162-579: The Buller River ( Māori : Kawatiri ) is a river in the South Island of New Zealand. The Buller has the highest flow of any river in the country during floods, though it is only the 13th longest river; it runs for 177 km (110 mi) from Lake Rotoiti through the Buller Gorge and into the Tasman Sea near the town of Westport . A saddle at 710 m (2,330 ft) separates
324-582: A lake , an ocean , or another river. A stream refers to water that flows in a natural channel , a geographic feature that can contain flowing water. A stream may also be referred to as a watercourse. The study of the movement of water as it occurs on Earth is called hydrology , and their effect on the landscape is covered by geomorphology . Rivers are part of the water cycle , the continuous processes by which water moves about Earth. This means that all water that flows in rivers must ultimately come from precipitation . The sides of rivers have land that
486-586: A royal charter supporting colonisation efforts) in Nelson , when he, Thomas Brunner and Charles Heaphy , explored the Buller as far south as Murchison in February 1846. In a report to Colonel Wakefield , Fox said, "As it will present a considerable feature on the maps of this island, I have called it the Buller, after the member for Liskeard ", who was Charles Buller , a UK Member of Parliament and director of
648-547: A trip hammer , and grind grains with a millstone . In the Middle Ages , water mills began to automate many aspects of manual labor , and spread rapidly. By 1300, there were at least 10,000 mills in England alone. A medieval watermill could do the work of 30–60 human workers. Water mills were often used in conjunction with dams to focus and increase the speed of the water. Water wheels continued to be used up to and through
810-411: A bar at the entrance, on which he took soundings, and found sixteen feet at high water. The river appeared to be navigable for a considerable distance. Mr. Thoms anchored his vessel in five fathoms, and pulled up four or five miles in his boat. He describes the valley through which the river runs to be twenty miles wide, finely wooded, with some open land." In 1846 Brunner was the first European to follow
972-740: A boat along certain stretches. In these religions, such as that of the Altai in Russia , the river is considered a living being that must be afforded respect. Rivers are some of the most sacred places in Hinduism. There is archeological evidence that mass ritual bathing in rivers at least 5,000 years ago in the Indus river valley . While most rivers in India are revered, the Ganges is most sacred. The river has
1134-513: A campaign that moved down from the Karamea district, fighting battles at Whanganui Inlet, Kawatiri , Māwhera , Taramakau , Arahura, Hokitika , Ōkārito, and finally at Makawhio , with the final defeat occurring in Te Paparoa ranges . After their victory, Tūhuru's party discussed at Rūnanga whether they should return home or stay in the area. A decision was not reached, so they discussed
1296-515: A central role in various Hindu myths, and its water is said to have properties of healing as well as absolution from sins. Hindus believe that when the cremated remains of a person is released into the Ganges, their soul is released from the mortal world. Freshwater fish make up 40% of the world's fish species, but 20% of these species are known to have gone extinct in recent years. Human uses of rivers make these species especially vulnerable. Dams and other engineered changes to rivers can block
1458-1020: A century earlier from the Hastings District , and already having conquered Waitaha , who themselves were a collection of ancient groups. Other iwi that Ngāi Tahu encountered while migrating through the South Island were Ngāi Tara , Rangitāne , Ngāti Tūmatakōkiri , and Ngāti Wairangi – all of which also migrated from the North Island at varying times. During the 19th century, hundreds of thousands of Europeans – mostly British – migrated to New Zealand. After European arrival, Ngāti Toa (allied with Ngāti Tama ) and Ngāti Rārua invaded Ngāi Tahu's territory with muskets . Some European settlers intermingled with native iwi populations, and today, most families who descend from Ngāi Tahu also have Ngāti Māmoe and British ancestry. Ngāi Tahu translates as "People of Tahu", referencing
1620-408: A continuous flow of water throughout the year. This may be because an arid climate is too dry depending on the season to support a stream, or because a river is seasonally frozen in the winter (such as in an area with substantial permafrost ), or in the headwaters of rivers in mountains, where snowmelt is required to fuel the river. These rivers can appear in a variety of climates, and still provide
1782-482: A funeral pyre. Tamaraeroa's wife was killed as well, but they left a son named Te Aohuraki. Huirapa's son Marainaka also survived the fighting. Next the brothers Pahirua and Tahumatā sought out to defeat Marukore. As they were about to take advice from a local chief named Rākaimoari, his daughter Hinewai-a-tapu made a remark about Tahumatā which sparked the Battle of Te Pakiaka ("The Roots") that lasted for some days. It
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#17327732253901944-564: A habitat for aquatic life and perform other ecological functions. Subterranean rivers may flow underground through flooded caves. This can happen in karst systems, where rock dissolves to form caves. These rivers provide a habitat for diverse microorganisms and have become an important target of study by microbiologists . Other rivers and streams have been covered over or converted to run in tunnels due to human development. These rivers do not typically host any life, and are often used only for stormwater or flood control. One such example
2106-495: A large scale. This has been attributed to unusually large floods destroying infrastructure; however, there is evidence that permanent changes to climate causing higher aridity and lower river flow may have been the determining factor in what river civilizations succeeded or dissolved. Water wheels began to be used at least 2,000 years ago to harness the energy of rivers. Water wheels turn an axle that can supply rotational energy to move water into aqueducts , work metal using
2268-589: A link between Westport and Reefton in 1876, using horses from Westport and a coach from the Landing to Reefton. By July 1877 the road through the Lower Gorge had improved sufficiently for the coach to run through to Westport. The road near Tiroroa included two short tunnels, until Fern Arch was demolished in 1937. The first Newman Brothers coach ran between Foxhill (end of the Nelson railway ) and Hampden (Murchison) on 22 July 1879, following improvements to
2430-571: A major incursion into Ngāi Tahu territory. By 1839 Ngāi Tahu and Ngāti Toa established peace and Te Rauparaha released the Ngāi Tahu captives he held at Kapiti. Formal marriages between the leading families in the two tribes sealed the peace. In 1840 more than 500 chiefs from all over New Zealand signed the Treaty of Waitangi with representatives of the Crown . Only one sheet was used in the South Island –
2592-746: A more notable instance, is when Rākaihikuroa's other son Rākaipaaka was insulted by local Chief Tūtekohi who had invited him to his pā and then fed the prepared feast to his kurī (dog) Kauerehuanui. The visitors showed no reaction at the time, but after leaving, Whaitiripoto instructed Whakaruru-a-Nuku to go back and eat the dog in revenge. This action resulted in war against the Takutaioterangi pā and their allies. A similar engagement occurred with Ngāi Tahu, involving Chief Rakawahakura (great-grandson of Ira-a-Tahu), Whaitiripoto, and Whakaruru-a-Nuku. The fish and birds for this feast were actually cleverly carved chunks of wood, designed to give
2754-544: A new alliance between their iwi , after which they successfully attacked Rangitāne in the Wairau Valley . For this Ngāti Māmoe then ceded the east coast regions north of Waiau Toa to Ngāi Tahu, and Tūteurutira and Hinerongo married and settled at the pā . In the Battle of Ōpokihi against Ngāti Māmoe, Marukaitātea was rescued by his brothers Makō-ha-kirikiri and Kahupupuni. At the Pariwhakatau pā near
2916-556: A peak in the 1970s, when between two or three dams were completed every day, and has since begun to decline. New dam projects are primarily focused in China , India , and other areas in Asia . The first civilizations of Earth were born on floodplains between 5,500 and 3,500 years ago. The freshwater, fertile soil, and transportation provided by rivers helped create the conditions for complex societies to emerge. Three such civilizations were
3078-457: A problem in the beech forests since their spread in the 1970s, being known to kill and compete for food with lizards and other native species. Bluegill bully , torrentfish , common bully and short-finned eels are in the river and streams. Salmon trout were introduced to the Buller in 1878 and trout in 1884. Other introduced animals include stoats , red deer , goats , pigs and chamois . Rats were present when Europeans first explored
3240-891: A ritualistic sense has been compared to the Christian ritual of baptism , famously the Baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River . Floods also appear in Norse mythology , where the world is said to emerge from a void that eleven rivers flowed into. Aboriginal Australian religion and Mesoamerican mythology also have stories of floods, some of which contain no survivors, unlike the Abrahamic flood. Along with mythological rivers, religions have also cared for specific rivers as sacred rivers. The Ancient Celtic religion saw rivers as goddesses. The Nile had many gods attached to it. The tears of
3402-425: A river can take several forms. Tidal rivers (often part of an estuary ) have their levels rise and fall with the tide . Since the levels of these rivers are often already at or near sea level, the flow of alluvium and the brackish water that flows in these rivers may be either upriver or downriver depending on the time of day. Rivers that are not tidal may form deltas that continuously deposit alluvium into
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#17327732253903564-460: A section of the river behind them into a lake or reservoir. This can provide nearby cities with a predictable supply of drinking water. Hydroelectricity is desirable as a form of renewable energy that does not require any inputs beyond the river itself. Dams are very common worldwide, with at least 75,000 higher than 6 feet (1.8 m) in the U.S. Globally, reservoirs created by dams cover 193,500 square miles (501,000 km ). Dam-building reached
3726-399: A series of battles between the two iwi . In the North Island, Hikaororoa, a prominent tribal member, attacked Te Mata-ki-kaipoinga pā after Tūāhuriri insulted him. Tūtekawa (Tūāhuriri's brother-in-law of senior Ngāti Kahungunu, Ngāti Porou, and Ngāti Māmoe connections) withdrew his men to attack at another angle after his younger relative recognised an insult from Hikaororoa. He sent
3888-499: A threat from Rerewaka, a local chief. Ngāti Toa then visited Kaiapoi, ostensibly to trade. When Ngāti Toa attacked their hosts, the well-prepared Ngāi Tahu killed all the leading Ngāti Toa chiefs except Te Rauparaha who subsequently returned to his stronghold at Kapiti Island . During this time Ngati Tumatakokiri continued attacking the Poutini Ngāi Tahu from Kawatiri over land and hunting disputes, with Ngāti Rārua also attacking
4050-438: A water body is that body's riparian zone . Plants in the riparian zone of a river help stabilize its banks to prevent erosion and filter alluvium deposited by the river on the shore, including processing the nitrogen and other nutrients it contains. Forests in a riparian zone also provide important animal habitats . River ecosystems have also been categorized based on the variety of aquatic life they can sustain, also known as
4212-512: A water cycle that involved precipitation. The term flumen , in planetary geology , refers to channels on Saturn 's moon Titan that may carry liquid. Titan's rivers flow with liquid methane and ethane . There are river valleys that exhibit wave erosion , seas, and oceans. Scientists hope to study these systems to see how coasts erode without the influence of human activity, something that isn't possible when studying terrestrial rivers. Ng%C4%81i Tahu Ngāi Tahu , or Kāi Tahu ,
4374-430: A window to remove the breach on tapu , where he and Tūmaro greeted him with open arms. Te Hikutawatawa was still outraged at his mana being defiled by Kahukura-te-paku, so he returned later to destroy the site and kill everyone who lived there. After this he was known as Tūāhuriri ( tūāhu meaning "sacred altar", riri meaning "to be angry"). Late in the 17th century the iwi began migrating to
4536-445: Is a tributary , and the place they meet is a confluence . Rivers must flow to lower altitudes due to gravity . The bed of a river is typically within a river valley between hills or mountains . Rivers flowing through an impermeable section of land such as rocks will erode the slopes on the sides of the river. When a river carves a plateau or a similar high-elevation area, a canyon can form, with cliffs on either side of
4698-519: Is a natural freshwater stream that flows on land or inside caves towards another body of water at a lower elevation , such as an ocean , lake , or another river. A river may run dry before reaching the end of its course if it runs out of water, or only flow during certain seasons. Rivers are regulated by the water cycle , the processes by which water moves around the Earth. Water first enters rivers through precipitation , whether from rainfall,
4860-504: Is also important for the lumber industry , as logs can be shipped via river. Countries with dense forests and networks of rivers like Sweden have historically benefited the most from this method of trade. The rise of highways and the automobile has made this practice less common. One of the first large canals was the Canal du Midi , connecting rivers within France to create a path from
5022-564: Is an ancient dam built on the Nile 4,500 years ago. The Ancient Roman civilization used aqueducts to transport water to urban areas . Spanish Muslims used mills and water wheels beginning in the seventh century. Between 130 and 1492, larger dams were built in Japan, Afghanistan, and India, including 20 dams higher than 15 metres (49 ft). Canals began to be cut in Egypt as early as 3000 BC, and
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5184-506: Is an historical instance that highlights the importance of the ariki 's spiritual status, and the importance of tapu . The feud sparked when a woman from the Waikakahi pā at Wairewa named Murihaka wore a dogskin cloak which belonged to Tamaiharanui, thus causing an insult to him. His followers then killed Rerewaka, a slave of one of Murihaka's relatives. The relatives then responded by killing another chief, Hape. Hape's wife
5346-448: Is at a higher elevation than the river itself, and in these areas, water flows downhill into the river. The headwaters of a river are the smaller streams that feed a river, and make up the river's source. These streams may be small and flow rapidly down the sides of mountains . All of the land uphill of a river that feeds it with water in this way is in that river's drainage basin or watershed. A ridge of higher elevation land
5508-405: Is because any natural impediment to the flow of the river may cause the current to deflect in a different direction. When this happens, the alluvium carried by the river can build up against this impediment, redirecting the course of the river. The flow is then directed against the opposite bank of the river, which will erode into a more concave shape to accommodate the flow. The bank will still block
5670-453: Is correlated with and thus can be used to predict certain data points related to rivers, such as the size of the drainage basin (drainage area), and the length of the channel. The ecosystem of a river includes the life that lives in its water, on its banks, and in the surrounding land. The width of the channel of a river, its velocity, and how shaded it is by nearby trees. Creatures in a river ecosystem may be divided into many roles based on
5832-497: Is in part because of a projected loss of snowpack in mountains, meaning that melting snow can't replenish rivers during warm summer months, leading to lower water levels. Lower-level rivers also have warmer temperatures, threatening species like salmon that prefer colder upstream temperatures. Attempts have been made to regulate the exploitation of rivers to preserve their ecological functions. Many wetland areas have become protected from development. Water restrictions can prevent
5994-439: Is indicated by argillite from Ohana, at the south end of D'Urville Island , chert from upper North island and obsidian from Mayor Island / Tūhua . In 2004 the site was described as one of the largest and best preserved large Archaic sites in the country. More investigation may reveal whether it was occupied for more than a few years. Subsequent pre-colonial history is obscure. The Waitangi Tribunal concluded that, "very little
6156-414: Is known about the history of Ngati Apa 's occupation of the region . . . invasion by northern tribes in the early nineteenth century made it difficult to pass on any substantial record of the traditional history of this area" and it was "probably an area of migratory resource use rather than permanent occupation". One migratory resource was Ngāi Tahu 's pounamu trade, which had a greenstone trail through
6318-402: Is part of permafrost ice caps, or trace amounts of water vapor in the atmosphere. However, there is evidence that rivers flowed on Mars for at least 100,000 years. The Hellas Planitia is a crater left behind by an impact from an asteroid. It has sedimentary rock that was formed 3.7 billion years ago, and lava fields that are 3.3 billion years old. High resolution images of the surface of
6480-633: Is rarely static, the exact location of a river border may be called into question by countries. The Rio Grande between the United States and Mexico is regulated by the International Boundary and Water Commission to manage the right to fresh water from the river, as well as mark the exact location of the border. Up to 60% of fresh water used by countries comes from rivers that cross international borders. This can cause disputes between countries that live upstream and downstream of
6642-701: Is that of the Mississippi River , whose drainage basin covers 40% of the contiguous United States . The river was then used for shipping crops from the American Midwest and cotton from the American South to other states as well as the Atlantic Ocean. The role of urban rivers has evolved from when they were a center of trade, food, and transportation to modern times when these uses are less necessary. Rivers remain central to
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6804-553: Is the Sunswick Creek in New York City, which was covered in the 1800s and now exists only as a sewer-like pipe. While rivers may flow into lakes or man-made features such as reservoirs , the water they contain will always tend to flow down toward the ocean . However, if human activity siphons too much water away from a river for other uses, the riverbed may run dry before reaching the sea. The outlets mouth of
6966-543: Is the principal Māori iwi (tribe) of the South Island . Its takiwā (tribal area) is the largest in New Zealand, and extends from the White Bluffs / Te Parinui o Whiti (southeast of Blenheim ), Mount Mahanga and Kahurangi Point in the north to Stewart Island / Rakiura in the south. The takiwā comprises 18 rūnanga (governance areas) corresponding to traditional settlements. According to
7128-842: Is what typically separates drainage basins; water on one side of a ridge will flow into one set of rivers, and water on the other side will flow into another. One example of this is the Continental Divide of the Americas in the Rocky Mountains . Water on the western side of the divide flows into the Pacific Ocean , whereas water on the other side flows into the Atlantic Ocean . Not all precipitation flows directly into rivers; some water seeps into underground aquifers . These, in turn, can still feed rivers via
7290-492: The pā at Onawe . In 1832–33 Ngāi Tahu retaliated under the leadership of Tūhawaiki , Taiaroa, Karetai , and Haereroa, attacking Ngāti Toa at Lake Grassmere . Ngāi Tahu prevailed, and killed many Ngāti Toa, although Te Rauparaha again escaped. In 1834 Chief Iwikau, brother of Te Maiharanui, led a war party into the Marlborough Sounds , though Ngāti Toa had hidden from them and could not be found. The campaign
7452-600: The pā empty however, as Taiaroa had warned their people that the attackers would arrive with muskets. It is thought that this was the first instance of firearms in Canterbury. Since they had killed nobody at Waikakahi, the Kaiapoi warriors feared ridicule. They happened across the nephew of Chief Taununu, of Rīpapa Island , and killed him. In retaliation Taununu overran the Whakaepa pā , near Coalgate , killing
7614-629: The 2018 census an estimated 74,082 people affiliated with the Kāi Tahu iwi. Ngāi Tahu originated in the Gisborne District of the North Island , along with Ngāti Porou and Ngāti Kahungunu , who all intermarried amongst the local Ngāti Ira. Over time, all but Ngāti Porou would migrate away from the district. Several iwi were already occupying the South Island prior to Ngāi Tahu's arrival, with Kāti Māmoe only having arrived about
7776-599: The 2024 Summer Olympics . Another example is the restoration of the Isar in Munich from being a fully canalized channel with hard embankments to being wider with naturally sloped banks and vegetation. This has improved wildlife habitat in the Isar, and provided more opportunities for recreation in the river. As a natural barrier , rivers are often used as a border between countries , cities, and other territories . For example,
7938-487: The Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea . The nineteenth century saw canal-building become more common, with the U.S. building 4,400 miles (7,100 km) of canals by 1830. Rivers began to be used by cargo ships at a larger scale, and these canals were used in conjunction with river engineering projects like dredging and straightening to ensure the efficient flow of goods. One of the largest such projects
8100-556: The Conway area , Makō-ha-kirikiri was with his sisters Te Apai and Tokerau, Manawa-i-waho's wives, when Tukiauau sneaked in and killed Manawa. The former three were spared by the protection of the guardian, Te Hineumutahi. However, they were forced to leave the pā through her legs (she would have been a wooden figure or carving suspended in the air). By the 1690s Ngāi Tahu had settled in Canterbury , including Ngāti Kurī conquering
8262-625: The Hinemoatū / Howard , Hope , Owen , Mangles , Matiri , Newton , Orikaka , Blackwater , Ohikaiti and Ohikanui Rivers . In July 2001 the Buller Water Conservation Order came into force, listing the waters of the Buller River and tributaries that are to be retained in their natural state or protected because of the outstanding characteristics, features and values of the waters. River A river
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#17327732253908424-501: The Industrial Revolution as a source of power for textile mills and other factories, but were eventually supplanted by steam power . Rivers became more industrialized with the growth of technology and the human population . As fish and water could be brought from elsewhere, and goods and people could be transported via railways , pre-industrial river uses diminished in favor of more complex uses. This meant that
8586-791: The Lamari River in New Guinea separates the Angu and the Fore people in New Guinea. The two cultures speak different languages and rarely mix. 23% of international borders are large rivers (defined as those over 30 meters wide). The traditional northern border of the Roman Empire was the Danube , a river that today forms the border of Hungary and Slovakia . Since the flow of a river
8748-583: The New Zealand (Māori) Pioneer Battalion . A handful of notable servicemen included: Turu Rakerawa Hiroti, Hoani Parata, James William Tepene, and John Charles Tamanuiarangi Tikao, all of whom held the rank of captain . One soldier born of chiefly ranking was Private Hohepa Teihoka of Kaiapoi, who was nearly 19 years old when he arrived in Dardanelles in July 1915. George Henry West (Kāi Te Rakiāmoa)
8910-525: The Nile and the Ganges . The Quran describes these four rivers as flowing with water, milk, wine, and honey, respectively. The book of Genesis also contains a story of a great flood . Similar myths are present in the Epic of Gilgamesh , Sumerian mythology, and in other cultures. In Genesis, the flood's role was to cleanse Earth of the wrongdoing of humanity. The act of water working to cleanse humans in
9072-568: The River Continuum Concept . "Shredders" are organisms that consume this organic material. The role of a "grazer" or "scraper" organism is to feed on the algae that collects on rocks and plants. "Collectors" consume the detritus of dead organisms. Lastly, predators feed on living things to survive. The river can then be modeled by the availability of resources for each creature's role. A shady area with deciduous trees might experience frequent deposits of organic matter in
9234-627: The River Lethe to forget their previous life. Rivers also appear in descriptions of paradise in Abrahamic religions , beginning with the story of Genesis . A river beginning in the Garden of Eden waters the garden and then splits into four rivers that flow to provide water to the world. These rivers include the Tigris and Euphrates , and two rivers that are possibly apocryphal but may refer to
9396-787: The Sumerians in the Tigris–Euphrates river system , the Ancient Egyptian civilization in the Nile, and the Indus Valley Civilization on the Indus River . The desert climates of the surrounding areas made these societies especially reliant on rivers for survival, leading to people clustering in these areas to form the first cities . It is also thought that these civilizations were the first to organize
9558-485: The climate . The alluvium carried by rivers, laden with minerals, is deposited into the floodplain when the banks spill over, providing new nutrients to the soil, allowing them to support human activity like farming as well as a host of plant and animal life. Deposited sediment from rivers can form temporary or long-lasting fluvial islands . These islands exist in almost every river. About half of all waterways on Earth are intermittent rivers , which do not always have
9720-685: The cultural identity of cities and nations. Famous examples include the River Thames 's relationship to London , the Seine to Paris , and the Hudson River to New York City . The restoration of water quality and recreation to urban rivers has been a goal of modern administrations. For example, swimming was banned in the Seine for over 100 years due to concerns about pollution and the spread of E. coli , until cleanup efforts to allow its use in
9882-424: The discharge of a river, the amount of water passing through it at a particular time. The flow of a river can act as a means of transportation for plant and animal species, as well as a barrier. For example, the Amazon River is so wide in parts that the variety of species on either side of its basin are distinct. Some fish may swim upstream to spawn as part of a seasonal migration . Species that travel from
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#173277322539010044-465: The extinction of some species, and lowered the amount of alluvium flowing through rivers. Decreased snowfall from climate change has resulted in less water available for rivers during the summer. Regulation of pollution, dam removal , and sewage treatment have helped to improve water quality and restore river habitats. A river is a natural flow of freshwater that flows on or through land towards another body of water downhill. This flow can be into
10206-483: The pounamu that can be found there. It is said to have been Tūrakautahi's decision to learn the genealogies and traditions of Ngāti Wairangi and Ngāti Tūmatakōkiri , the former of which already shared a common ancestry with Ngāi Tahu through the ancestors Tura and Paikea, and the latter being of the Kurahaupō waka like Ngāti Māmoe, Ngāi Tara, and Rangitāne. A similar approach was also taken to learn Waitaha's genealogies and stories. Myths that Ngāi Tahu brought to
10368-402: The runoff of water down a slope, the melting of glaciers or snow , or seepage from aquifers beneath the surface of the Earth. Rivers flow in channeled watercourses and merge in confluences to form drainage basins , areas where surface water eventually flows to a common outlet. Rivers have a great effect on the landscape around them. They may regularly overflow their banks and flood
10530-436: The sea . The sediment yield of a river is the quantity of sand per unit area within a watershed that is removed over a period of time. The monitoring of the sediment yield of a river is important for ecologists to understand the health of its ecosystems, the rate of erosion of the river's environment, and the effects of human activity. Rivers rarely run in a straight direction, instead preferring to bend or meander . This
10692-521: The water table , the groundwater beneath the surface of the land stored in the soil . Water flows into rivers in places where the river's elevation is lower than that of the water table. This phenomenon is why rivers can still flow even during times of drought . Rivers are also fed by the melting of snow glaciers present in higher elevation regions. In summer months, higher temperatures melt snow and ice, causing additional water to flow into rivers. Glacier melt can supplement snow melt in times like
10854-418: The 1860s. By 1867 there were 6,087 miners in Nelson Province and 10,466 people (and 1,612 tents, indicating the temporary nature of their stay) in Westland North , which also included the Grey valley. About 1,500 were in Westport in 1867, which was then the 3rd largest port for exporting gold, after Hokitika and Dunedin . William Fox was the New Zealand Company agent (a UK -based company of 1837, with
11016-610: The 1926 flood and has the highest flood flow in the country of over 7,640 cubic metres per second (270,000 cu ft/s). 93% of the water comes from the western mountains, which make up only 38% of the catchment, and it is highest in summer, partly due to melting snow. Excavations at the mouth of the river, across from Westport, uncovered 77 stone adzes , 2,693 stone flakes ( argillite , chert , obsidian and silcrete from manufacture of stone tools), minnow lures, moa bone, sites of huts, ovens, middens and urupā , with one shell carbon dated to between 1219 and 1316. Early trading
11178-407: The 1970s, but all were less than 0.1% U 3 O 8 . In 1972 the mountains on either side of the Gorge were officially named Mounts Cassin and Jacobsen, after the men who discovered the uranium. The Buller has several major tributaries. These include (in order from Lake Rotoiti) the Gowan River , the Matakitaki River , the Maruia River , and the Inangahua River . Other smaller tributaries include
11340-442: The Ariki Falls section, between Murchison and Newton Flat, is also popular and novices can use it by carrying kayaks around the rapids, except when the river is very low and the rapids become unnavigable. The river is suitable for contact recreation approximately 95% of the time, though Tasman Council recognises it needs to be better because of the popularity of whitewater kayaking below Gowan Bridge . State Highway 6 follows
11502-411: The Buller catchment, many of these extending onto the slopes of the Paparoa Range. The Buller River upstream from Murchison along with the Mangles River are popular for whitewater kayaking and recreational fishing , though the whole river can be kayaked; it is the only major river in the country with no hydro lakes, though a seismic survey for hydro power was done in 1973. For experienced canoeists
11664-813: The Buller from the Motupiko River and that is divided from the Wairau River by a 695 m (2,280 ft) saddle, both aligned along the Alpine Fault , as is the top of the Buller valley. Within the Buller Gorge and downstream from the Deepdale River joining, the Buller crosses from Tasman District into Buller District . The Paparoa Range separates the Buller River from the Grey River . A number of flora and fauna are found in
11826-532: The Buller valley in 1859. Despite this indication of the land's value, the 1860 Arahura Deed sold most of the West Coast to the government for £300 (about 1d per 100 acres), covering a total of 7,000,000 acres (2,800,000 ha), which included virtually all of the Buller valley south from the Gowan River. A West Coast gold rush , coal mines and timber sawmills resulted in a rapid population increase in
11988-517: The Cook Strait (Henry Williams) sheet on 14 May – and from three Ngāti Kahungunu members at Hawke's Bay on 24 June, amounting to a total of 27 signatures for the sheet. At the very end of the 19th century a Ngāi Tahu man named William Timaru Joss (1844–1895), a Stewart Island whaler and captain of the mailboat Ulva , was a member of the first confirmed landing party of the Antarctic on
12150-531: The Herald (Bunbury) sheet carried with Major Thomas Bunbury aboard HMS Herald which sailed from the Bay of Islands on 28 April. The Cook Strait ( Henry Williams ) sheet was used at Arapaoa Island and Rangitoto ki te Tonga / D'Urville Island at the northern end of the South Island, but was not signed by Ngāi Tahu. The sheet's first four signatures came from Coromandel Harbour one week later on 4 May, and
12312-513: The Nelson-Murchison Railways Road Services route was taken over by Nelson Suburban Bus Co. In 1846 the land around what was later Westport was described as covered to the river edge with totara and kahikatea . Much of the river flows through beech forest, with matagouri scrub and mānuka in the upper reaches. Carmichaelia (New Zealand broom) grows in the lower valley, especially around Lyell. Along
12474-602: The New Zealand Company. The original Māori name for the Buller may have been Kawatiri , although Patrick O'Regan thought that was a misunderstanding of Ka Awatiri. He translated Awatiri as a rapid river. The first 1846 expedition named the Buller valley around Murchison as the Aglionby valley, after the English MP, Henry Aglionby Aglionby . In 1911 O'Regan suggested it had dropped out of use because it
12636-536: The Poutini Ngāi Tahu with muskets, seeking pounamu. In November 1830 Te Rauparaha persuaded Captain John Stewart of the brig Elizabeth to carry him and his warriors in secret to Takapūneke near present-day Akaroa , where by subterfuge they captured Tamaiharanui and his wife and daughter. After destroying Takapūneke they embarked for Kapiti with their captives. Tamaiharanui strangled his daughter and threw her overboard to save her from slavery. Ngāti Toa killed
12798-626: The South Island themselves include those of the Takitimu Mountains (being the Tākitimu waka ) and the Āraiteuru . Tūrakautahi and one Te-ake narrowly escaped slaughter in Ngāti Wairangi territory after others had been slain for breaking sacred customs. Tūrakautahi's brother Tānetiki, and two relatives Tūtaemaro and Tūtepiriraki, had not been so fortunate however. The brothers' uncle Hikatūtae chopped off their heads and returned to
12960-467: The Taumutu people to come back home, assuring that the war was over. He however returned first and lay in wait for the Taumutu people with muskets. According to Hakopa Te Ata-o-Tu, a member of Tamaiharanui's party, Tamaiharanui became less enthusiastic about the attack when he realised the refugees had their own muskets. Nonetheless, he was convinced to attack, and the refugees were killed. The final act of
13122-543: The Tukemōkihi block. Owing to growing tensions between the various iwi inhabiting the surrounding area, many groups began their migration away from Waerenga-a-Hika in the Gisborne District. One of the earliest notable instances of tension was where Rākaihikuroa, grandson of Kahungunu , killed his own twin brothers out of jealousy, and was banished after his own son Tupurupuru was killed in revenge. Perhaps
13284-592: The Upper Gorge, was split by a 4.5 m (15 ft) scarp. There were also slips in the 1968 Inangahua earthquake , one of which created a 30 m (98 ft) high dam in the river, just above Inangahua. Above the Lower Gorge, podzol soils lie on sandstones of the Brunner Coal Measures . They are very infertile, acidic and tend to be very poorly drained. At high altitudes, the soils become skeletal and, in many places, unweathered rocks lie on
13446-504: The ancestor of Ngāi Tūāhuriri, was born illegitimate. Owing to Rākaitekura's high rank, Tūmaro was unable to kill her, so instead had her prepare herself for marriage with Te Aohikuraki. The stream where she did up her hair was called Koukourārata . Tūmaro gathered his family and departed for Waimea, near Nelson across the Cook Strait , leaving Rākaitekura and Te Hikutawatawa behind. Curiosity burning in him since childhood, when
13608-541: The area to the north began in the Early Miocene. It was particularly rapid during the late Miocene- Pliocene . In the 1929 Murchison earthquake a 1.6 km (0.99 mi) landslide fell 550 m (1,800 ft) to dam the Buller at Fern Flat, about midway between Murchison and O'Sullivan's Bridge. After two days the dam was washed away. The road between Murchison and Inangahua had 34 landslips, some up to 600 m (2,000 ft) wide. The road at White Creek, in
13770-463: The beach Te Rāpaki-o-Te Rakiwhakaputa . He destroyed Ngāti Māmoe's pā at Mānuka, across the hills at Taitapu , and prior to that also lived at Te Pā-o-Te Rakiwhakaputa on the Cam River / Ruataniwha for a time. His son Manuhiri drove Ngāti Māmoe out of Ōhinetahi and set up his base there, and his other son Te Wheke set up his own base on Avon River / Ōtākaro 's estuary. Makō-ha-kirikiri
13932-520: The bodies of all the slain there. The remaining children of the warring parents would move down to a place called Te Oreorehua in Wairarapa where Hinehou was already living, and southward to Te Whanganui-a-Tara within a few generations. In Wellington Te Aohikuraki, the senior chief, slept with Rākaitekura (a high ranking Ngāi Tahu woman) while her husband Tūmaro was away visiting his family. Of this Te Hikutawatawa (later named Tūāhuriri ),
14094-695: The bodies of humans and animals worldwide, as well as in the soil, with potentially negative health effects. Research into how to remove it from the environment, and how harmful exposure is, is ongoing. Fertilizer from farms can lead to a proliferation of algae on the surface of rivers and oceans, which prevents oxygen and light from dissolving into water, making it impossible for underwater life to survive in these so-called dead zones . Urban rivers are typically surrounded by impermeable surfaces like stone, asphalt , and concrete. Cities often have storm drains that direct this water to rivers. This can cause flooding risk as large amounts of water are directed into
14256-405: The complete draining of rivers. Limits on the construction of dams, as well as dam removal , can restore the natural habitats of river species. Regulators can also ensure regular releases of water from dams to keep animal habitats supplied with water. Limits on pollutants like pesticides can help improve water quality. Today, the surface of Mars does not have liquid water. All water on Mars
14418-557: The continent of Antarctica at Cape Adare , along with Captain Kristensen , Bull , Borchgrevink , and Tunzelmann in January 1895, making Joss the first known Māori to get so close to the continent. Timaru William Joss (1905–1955), William Timaru's grandson, joined Admiral Richard E. Byrd 's expedition to Antarctica in 1935. Over 270 individuals of Ngāi Tahu connection served during World War I , including some who fought with
14580-430: The cousin of Ngāi Tahu's leading chief Te-hau-tapunui-o-Tū, and of Honekai, son of Te-hau-tapunui-o-Tū, with Raki-ihia's daughter Kohuwai. Despite this, occasional skirmishes still continued. Tūhuru Kokare, a grandson of Tūrakautahi's son Waewae (thus chief of Ngāti Waewae), became an active member in the battles against Ngāti Wairangi around the turn of the century. He first defeated them at Lake Brunner , and then began
14742-404: The deaths of his sisters. Tūtekawa's son Te Rakitāmau returned to the home, where he found his wife Punahikoia and children unharmed, and the attackers sleeping near the fire. Te Rakitāmau did not avenge Tūtekawa, but instead left a sign that he spared the attackers' lives, and peace was eventually restored between their descendants. Chief Te Rakiwhakaputa claimed the area of Whakaraupō , naming
14904-456: The east coast down to Kaikōura , and Ngāti Irakehu peaceably settling among Banks Peninsula 's Ngāti Māmoe. The last battle that was fought between the two iwi up to that point was the Battle of Waipapa, before Ngāti Kurī took the Takahanga pā . Marukaitātea chose to stay here, while other chiefs continued to push south. Around this time, the ariki Tūteāhuka was moving the last of
15066-436: The effect of normalizing the effects of rivers; the greatest floods are smaller and more predictable, and larger sections are open for navigation by boats and other watercraft. A major effect of river engineering has been a reduced sediment output of large rivers. For example, the Mississippi River produced 400 million tons of sediment per year. Due to the construction of reservoirs , sediment buildup in man-made levees , and
15228-591: The famous chief of Ngāi Tūhaitara born with a club foot , established Te Kōhaka-a-kaikai-a-waro pā (now the Kaiapoi pā ) at the Taerutu Lagoon near Woodend , and claimed the area around Banks Peninsula. With the discovery of Nōti Raureka (Browning Pass) by its namesake Raureka, of the West Coast iwi Ngāti Wairangi , Ngāi Tūhaitara quickly developed an interest in Te Tai Poutini for
15390-465: The feud was the killing of Taununu, who was tomahawked to death along with his companion, near Ōtokitoki. In 1827–1828 Ngāti Toa , under the leadership of Te Rauparaha and armed with muskets, successfully attacked Kāti Kurī at Kaikōura, who were already expecting the Tū-te-pākihi-rangi hapū of Ngāti Kahungunu as friendly visitors. He named the battle Niho Maaka ("Shark's Tooth") after
15552-826: The first human civilizations . The organisms that live around or in a river such as fish , aquatic plants , and insects have different roles, including processing organic matter and predation . Rivers have produced abundant resources for humans, including food , transportation , drinking water , and recreation. Humans have engineered rivers to prevent flooding, irrigate crops, perform work with water wheels , and produce hydroelectricity from dams. People associate rivers with life and fertility and have strong religious, political, social, and mythological attachments to them. Rivers and river ecosystems are threatened by water pollution , climate change , and human activity. The construction of dams, canals , levees , and other engineered structures has eliminated habitats, has caused
15714-451: The fish zonation concept. Smaller rivers can only sustain smaller fish that can comfortably fit in its waters, whereas larger rivers can contain both small fish and large fish. This means that larger rivers can host a larger variety of species. This is analogous to the species-area relationship , the concept of larger habitats being host to more species. In this case, it is known as the species-discharge relationship, referring specifically to
15876-673: The floating of wood on rivers to transport it, was especially important. Rivers also were an important source of drinking water . For civilizations built around rivers, fish were an important part of the diet of humans. Some rivers supported fishing activities, but were ill-suited to farming, such as those in the Pacific Northwest . Other animals that live in or near rivers like frogs , mussels , and beavers could provide food and valuable goods such as fur . Humans have been building infrastructure to use rivers for thousands of years. The Sadd el-Kafara dam near Cairo , Egypt,
16038-412: The flow of the river beneath its surface. These help rivers flow straighter by increasing the speed of the water at the middle of the channel, helping to control floods. Levees are also used for this purpose. They can be thought of as dams constructed on the sides of rivers, meant to hold back water from flooding the surrounding area during periods of high rainfall. They are often constructed by building up
16200-399: The flow, causing it to reflect in the other direction. Thus, a bend in the river is created. Rivers may run through low, flat regions on their way to the sea. These places may have floodplains that are periodically flooded when there is a high level of water running through the river. These events may be referred to as "wet seasons' and "dry seasons" when the flooding is predictable due to
16362-650: The form of leaves. In this type of ecosystem, collectors and shredders will be most active. As the river becomes deeper and wider, it may move slower and receive more sunlight . This supports invertebrates and a variety of fish , as well as scrapers feeding on algae. Further downstream, the river may get most of its energy from organic matter that was already processed upstream by collectors and shredders. Predators may be more active here, including fish that feed on plants, plankton , and other fish. The flood pulse concept focuses on habitats that flood seasonally, including lakes and marshes . The land that interfaces with
16524-600: The full length of the Buller, together with his guide, E Kehu, of Ngāti Tūmatakōkiri , who already knew the area well (Ekehu had been taken prisoner by Ngāi Tahu while living near the Grey River). That expedition lasted almost 560 days. The journey was so difficult that they left Lake Rotoiti on 31 December 1846, but only reached the mouth of the river on 4 June 1847. They returned up the Buller, leaving Inangahua on 23 March 1848 and reached Lake Rotoiti again on 12 June 1848. Surveyor John Rochfort discovered gold and coal in
