West Asia (6000–3500 BC)
52-461: Europe (5500–2200 BC) Central Asia (3700–1700 BC) South Asia (4300–1800 BC) China (5000–2900 BC) The C-Group culture is an archaeological culture found in Lower Nubia , which dates from c. 2400 BCE to c. 1550 BCE. It was named by George A. Reisner . With no central site and no written evidence about what these people called themselves, Reisner assigned the culture
104-501: A semi-nomadic lifestyle, settling in small, temporary dwellings such as huts or tents. Their mobility was influenced by environmental factors, particularly the availability of grazing land and water. This pastoral lifestyle is reflected in their material culture, which included portable items suitable for transient living, such as small jars designed for liquid storage, rather than larger grain storage vessels typically found in agricultural societies. Despite periods of Egyptian domination,
156-430: A balance between external influence and cultural continuity. Chalcolithic Europe West Asia (6000–3500 BC) Europe (5500–2200 BC) Central Asia (3700–1700 BC) South Asia (4300–1800 BC) China (5000–2900 BC) The Chalcolithic (also Eneolithic, Copper Age) period of Prehistoric Europe lasted roughly from 5000 to 2000 BC, developing from the preceding Neolithic period and followed by
208-526: A letter. The C-Group arose after Reisner's A-Group and B-Group cultures, and around the time the Old Kingdom was ending in Ancient Egypt . While today A-Group and B-Group are seen as being a continuation of the same group, C-Group is considered as the product of distinct Saharan pastoralists. The C-Group is marked by its distinctive pottery, and for its tombs. Early C-Group tombs consisted of
260-754: A number of small states, three of which are named: Setju, Wawat, and Irjet. At this same time in Upper Nubia the Kingdom of Kerma was emerging. The exact relation between the C-Group and Kerma is uncertain, but early Kerma shows definite similarities to the C-Group culture and the Pan-Grave culture. Under the Middle Kingdom much of the C-Group lands in Lower Nubia were conquered by Egypt; after
312-531: A part of Egypt since then, with only the south being Sudan . Linguistic evidence indicates that Cushitic languages were spoken in Lower Nubia, an ancient region which straddles present day Southern Egypt and part of Northern Sudan, and that Nilo-Saharan languages were spoken in Upper Nubia to the south (by the peoples of the Kerma culture ), with North Eastern Sudanic languages from Upper Nubia later replacing
364-800: A particular tribe of the Medjay: The Blemmyan language is so close to modern Beja that it is probably nothing else than an early dialect of the same language. In this case, the Blemmyes can be regarded as a particular tribe of the Medjay. In Upper Egypt and Northern Lower Nubia was present a series of cultures, the Badarian , Amratian , Gerzean , A-Group , B-Group , and C-Group . Linguistic evidence indicates that Cushitic languages were spoken in Lower Nubia, an ancient region which straddles present day Southern Egypt and Northern Sudan, before
416-456: A simple " stone circle " with the body buried in a depression in the centre. The tombs later became more elaborate with the bodies being placed in a stone lined chamber, and then the addition of an extra chamber on the east for offerings. The origins of the C-Group are still debated. Some scholars see it largely as having evolved from the A/B-Group. Others think it more likely that the C-Group
468-580: The Ancient Egyptian language. Rilly (2019) states: "Two Afro-Asiatic languages were present in antiquity in Nubia, namely Ancient Egyptian and Cushitic." Rilly (2019) mentions historical records of a powerful Cushitic speaking race which controlled Lower Nubia and some cities in Upper Egypt. Rilly (2019) states: "The Blemmyes are another Cushitic speaking tribe, or more likely a subdivision of
520-714: The Ballana culture who were likely the Nobatae . This evolved into the Christian state of Nobatia by the fifth century. Nobatia was merged with the Upper Nubian state of Makuria , but Lower Nubia became steadily more Arabized and Islamicized and eventually became de facto independent as the state of al-Maris . Most of Lower Nubia was formally annexed by Egypt during the Ottoman conquest of 1517, and it has remained
572-567: The Bronze Age . It was a period of Megalithic culture, the appearance of the first significant economic stratification, and probably the earliest presence of Indo-European speakers. The economy of the Chalcolithic, even in the regions where copper was not yet used, was no longer that of peasant communities and tribes: some materials began to be produced in specific locations and distributed to wide regions. Mining of metal and stone
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#1732765076921624-575: The Dnieper-Donets culture , and migrated northwest to the Baltic and Denmark, where they mixed with natives ( TRBK A and C). This may be correlated with the spread of Indo-European languages, known as the Kurgan hypothesis . Near the end of the period, another branch left many traces in the lower Danube area (culture of Cernavodă culture I), in what seems to have been another invasion. Meanwhile,
676-580: The little owl (Athene Noctua) and the long-eared owl (Asio otux). This period extended from c. 2500 BC to c. 1800 or 1700 BC (depending on the region). The dates are general for the whole of Europe, and the Aegean area was already fully in the Bronze Age. c. 2500 BC the new Catacomb culture , which originated from the Yamnaya peoples in the regions north and east of
728-641: The Austro-Hungarian Empire in recent times. The rest of the Balkans was profoundly restructured after the invasions of the previous period but, with the exception of the Coțofeni culture in a mountainous region, none of them show any eastern (or presumably Indo-European) traits. The new Ezero culture , in Bulgaria, had the first traits of pseudo-bronze (an alloy of copper with arsenic ); as did
780-537: The Black Sea. Some of these infiltrated Poland and may have played a significant but unclear role in the transformation of the culture of the Globular Amphorae into the new Corded Ware culture . In Britain, copper was used between the 25th and 22nd centuries BC, but some archaeologists do not recognise a British Chalcolithic because production and use was on a small scale. Around 2400 BC. this people of
832-467: The C-Group and Egypt is reflected in Egyptian pottery in C-Group graves, huge jars used for transporting goods such as wine and oil. Conversely, C-Group pottery has been found in Egyptian archaeological sites, indicating a bidirectional cultural exchange. This interaction not only influenced C-Group ceramic traditions but also contributed to the preservation of distinctive C-Group artistic features, showing
884-435: The C-Group maintained its pastoral lifestyle. They supplied Egyptian garrisons with livestock products like milk and meat while engaging in trade networks that brought Egyptian goods, such as pottery and amulets, into their society. These interactions demonstrate the C-Group's ability to navigate relationships with powerful neighboring states, preserving their cultural identity while participating in regional trade. Furthermore,
936-494: The C-Group occupied a key position in trade routes, often acting as intermediaries between Egypt and sub-Saharan Africa, which likely contributed to their prosperity during certain periods. C-Group pottery is one of the most distinctive elements of their material culture. The pottery is characterized by intricate incised decorations, often depicting cattle and herding activities, underscoring the cultural and symbolic significance of livestock within their society. These designs reflect
988-613: The C-Group peoples spoke an Afro-Asiatic language of the Cushitic branch (with peoples to the south in Upper Nubia possibly speaking Nilo-Saharan languages), and that the closest relative of the C-Group language is the Beja language spoken in the Red Sea coast. Research cannot point to Beja specifically as a descendant language, but rather it is proposed to search in Beja lexical material for
1040-446: The C-Group's pastoral identity and highlight their connection between daily life, art, and spiritual practices. The utilitarian aspects of C-Group ceramics are also important. Pottery such as small jars for liquid storage was well-suited to the needs of a semi-nomadic lifestyle, where portability and functionality were prioritized. