635-488: The "path of the cause" is taken whereby a practitioner starts with his or her potential Buddha-nature and nurtures it to produce the fruit of Buddhahood. In the Vajrayāna, the "path of the fruit" is taken whereby the practitioner takes his or her innate Buddha-nature as the means of practice. The premise is that since we innately have an enlightened mind, practicing seeing the world in terms of ultimate truth can help us to attain our full Buddha-nature. Experiencing ultimate truth

4738-466: The 1500s. Many early Buddhist Tantric texts, later termed “action Tantras” (kriyā tantra), are mostly collections of magical mantras or phrases for mostly worldly ends called mantrakalpas (mantra manuals) and they do not call themselves Tantras. Later Tantric texts from the eighth century onward (termed variously Yogatantra , Mahayoga , and Yoginī Tantras) advocated union with a deity ( deity yoga ), sacred sounds ( mantras ), techniques for manipulation of

4841-574: The Bhagavān resided in the vulvas of the women who are the vajras of the body, speech and mind of all the Tathāgatas” (evaṃ mayā śrutam ekasmin samaye bhagavān sarvva-tathāgata-kāya-vāk-citta-vajra-yonī-bhāgeṣu vijahāra). Regarding their philosophical view, the Buddhist tantras generally follow the view of the Mahāyāna sutras, especially the theories of emptiness , buddha-nature , and luminosity . According to

4944-447: The Buddhist tradition, adopted and sustained for the purpose of aggressive engagement with the medieval culture of public violence. They reinforced their reputations for personal sanctity with rumors of the magical manipulation of various flavors of demonic females ( dakini , yaksi , yogini ), cemetery ghouls ( vetala ), and other things that go bump in the night. Operating on the margins of both monasteries and polite society, some adopted

5047-521: The Buddhists, the Shaiva tradition was also involved in the appropriation of Hindu and non-Hindu deities, texts and traditions, an example being "village or tribal divinities like Tumburu". Davidson adds that Buddhists and Kapalikas as well as other ascetics (possibly Pasupatas ) mingled and discussed their paths at various pilgrimage places and that there were conversions between the different groups. Thus he concludes: The Buddhist-Kapalika connection

5150-546: The Eighty-four Mahasiddhas ( Caturasitisiddha pravrtti ). Another class of verse tantric works are hymns ( stotras ) to specific deities. Yet another class of texts are ritual manuals and collections of rites or sādhanas (practices). One example of these kinds of collections is the Sādhanamālā (Garland of Sādhanas) which contains numerous sādhanas composed by various Indian tantric masters. Another example

5253-885: The Meaning of Teachings and Times in Esoteric Buddhism) and the Taizōkongō bodaishingi ryaku mondōshō (Abbreviated Discussion on the Meaning of Bodhicitta according to the Garbha and Vajra realms) As Vajrayana Buddhism developed in Tibet (beginning in the 8th century CE), Tibetan Buddhists also began to compose Vajrayana scriptures, commentaries and other works. Eventually, a vast literature of original Tibetan Vajrayana compositions developed. There are many types of indigenous Tibetan tantric literature. Each school of Tibetan Buddhism maintains their own collections of texts composed by

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5356-577: The Sthavira nikāya, the Dharmaguptaka and Kāśyapīya , were established in this area. Both of these schools had proto- Mahayana doctrines. While the 6th to 8th century Kabul Ganesh offers a memorial inscription, to Turk Shahis king Khingala of Oddiyana. The following Hindu Shahis are believed to belong to the Uḍi/Oḍi tribe, namely the people of Oddiyana whose rulers were already known at

5459-662: The Tibetan canons, there are 450 Tantras in the Kanjur collection and 2400 in the Tengyur . The most important texts of the Vajrayana Buddhist traditions are the "tantras". The term tantra has many meanings, but one of the most common meaning is simply a specific type of divinely revealed text or scripture. In the Buddhist context, tantras were considered to be the words of a Buddha or bodhisattva (buddhavacana). Unlike Mahayana sutras, tantras are quite technical, outlining

5562-425: The Tibetan schema is based on these later Indic classifications schemes. In Tibetan traditions, the most important tantras are those of the "highest yoga tantra", "Mahayoga" or Atiyoga" classification. There are also various other classes of tantric works, such as hagiographies of great masters ( namtars ), tantric verse works, songs, meditation manuals, and instructional texts ( upadesha ). The Nyingma school also has

5665-554: The Tibetans refer to Orissa as Odivisa which must be different from Urgyan or Wu-chang . Moreover, Orissa became a centre of Täntrika Buddhism after the 7th century A.D., while the Swat valley was a centre of Tantric Buddhism long before 700 A.D. In ancient Indian literature the extreme north-western region of the country, especially Uddiyana, Gandhara , Kapisa and Tukhara , find frequent mention. A Kushan inscription mentions

5768-600: The Vajrayāna Yogini tantras draw extensively from the material also present in Shaiva Bhairava tantras classified as Vidyapitha . Sanderson's comparison of them shows similarity in "ritual procedures, style of observance, deities, mantras, mandalas, ritual dress, Kapalika accouterments like skull bowls, specialized terminology, secret gestures, and secret jargons. There is even direct borrowing of passages from Shaiva texts." Sanderson gives numerous examples such as

5871-435: The adherents and texts of Vajrayāna claim these teachings have been passed down by an unbroken lineage going back to the historical Buddha ( c.  the 5th century BCE ) or to other mythical Buddhas and bodhisattvas (e.g. Vajrapani ). According to Vajrayāna scriptures, the term Vajrayāna refers to one of three vehicles or routes to enlightenment , the other two being the Śrāvakayāna (also known pejoratively as

5974-761: The aggregates, the sense objects and media, and subject and object, one’s mind, being identical to the selflessness of dharmas, is originally unarisen and has emptiness as its nature." This ultimate nature can be accessed through skillful means, especially the contemplative tantric techniques taught in the tantras. When it comes to practical content, tantras contain numerous explanations of yogic practice and ritual actions. Common topics related to spiritual practice include: how to make mandalas , how to perform ritual initiations ( abhisheka ), explanation of mantras, fire ritual ( homa ), special observances (carya), descriptions of tantric feasts ( ganacakra ), descriptions of tantric deities, deity yoga , subtle body based practices (of

6077-523: The behaviors associated with ghosts ( preta , pisaca ), not only as a religious praxis but also as an extension of their implied threats. Tantrism originated within Hinduism and significantly influenced early South Asian Mahāyāna Buddhist practices, contributing to the emergence of unique Buddhist tantric traditions. These Buddhist tantric traditions, which developed in the 7th century CE, spread quickly across Southeast, East, and Central Asia, resulting in

6180-462: The conclusion, drawn from his careful examination of a variety of old textual citations, that it was located near Kashmir , accepting the modern-day Swat as the probable epicentre of a historical Oddiyana. Udyāna ( Sanskrit "garden, orchard") is sometimes reported as being located north of Peshawar along the Swat River ; it was regarded as the furthest part of northern ancient India during

6283-445: The cults of local deities, and rites related to yakshas and nāgas . The Buddhist Yogini tantras contain the most extensive borrowing from Śaiva and Śakta sources. In some cases, whole passages have been copied. This process has been studied by Alexis Sanderson . Scholars like Phyllis Granoff have termed this extensive borrowing of non-buddhist forms "ritual eclecticism". Buddhist Tantric works continued to be produced in India until

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6386-432: The deity is seen as being no less real than everyday reality, but a process of transforming reality itself, including the practitioner's identity as the deity. As Stephan Beyer notes, "In a universe where all events dissolve ontologically into Emptiness, the touching of Emptiness in the ritual is the re-creation of the world in actuality". The doctrine of Buddha-nature , as outlined in the Ratnagotravibhāga of Asanga ,

6489-551: The details of rituals, such as how to construct a mandala. They also contain unique tantric terminology and "coded language" (sandhyā-bhāṣa), which is metaphorical and secretive. They often omit important details and misdirect the reader, thus maintaining secrecy and requiring further commentary to be properly understood. Their original language was Sanskrit , but not classical Sanskrit ( Pāṇinean ) per se, since tantras often include different word forms or grammar associated with regional Middle-Indic languages, like Apabraṃśa . Apabraṃśa

6592-424: The earlier Buddhist traditions, and incorporates concepts of messianism and astrology not present elsewhere in Buddhist literature. According to Ronald M. Davidson, the rise of Tantric Buddhism was a response to the feudal structure of Indian society in the early medieval period (ca. 500–1200 CE) which saw kings being divinized as manifestations of gods. Likewise, tantric yogis reconfigured their practice through

6695-400: The eighth century, as well as to Southeast Asia and East Asia through overland and maritime trade routes. Buddhist Tantra arrived in China during the Tang dynasty (where it was known as Tangmi ) and was brought to Japan by Kukai (774–835), where it is known as Shingon . Tantric texts were brought to Tibet in two historical periods, the eighth century and the 11th century (which are called

6798-614: The external worship of deities. Key Action tantras include: Scriptures in this category are seen as containing equal ritual and meditation elements. They mostly focus on Vairocana , Vajrapāṇi and Acala . Some key scriptures: These tantras focus on meditation, i.e. yoga . However, unlike the Anuttara- or Mahāyoga tantras, these scriptures do not contain much wrathful, antinomian or sexual elements, and instead focus on themes of ritual purity, mandalic buddhafields , and "peaceful" deities and Buddhas like Vairocana Buddha and Vajrasattva . Mantras , mandalas and mudras are key elements of

6901-417: The first series connected with Indrabhūti, i.e., Oḍiyăna and Uḍḍiyāna, while the second series falls back on Oḍi and Oḍiviśa, i.e., Uḍra (Odisha) and has nothing to do with Indrabhūti. N.K. Sahu objects, however, and points out that these two sets of names are seldom distinguished in Buddhist Tantra literature, and opines that the words Oḍa, Oḍra, Uḍra, Oḍiviśa and Oḍiyāna are all used as variants of Uḍḍiyāna. In

7004-428: The food and clothing worn by those in Udyana were similar to those residing in the Indo-Gangetic Plain . The area is said to have supported some 500 viharas of the Sthavira nikāya , at which traveling monks were provided lodgings and food for three days. It was said to contain a Buddha footprint , a rock on which he dried his clothes, and a locale where he converted a nāga . It is said that two schools derived from

7107-525: The formation of various distinct traditions in East Asia and Tibet. There are other Mahāyāna sutras which contain "proto-tantric" material such as the Gandavyuha and the Dasabhumika which might have served as a central source of visual imagery for Tantric texts. Later Mahāyāna texts like the Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra ( c.  4th –5th century CE) expound the use of mantras such as Om mani padme hum , associated with vastly powerful beings like Avalokiteshvara . The popular Heart Sutra also includes

7210-409: The influence was both sustained and reciprocal, even in those places where Buddhist and Kapalika siddhas were in extreme antagonism. Davidson also argues for the influence of non-Brahmanical and outcaste tribal religions and their feminine deities (such as Parnasabari and Janguli). According to several Buddhist tantras as well as traditional Tibetan Buddhist sources, the tantras and the Vajrayana

7313-575: The ingestion of taboo substances (blood, meat, alcohol, sexual fluids), tantric feasts , as well as numerous Shaiva and Shakta influences. The deities in these scriptures often (but not always) appear as fierce herukas and erotic dakinis . Some key tantras in this category include: There are various other types of tantric Buddhist texts composed in India. One class of tantric text that are not always considered tantras but have tantric elements in them are several late Prajñāpāramitā sutras which have numerous tantric or Mantrayāna elements. These include:

7416-438: The king of Orissa. Also, in his famous work Jñānasiddhi , king Indrabhūti opens it with an invocation to Lord Jagannātha , a deity intimately associated with Odisha and with no other area of India. One writer recently made a renewed attempt to identify Uddiyana with Orissa which he regards as "the cradle of Vajrayana Buddhism". But this is improbable; the Chinese sources refer to Orissa as Wu-T'u or Ota or Wu-cha , while

7519-734: The lineage masters of their tradition and considered to be canonical by their sect. These include commentarial works, original treatises, meditation manuals, sadhanas, ritual texts, poems and hymns, as well as new revelations (such as treasure texts and "pure vision" texts). Tantra techniques (Vajrayana) New branches: Tantric techniques : Fourfold division: Twofold division: Thought forms and visualisation: Yoga : Vajrayāna ( Sanskrit : वज्रयान ; lit. ' vajra vehicle'), also known as Mantrayāna ('mantra vehicle'), Mantranāya ('path of mantra'), Guhyamantrayāna ('secret mantra vehicle'), Tantrayāna ('tantra vehicle'), Tantric Buddhism , and Esoteric Buddhism ,