16686-508: The goddess Isis were said to be the cause of the river's yearly flooding, itself personified by the goddess Hapi . Many African religions regard certain rivers as the originator of life. In Yoruba religion , Yemọja rules over the Ogun River in modern-day Nigeria and is responsible for creating all children and fish. Some sacred rivers have religious prohibitions attached to them, such as not being allowed to drink from them or ride in
16848-452: The headdress's plume was still visible in the dirt. This was considered a bad omen and so the body was discarded with the incident being called Pikitūroa ("The Long Standing Feather Plumes"). Marukore and Tūhaitara would both die in the Battle of Tapapanui, at the hands of their son Pahirua who was very angry about the whole situation. In one telling of the series of battles, Hinehou and Pahirua built Kārara Kōpae together, and burnt
17010-400: The impression of those foods being prepared in the storehouse. The later battle came to be known as Te Whataroa because of this. The children began playing games, enticing the adults to join in as a distraction while the hosts began to form their attack, even killing the visitors' dogs. Tūtekohi ultimately won, and so Ngāi Tahu was forced to move further down the North Island. Rakawahakura
17172-494: The inhabitants. The Otago hapū attacked Waikakahi again, and although Taiaroa had again warned them, they were pursued and killed. Two of Tamaiharanui's close kin, his sisters, were slaughtered. The Otago and Taumutu parties destroyed the Rīpapa pā before returning to Otago. Many settlements and communities along Banks Peninsula were abandoned in the series of retaliatory attacks. Tamaiharanui then went to Otago and persuaded
17334-428: The irrigation of desert environments for growing food. Growing food at scale allowed people to specialize in other roles, form hierarchies, and organize themselves in new ways, leading to the birth of civilization. In pre-industrial society , rivers were a source of transportation and abundant resources. Many civilizations depended on what resources were local to them to survive. Shipping of commodities, especially
17496-466: The island. One, Moki, another son of Tūāhuriri, had received reports from Kaiapu and Tamakino (brothers of Mārewa, Moki's wife) that his father's wife's killer, Tūtekawa, was living just further south at Te Waihora. He set off in his canoe, Makawhiu , and attacked various small villages including the Parakākāriki pā at Ōtanerito . Tūtekawa was ultimately killed by Whākuku instead of Moki, avenging
17658-460: The journey, but the 40 mi (64 km) from Lyell could also be covered in 7 hours downstream. Roads in the valley evolved. In good weather a footpath was passable along the length of the valley by 1864. Horses could usually travel from Nelson to Lyell by 1867 and wheeled traffic by 1876. A dray road opening from Inangahua to Lyell in 1878 facilitated animal-drawn transport vehicles. A telegraph line opened to Lyell in 1874. Job Lines began
17820-434: The late summer, when there may be less snow left to melt, helping to ensure that the rivers downstream of the glaciers have a continuous supply of water. Rivers flow downhill, with their direction determined by gravity . A common misconception holds that all or most rivers flow from North to South, but this is not true. As rivers flow downstream, they eventually merge to form larger rivers. A river that feeds into another
17982-474: The level of river branching in a drainage basin. Several systems of stream order exist, one of which is the Strahler number . In this system, the first tributaries of a river are 1st order rivers. When two 1st order rivers merge, the resulting river is 2nd order. If a river of a higher order and a lower order merge, the order is incremented from whichever of the previous rivers had the higher order. Stream order
18144-561: The local ecosystems of rivers needed less protection as humans became less reliant on them for their continued flourishing. River engineering began to develop projects that enabled industrial hydropower , canals for the more efficient movement of goods, as well as projects for flood prevention . River transportation has historically been significantly cheaper and faster than transportation by land. Rivers helped fuel urbanization as goods such as grain and fuel could be floated downriver to supply cities with resources. River transportation
18306-594: The matter again near Kaiata and Omotumotu after crossing Māwheranui , and made the decision to construct a pā at Māwhera. They became known as the Poutini Ngāi Tahu . The Kaihuānga feud of the 1820s heavily involved the upoko ariki (paramount chief) Tamaiharanui , whose status was so spiritually superior within the iwi that people of lower ranking would avert their gaze and avoid looking at him directly. If his shadow fell upon food, that food became tapu and had to be destroyed. The Kaihuānga feud
18468-407: The mechanical shadoof began to be used to raise the elevation of water. Drought years harmed crop yields, and leaders of society were incentivized to ensure regular water and food availability to remain in power. Engineering projects like the shadoof and canals could help prevent these crises. Despite this, there is evidence that floodplain-based civilizations may have been abandoned occasionally at
18630-400: The migration routes of fish and destroy habitats. Rivers that flow freely from headwaters to the sea have better water quality, and also retain their ability to transport nutrient-rich alluvium and other organic material downstream, keeping the ecosystem healthy. The creation of a lake changes the habitat of that portion of water, and blocks the transportation of sediment, as well as preventing
18792-471: The mountains as they have been raised by Quaternary faulting and folding. Some 350,000 years ago the river had wide floodplains, which remain as flat terraces above the narrow gorge, as at Manuka Flat, now roughly 300 m (980 ft) above the river. The Murchison Basin was filled between the Late Eocene and Early Miocene by sediments in increasingly shallow waters, indicating that the uplift of
18954-502: The name of the ancestor Tahupōtiki . Alongside the other iwi that Ngāi Tahu absorbed, there are five primary hapū (sub-tribes) of Ngāi Tahu, which are: Ngāti Kurī, Ngāti Irakehu, Kāti Huirapa, Ngāi Tūāhuriri, and Ngāi Te Ruakihikihi. A branch of Ngāi Tūāhuriri and Ngāti Kurī, Kāi Te Rakiāmoa, was one of the latest hapū which the leading chiefs descended from. Ngāi Tahu trace their traditional descent from Tahupōtiki (also Te Tuhi-māreikura-ooho-a-tama-wahine), and Tahumatua ),
19116-399: The natural meandering of the river. Dams block the migration of fish such as salmon for which fish ladder and other bypass systems have been attempted, but these are not always effective. Pollution from factories and urban areas can also damage water quality. " Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) is a widely used chemical that breaks down at a slow rate. It has been found in
19278-429: The natural terrain with soil or clay. Some levees are supplemented with floodways, channels used to redirect floodwater away from farms and populated areas. Dams restrict the flow of water through a river. They can be built for navigational purposes, providing a higher level of water upstream for boats to travel in. They may also be used for hydroelectricity , or power generation from rivers. Dams typically transform
19440-597: The next two were signed aboard HMS Herald just off the Mercury Islands on 7 May. These signatures were collectively from the iwi Ngāti Whanaunga , Ngāti Pāoa , and Ngāti Maru . The first Ngāi Tahu signatory was Chief Iwikau at Akaroa on 30 May, followed by Hone Tīkao signing as John Love. His nephew was Hone Taare Tikao . The third Ngāi Tahu signatory was Chief Tūhawaiki signing as John Touwaick aboard HMS Herald at Ruapuke Island on 10 June, who requested Kaikoura (possibly Kaikōura Whakatau) to sign on
19602-570: The northern end of the Wharerātā Range . Karimoe instead moved northwards and settled at the banks of the Mangaheia stream, inwards of Ūawanui-a-Ruamatua . The family later moved to Iwitea , where Tahupōtiki built the Taumatahīnaki pā . The ancestor Te Matuahanga (descendant of Tūroto and Rakaroa) is still known in the area around there. More pā were established further inland along
19764-594: The northern part of the South Island under the leadership of the Ngāti Kurī chief Pūrahonui, with his sons Makō-ha-kirikiri and Marukaitātea, establishing the Kaihinu pā in the Tory Channel / Kura Te Au . After an incident in which a Ngāi Tahu taua had desecrated the bones of one of Ngāi Tara 's ancestors, Pūrahonui was murdered in revenge early one morning when he went to relieve himself. This broke out into
19926-421: The other children would pick fun on him for being illegitimate, Te Hikutawatawa left Kaiwhakawaru seeking out his step-father. Upon his arrival to Waimea, Tūmaro's father Kahukura-te-paku, not knowing who he was, had intended to cannibalise him, but later put a stop to the meal preparations when local children heard Te Hikutawatawa muttering of his origins. Kahukura-te-paku then asked Te Hikutawatawa to climb through