7622-647: The location of Oddiyana. While professor Lokesh Chandra has argued that Oddiyana was located further in South India . Tibetan Buddhist traditions see Oḍḍiyāna as a source of many of their tantric teachings. It is seen as having been a land where Buddhist tantra flourished. Many lineages of Tibetan Buddhism are traced to this region, including Dzogchen (which began with the great siddha Garab Dorje ). A number of Vajrayana and tantric practitioners are said to have stayed and practiced there. The first Vajrayana teachings were supposedly given there by Gautama Buddha at

7725-413: The metaphor of being consecrated ( abhiśeka ) as the overlord ( rājādhirāja ) of a mandala palace of divine vassals, an imperial metaphor symbolizing kingly fortresses and their political power. The question of the origins of early Vajrayāna has been taken up by various scholars. David Seyfort Ruegg has suggested that Buddhist tantra employed various elements of a “pan-Indian religious substrate” which

7828-532: The north on the Swat river . John Reynolds suggests that "perhaps Uddiyana is actually a name of a much wider geographical area than the Swat Valley alone, one embracing parts of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and even Western Tibet (Zhang Zhung)." Along the same line of thinking, Herbert V. Guenther suggests the region of Sogdiana , today corresponding to regions of Tajikistan , Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan , as

7931-453: The path. As noted by French Indologist Madeleine Biardeau, the tantric doctrine is "an attempt to place kama , desire, in every meaning of the word, in the service of liberation." This view is outlined in the following quote from the Hevajra tantra : Those things by which evil men are bound, others turn into means and gain thereby release from the bonds of existence. By passion the world

8034-471: The path. Vajrayāna can also be distinguished from the paramitayana. According to this schema, Indian Mahayana revealed two vehicles ( yana ) or methods for attaining enlightenment: the method of the perfections ( Paramitayana ) and the method of mantra ( Mantrayana ). The Paramitayana consists of the six or ten paramitas , of which the scriptures say that it takes three incalculable aeons to lead one to Buddhahood. The tantra literature, however, says that

8137-571: The perfection stage) and teachings on the yoginis. The following is a list of some major Buddhist Tantras from the classic period of Indian Buddhist tantrism as well as other tantric scriptures like sutras and dharanis. The list is organized according to the traditional classification used in the Tibetan canon . The scriptures in this category are considered to emphasize ritual action (kriyā), preparation of ritual spaces, textual recitation / chanting (of mantras, dhāraṇīs, vidyās , and other texts), and

8240-569: The practice of Tantra focuses on the transformation of poisons into wisdom, the yogic circles came together in tantric feasts , often in sacred sites ( pitha ) and places ( ksetra ) which included dancing, singing, consort practices and the ingestion of taboo substances like alcohol, urine, and meat. At least two of the mahasiddhas cited in the Buddhist literature are comparable with the Shaiva Nath saints ( Gorakshanath and Matsyendranath ) who practiced Hatha Yoga . According to Schumann,

8343-889: The practices taught in these tantras. Some key Yoga tantras are: The fourth category of tantric scriptures is considered to be the highest and most powerful class of tantra in Tibetan Buddhism. This view is not shared by other Buddhist Mantrayāna traditions like Shingon. This class of texts is called by different names, including Anuttarayogatantra, Mahāyoga, Niruttarayoga, and Yoginī Tantras. They are also often further divided into different sub-categories, like "father", "mother" and "non-dual" tantras. Japanese scholars like Tsukamoto further classify these into different families, like Akṣobhya -kula, Vairocana -kula, Heruka -kula, Vajra-sūrya-kula, Padmanarteśvara-kula, Paramāśva-kula, and Vajradhara -kula. These tantras tend to contain more transgressive elements, including sexual themes, sexual yoga ( karmamudrā ), wrathful deities , charnel ground imagery,

8446-422: The proto-Bengali Caryapāda and Saraha's Dohakośa. There are various works on these tantric sages. Sāṅkrtyāyana lists the following important siddhas: Saraha , (Nāgārjuna), (Sabarapa), Luīpa , Dārikāpa, (Vajra-ghaṇṭāpa), Kūrmapā, Jālandharapā, (Kaṃha(pā) Caryapā), Guhyapā (Vijayapa), Tilopa , Naropa . There are longer lists which contain eighty four mahasiddhas in works such as Abhayadatta Śrī's History of

8549-545: The request of the king. According to Dudjom Rinpoche , the Mahayoga and Anuyoga tantras were first revealed in Oḍḍiyāna. In Tibetan Buddhist literature, Oḍḍiyāna is described as being ruled by several kings each of whom were named Indrabhūti . Oḍḍiyāna is also often conflated or identified with Shambhala , a magical hidden land ( beyul ) land inhabited by ḍākinī s and inaccessible to or by ordinary mortals. In

8652-597: The revelation of Buddhist tantras to Padmasambhava , saying that he was an emanation of Amitabha and Avaloketishvara and that his arrival was predicted by the Buddha. Some accounts also maintain Padmasambhava is a direct reincarnation of Buddha Shakyamuni. According to Alex Wayman , the philosophical view of the Vajrayana is based on Mahayana Buddhist philosophy , mainly the Madhyamaka and Yogacara schools. The major difference seen by Vajrayana thinkers

8755-479: The service of liberation. This is manifested in the promotion of tantric fierce deities . As the Hevajra Tantra says "the world is bound by passion, also by passion it is released". Some tantras, especially those of the Yoginītantra genre, have many erotic and sexual elements. The Guhyasamāja tantra, Hevajra, Caṇḍamahāroṣaṇa, Saṃvarodaya, and Sampuṭikātantrarāja, all open as follows: “Thus I have heard: at one time

8858-468: The tantra classification. Indeed, some scholars like Koichi Shinohara argue that the Buddhist tantric literature grew out of the earlier Mahayana dhāraṇī texts through a process of gradual expansion and the incorporation of new ritual elements (such as mandalas and visualization practices). There are between 1500 and 2000 surviving Indian Buddhist Tantric texts in Sanskrit, and over 2000 more Tantras solely survive in translation (mostly Tibetan or Chinese). In

8961-465: The tantras into those which were "a development of Mahāyānist thought" and those "formed in a rather popular mould toward the end of the eighth century and declining into the esoterism of the left", this "left esoterism" mainly refers to the Yogini tantras and later works associated with wandering yogis. This practice survives in Tibetan Buddhism, but it is rare for this to be done with an actual person. It

9064-477: The tantras, to reach Buddhahood, one needs to recognize the true nature of one's mind, the buddha-nature , which is a non-dual empty luminosity (prabhāsvara) which is pure, blissful, and free of all concepts. The true nature is the same in Buddhas and sentient beings, and is thus the ultimate "continuum" (tantra). The Guhyasamāja Tantra describes the ultimate nature of mind thus: "Devoid of all existents, free of

9167-455: The tantric view continued to be debated in medieval Tibet. Tibetan Buddhist Rongzom Chokyi Zangpo (1012–1088) held that the views of sutra such as Madhyamaka were inferior to that of tantra, which was based on basic purity of ultimate reality. Tsongkhapa (1357–1419) on the other hand, held that there is no difference between Vajrayāna and other forms of Mahayana in terms of prajnaparamita (perfection of insight) itself, only that Vajrayāna

9270-422: The teachings of lineage holders. Others might generally refer to these texts as the Buddhist Tantras . It includes practices that make use of mantras , dharanis , mudras , mandalas and the visualization of deities and Buddhas. According to contemporary historical scholarship, Vajrayāna practice originated in the tantric era of medieval India ( c.  the 5th century CE onwards ). However, traditionally,

9373-419: The time he visited India (7th century), the Mantrayāna (“teaching about mantra”, Chinese: zhenyan jiaofa, 真言教法) was already very popular. Amoghavajra (704–774), a scholar translator who traveled to China, reports a canon of eighteen tantras during the 8th century. Over time the number of texts increased with numerous Tantric scholars writing commentaries and practice manuals. Buddhist Tantric traditions draw on

9476-462: The time of Faxian . The 8th century Korean monk Hye Cho wrote in his Memoir of the travel to the five Indian regions that after visiting Gandhara , he went directly north, entered the mountains and after travelling for three days, arrived in Udyana (locally called Oddiyana), a mountainous Buddhist region. From Udyana, he travelled northeast for fifteen days and reached Chitral . Faxian stated that

9579-520: The time of the Kushan Empire (3rd century CE) and are recorded as early as the 4th century BCE. An alternate theory places its location in what is now the modern Indian state of Odisha , through a case founded upon "literary, archeological and iconographic evidence". Scholars championing this location contend that the name Oḍḍiyāna derives from the Dravidian Oṭṭiyan , denoting