20088-425: The plain show evidence of a river network, and even river deltas. These images reveal channels formed in the rock, recognized by geologists who study rivers on Earth as being formed by rivers, as well as "bench and slope" landforms, outcroppings of rock that show evidence of river erosion. Not only do these formations suggest that rivers once existed, but that they flowed for extensive time periods, and were part of
20250-525: The prominent Kāti Kurī hapū . Tūhaitara instructed Tamaraeroa and Huirapa to kill Marukore at a place called Papanui . However, Marukore knew of their plan and defeated them in the Battle of Hūkete after which their sister Hinehou laid them on the floor of her whare for her grandchildren to see, and left her belongings with them before burning down the building in an incident now known as Kārara Kōpae ("The Laying Down of Fighting Chiefs"). Alternatively, Marukore himself burned their bodies on
20412-523: The remaining captives. John Stewart, though arrested and sent to trial in Sydney as an accomplice to murder, nevertheless escaped conviction. Another captive, Hōne Tīkao (Ngāi Te Kahukura, Ngāi Tūāhuriri) did survive and would later visit France . In the summer of 1831–1832 Te Rauparaha attacked the Kaiapoi pā . After a three-month siege, a fire in the pā allowed Ngāti Toa to overcome it. Ngāti Toa then attacked Ngāi Tahu on Banks Peninsula and took
20574-448: The removal of natural banks replaced with revetments , this sediment output has been reduced by 60%. The most basic river projects involve the clearing of obstructions like fallen trees. This can scale up to dredging , the excavation of sediment buildup in a channel, to provide a deeper area for navigation. These activities require regular maintenance as the location of the river banks changes over time, floods bring foreign objects into
20736-473: The rest of the family at Kaikōura. Makō-ha-kirikiri of Wairewa and Moki both avenged the deaths near where the bodies were found in the water, on the shores of Lake Mahinapua in the battle called Tāwiri-o-Te Makō . Moki was later cursed by two tohunga , Iriraki and Tautini, for insulting two women. He is said to be buried at Kaitukutuku, near the Waikūkū flaxmill. After the battle, Makō-ha-kirikiri established
20898-536: The reverse, death and destruction, especially through floods . This power has caused rivers to have a central role in religion , ritual , and mythology . In Greek mythology , the underworld is bordered by several rivers. Ancient Greeks believed that the souls of those who perished had to be borne across the River Styx on a boat by Charon in exchange for money. Souls that were judged to be good were admitted to Elysium and permitted to drink water from
21060-479: The river for 132 km (82 mi), SH63 , upstream from SH6, for 23 km (14 mi) and the Stillwater–Ngākawau railway line runs through the Lower Gorge to Westport . State Highway 6 follows the river for much of its length. This river has an annual mean flow of 454 cubic metres per second (16,000 cu ft/s), is estimated to have reached 12,700 m/s (450,000 cu ft/s) in
21222-681: The river most lowland forest on the fertile alluvial soils has been felled, but stands of kahikatea and rimu remain in some inland lowland basins. Other trees and bushes in the valley include mountain akeake , daisy bush , Hector's tree daisy , Dracophyllum densum , mountain cedar , mountain neinei , mountain toatoa , mountain and silver beech , pink pine , yellow-silver pine , southern rata and small rimu . Among other plants there are wire rush , eyebright and ferns such as Gleichenia dicarpa , Gleichenia microphylla Leptopteris superba and Hymenophyllum rufescens . Black-fronted terns and black-billed gulls nest in braided stretches of
21384-468: The river, and natural sediment buildup continues. Artificial channels are often constructed to "cut off" winding sections of a river with a shorter path, or to direct the flow of a river in a straighter direction. This effect, known as channelization, has made the distance required to traverse the Missouri River in 116 kilometres (72 mi) shorter. Dikes are channels built perpendicular to
21546-523: The river, especially near the Hinemoatū River . Great spotted kiwi (roa) live in the upper valley. Other birds include Australasian bittern (matuku hūrepo) long-tailed cuckoo (koekoeā), New Zealand falcon (kārearea), fernbird (kōtātā), New Zealand pipit (pihoihoi), rifleman (titipounamu), western weka kererū , tūī , korimako , riroriro , pīwakawaka , tauhou and morepork (ruru). Speckled skinks (Oligosoma infrapunctatum) are rare in
21708-552: The river. Areas of a river with softer rock weather faster than areas with harder rock, causing a difference in elevation between two points of a river. This can cause the formation of a waterfall as the river's flow falls down a vertical drop. A river in a permeable area does not exhibit this behavior and may even have raised banks due to sediment. Rivers also change their landscape through their transportation of sediment , often known as alluvium when applied specifically to rivers. This debris comes from erosion performed by
21870-625: The river. A country that is downstream of another may object to the upstream country diverting too much water for agricultural uses, pollution, as well as the creation of dams that change the river's flow characteristics. For example, Egypt has an agreement with Sudan requiring a specific minimum volume of water to pass into the Nile yearly over the Aswan Dam , to maintain both countries access to water. The importance of rivers throughout human history has given them an association with life and fertility . They have also become associated with
22032-457: The rivers themselves, debris swept into rivers by rainfall, as well as erosion caused by the slow movement of glaciers. The sand in deserts and the sediment that forms bar islands is from rivers. The particle size of the debris is gradually sorted by the river, with heavier particles like rocks sinking to the bottom, and finer particles like sand or silt carried further downriver . This sediment may be deposited in river valleys or carried to
22194-412: The rivers. Due to these impermeable surfaces, these rivers often have very little alluvium carried in them, causing more erosion once the river exits the impermeable area. It has historically been common for sewage to be directed directly to rivers via sewer systems without being treated, along with pollution from industry. This has resulted in a loss of animal and plant life in urban rivers, as well as
22356-428: The road, was extended to Lyell in 1880 and, by Job Lines, to Reefton in 1882. A motor service began in 1913, allowing the journey between Westport and Nelson to be made in a day. A daily bus linking Nelson and Westport began in 1923. InterCity now runs buses on 4 days a week, taking 3 hours 29 minutes, including a 15 minute break at Murchison. By car the 217 km (135 mi) route takes a bit under 3 hours. In 1964
22518-653: The same day, who was then followed by Taiaroa (or Tararoa; possibly Te Matenga Taiaroa). The last Ngāi Tahu signatures were from Otago Heads on 13 June. The signatories were Hone Karetai (Ngāti Ruahikihiki, Ngāi Te Kahukura, Ngāi Tūāhuriri, Ngāti Hinekura) signing as John Karitai at Ōtākou , and one Korako (Ngāi Tūāhuriri, Ngāti Huirapa) whose identity is not known for certain, but could be either Hōne Wētere Kōrako, Kōrako Karetai, or Hoani Kōrako among others. The last signatures mostly came from members of Ngāti Toa at Te Koko-o-Kupe / Cloudy Bay (17 June) and Mana Island (19 June) – including Te Rauparaha who had already signed
22680-477: The same relative to warn Tūāhuriri to escape, which he did into a nearby bush. For unknown reasons, when Tūtekawa entered the pā , he slew Tūāhuriri's wives Hinekaitaki and Tuarāwhati (Whākuku's sisters). After the battle, Tūtekawa fled down to Waikākahi on the shores of Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora where he lived amongst his fellow Ngāti Māmoe. Tūtekawa's own wife Tūkōrero was a sister to Tūāhuriri's other wife Hinetewai (mother of Hāmua, Tūrakautahi, and Moki). He
22842-409: The sea from their mouths. Depending on the activity of waves, the strength of the river, and the strength of the tidal current, the sediment can accumulate to form new land. When viewed from above, a delta can appear to take the form of several triangular shapes as the river mouth appears to fan out from the original coastline . In hydrology , a stream order is a positive integer used to describe
23004-414: The sea to breed in freshwater rivers are anadromous. Salmon are an anadromous fish that may die in the river after spawning, contributing nutrients back to the river ecosystem. Modern river engineering involves a large-scale collection of independent river engineering structures that have the goal of flood control , improved navigation, recreation, and ecosystem management. Many of these projects have
23166-519: The spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera . In modern times, sewage treatment and controls on pollution from factories have improved the water quality of urban rivers. Climate change can change the flooding cycles and water supply available to rivers. Floods can be larger and more destructive than expected, causing damage to the surrounding areas. Floods can also wash unhealthy chemicals and sediment into rivers. Droughts can be deeper and longer, causing rivers to run dangerously low. This
23328-441: The surface. Brunner Coal Measures are Eocene and were deposited in an estuary. There were coal mines near the Lower Gorge at Rahui (opened 1942) and Cascade (originally opened to improve mine drainage in 1897). Gold is in quartz veins near Lyell, deposited by hydrothermal fluids , created by metamorphosis , about 420 million years ago. Uranium was found in the Lower Gorge in 1955 and searches were made for viable deposits until
23490-485: The surrounding area, spreading nutrients to the surrounding area. Sediment or alluvium carried by rivers shapes the landscape around it, forming deltas and islands where the flow slows down. Rivers rarely run in a straight line, instead, they bend or meander ; the locations of a river's banks can change frequently. Rivers get their alluvium from erosion , which carves rock into canyons and valleys . Rivers have sustained human and animal life for millennia, including
23652-565: The tribe's members to the South Island through the Cook Strait. As a consequence for ignoring Chief Te Aweawe's advice to strap two canoes together for a safer passage, Tūāhuriri is said to have been left to drown along with Tūmaro while trying to leave Wellington. It is very likely that Tūāhuriri's eldest son Hāmua also drowned, otherwise he might have died in Kaikōura at a young age. After establishing dominance down to Kaikōura, many of Ngāi Tahu's leading chiefs were ready to expand further south into
23814-400: The upper part of the valley, but the most common of 8 species of lizard elsewhere in the valley. Rhytida meesoni perampla snail, Leaf-veined slugs and many insects live in the valley, including the striped dung fly , Mycetophila fungus gnats , West Coast tree weta , Wellington tree weta , Kahurangi ground wētā , and Hakaharpalus and Kiwitrechus beetles. European wasps have become
23976-601: The valley in 1846. Lake Rotoiti was created by a glacier and glacial moraines occupy a large area between the Buller and Gowan rivers. From the lake the Buller flows west through a gorge cut in granitic rocks of the Median Batholith . It then turns southwest to follow the axis of the Longford Syncline to Murchison. Tributary valleys around Murchison commonly follow north-south trending faults and fold axes. The Buller's deep gorges have been cut through
24138-414: The valley, probably in summer, when the river would usually be lower. By virtue of a taua of 1829–1832, Ngāti Toa Rangatira was recognised in 2012 as having an interest in the upper part of the river. Europeans first discovered Lake Rotoiti in 1842. The first written record of the river mouth was in 1845, when a sealing captain, Joseph Thoms, was reported as finding, "a large river, a mile wide. It has
24300-464: The year 1725 during the Battle of Waitaramea. Tūrakautahi's other son by his wife Te Aowharepapa, Rakiāmoa, would continue the main lines of descent of Ngāi Tahu. Te Ruahikihiki's own son Taoka, by his wife Te Aotaurewa, would push further south to Ōtākou , where he engaged in some of the final battles with Ngāti Māmoe. Over time, marriages were arranged between Ngāi Tahu and Ngāti Māmoe to cement peace. Notably of Raki-ihia (Ngāti Māmoe) and Hinehākiri,
24462-479: The younger brother of Porourangi . The brothers are said to be descended from Paikea as grandsons, great-grandsons, or great-great-grandsons. Either way, Paikea himself is always Chief Uenuku 's son. Some groups may even trace the brothers as great-grandsons of Uenuku's other son Ruatapu as well as with Paikea. Whatever the case, Tahupōtiki was born in Whāngārā (a place associated with Paikea), around 1450CE. He
24624-472: The Ōhiri pā , at Little River. Tūrakautahi further enlisted Te Rakitāmau's aid in overcoming Ngāti Wairangi, killing their rangatira Te Uekanuka near Lake Kaniere . Tūrakautahi's son Kaweriri with his father-in-law Te Ruahikihiki had settled Taumutu at the southern end of Te Waihora. Kaweriri later travelled with a taua south to Lowther where he was slain by the Kāti Māmoe chief Tutemakohu around
24786-409: Was a local viewed as below her status. The pair had 11 children in total, including Tamaraeroa, Huirapa, Tahumatā, Pahirua and Hinehou. Huirapa is the son who Kāti Huirapa descends from. Tūhaitara's cousin through Rakawahakura, Kurī, also lived around this time. Just as Tūhaitara was the senior ancestress of Ngāi Tahu with her own hapū named after her, Ngāi Tūhaitara, Kurī is also the ancestor of
24948-445: Was a sister to two chiefs from the Taumutu pā at southern Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora . The people of Taumutu responded to Hape's death by attacking Waikakahi, and killing several people. Tamaiharanui led a taua against Taumutu, and sacking it. The Taumutu then asked the hapū of Otago for assistance, to which Taiaroa and Te Whakataupuka led a taua , and along with warriors from Kaiapoi, all attacked Waikakahi. They found
25110-538: Was also a first cousin to both the Ngāti Kurī chief Te Rakiwhakaputa, and to the Ngāti Māmoe leader Tukiauau. On one occasion when Ngāti Kurī fought with Rangitāne , Chief Tūteurutira had mistaken one of his captives, Hinerongo, as one of the enemy's women. She was in fact a member of Ngāti Māmoe who had already been taken captive by Rangitāne, and so he returned her to the Matariki pā near Waiau Toa . This struck
25272-481: Was given Little River and Wairewa , and Te Ruahikihiki of Kāti Kurī, ancestor of Ngāi Te Ruakihikihi, son of Manawaiwaho and Te Apai, was given Kaitōrete and Te Waihora. Chief Huikai also established himself at Koukourarata (named after the stream in Wellington where Rākaitekura prepared her hair), and his son Tautahi took Ōtautahi (the site of present-day Christchurch ). Tūāhuriri's second eldest son Tūrakautahi,
25434-903: Was given command of the Tākitimu waka (canoe), and took it down to the South Island where he landed at the Arahura River on the West Coast – or at the Waiau River near Manapōuri . He stayed there for a time before travelling back to Whāngārā in a new canoe upon learning of the death of his brother. As according to ancient protocol, he took Porourangi's grieving wife Hamo-te-rangi as his own, by whom he had at least four sons: Ira-a-Tahu, Ira-(apa)-roa, Tahumuri-hape, and Karimoe. Some say his other sons were Ira-manawa-piko, Rakaroa, Rakahurumanu, Tūroto, Tahutīoro, and Ruanuku. Tahupōtiki, Ira-a-Tahu, Iraroa, and Tahumuri-hape moved south towards Tūranga, then settled at Maraetaha at
25596-687: Was hard to pronounce. Organs Island was created, about 6 km (3.7 mi) upstream from Westport, when a loop in the Buller was bypassed by a straight flood relief channel built between 1882 and 1886. The old river course became silted up between 1925 and 1945, but part of it remains to allow Buller floodwater to overflow into the Orowaiti River . A wall in that overflow was repaired in 2022 after flooding. Until roads were built, goods were carried from Westport to Lyell in fleets of canoes, or, later, horse-drawn boats, carrying up to 7 tons, or 12 tons up to Inangahua. They could take 11 weeks to make
25758-648: Was known as Oraumoanui or Tauanui . Fighting continued for a year or so, with Ngāi Tahu maintaining the upper hand. In 1836 Chief Te Pūoho of Ngāti Tama , allied to Ngāti Toa, led his taua from Whanganui Inlet down to the West Coast to the Haast River . From there he crossed the Haast Pass into central Otago and Southland . Tūhawaiki had by now learned of this oncoming attack, and led his own taua from Ruapuke Island to Tuturau, where he fought and killed Te Pūoho. Ngāti Toa never again made
25920-463: Was later killed near Waikato . From Gisborne the iwi had moved down the coast to the Heretaunga . The ancestress Tūhaitara, senior granddaughter of Rakawahakura, insulting her husband Chief Marukore of Ngāti Māmoe, or Te Kāhea , and his ancestry, as well as various other exchanges are the reason for war between their two iwi . Tūhaitara herself had some Ngāti Māmoe heritage, but he
26082-503: Was named so because Tahumatā caught Hinewai-a-tapu hiding under some tree roots, and made her his wife. Eventually the Ngāti Māmoe chief Hikaororoa managed to trap Marukore's party in a whare . Hikaororoa asked for the 'chief of the long plume' to come to the door to be cannibalised. Marukore's younger cousin Rokopaekawa took Marukore's headdress (his sign of status) and was sacrificed instead. However he did not cook properly, and
26244-597: Was the first pilot of Māori-descent to join the Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) in 1936. During a training flight on the night of 11 May 1939, his student accidentally undershot a landing exercise. West died of his injuries the following day. John Pohe was otherwise the first full-blooded Māori pilot to join the RNZAF in 1941. Turu Rakerewa Hiroti and John Charles Tamanuiarangi Tikao would go on to serve during World War II . The former serving as
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