9682-600: The tradition of Buddhist philosophy and adapted it to their commentaries on the major Tantras. Abhayakaragupta's Vajravali is a key source in the theory and practice of tantric rituals. After monks such as Vajrabodhi and Śubhakarasiṃha brought Tantra to Tang China (716 to 720), tantric philosophy continued to be developed in Chinese and Japanese by thinkers such as Yi Xing and Kūkai . Likewise in Tibet , Sakya Pandita (1182–28 – 1251), as well as later thinkers like Longchenpa (1308–1364) expanded on these philosophies in their tantric commentaries and treatises. The status of

9785-444: The traditional monastic institutions. Another important site for the development of Buddhist tantric literature was Kashmir , a major center for tantric practice (both Buddhist and non-buddhist, such as Trika Saiva Tantra ). Benoytosh Bhattacharyya notes that there are two main chronological lists of prominent Indian Tantric authors, the first from Tāranātha's works (c. 1575–1634) and the second from Kazi Dawasamdup's introduction to

9888-505: The unique themes and ideas found in the Buddhist Tantras is the revaluation of the body and its use in attaining great bliss ( mahasukha ), a revaluation of the role of women, yoginīs (female yogis), and female deities. The tantras also contain a revaluation of supposedly negative mental states (like desire and anger) and antinominan behavior (like drinking alcohol, eating meat, living in charnel grounds etc.), which can be used in

9991-482: The use of mantras and dharanis for mostly worldly ends including curing illness, controlling the weather and generating wealth. The Tattvasaṃgraha Tantra ( Compendium of Principles ), classed as a "Yoga tantra", is one of the first Buddhist tantras which focuses on liberation as opposed to worldly goals. In another early tantra, the Vajrasekhara (Vajra Peak), the influential schema of the five Buddha families

10094-670: The work of the Indian scholar Śraddhākaravarman, who writes of "four doors" to the Vajratana: Kriyatantra, Caryatantra, Yoga- tantra, and Mahayogatantra. He also mentions a further sub-class of Mahayoga, Niruttarayoga, which refers to Mahayoga tantras with mandalas populated by female deities, i.e., the Yogini tantras. Ratnākaraśānti 's (11th century) schema contains the same four latter classes, but adds Niruttarayoga as its own fifth category. Kanha's Yogaratnamala meanwhile, also has four: Kriya, Carya, Yoga, Niruttarayoga. Thus,

10197-492: The ḍākinīs who were killing and eating humans in order to obtain the essence in their hearts. After being subdued, these figures were said to have become Buddhist. There are various ways to categorize and schematize the various tantric primary sources. The earliest Indian classification scheme is found in the work of the commentator Buddhaguhya (c. 700). He outlined just two types of tantras: outward oriented Kriya tantras (which contain much ritual directed as external objects like

10300-480: Was Mantranāya (Path of Mantras), and Mantrayāna (Mantra Vehicle). Later, other terms were adopted, like Vajrayāna. In Tibetan Buddhism practiced in the Himalayan regions of India , Nepal , and Bhutan , Buddhist Tantra is most often termed Vajrayāna (Tib. རྡོ་རྗེ་ཐེག་པ་, dorje tekpa , Wyl. rdo rje theg pa ) and Secret mantra (Skt. Guhyamantra , Tib. གསང་སྔགས་, sang ngak , Wyl. gsang sngags ). The vajra

10403-514: Was also an important place for the practice of Śaivite Hinduism . It is seen as the homeland of the Mahārtha (aka Krama Kalikula ) lineage of Śaiva Tantra . The first Mahārtha Siddha, Jñānanetra Nātha (ज्ञाननेत्र नाथ), is said to have awakened and taught in this country. It was also called as “the paradise of the Ḍākinīs ”. Many Western scholars have identified it as the Swat Valley in what

10506-457: Was also an important theory which became the basis for Tantric views. As explained by the Tantric commentator Lilavajra, this "intrinsic secret (behind) diverse manifestation" is the utmost secret and aim of Tantra. According to Wayman this "Buddha embryo" ( tathāgatagarbha ) is a "non-dual, self-originated Wisdom ( jnana ), an effortless fount of good qualities" that resides in the mindstream but

10609-545: Was taught by the Buddha Shakyamuni , but only to some individuals. There are several stories and versions of how the tantras were disseminated. The Jñana Tilaka Tantra , for example, has the Buddha state that the tantras will be explained by the bodhisattva Vajrapani . One of the most famous legends is that of king Indrabhuti (also known as King Ja) of Oddiyana (a figure related to Vajrapani, in some cases said to be an emanation of him). Other accounts attribute

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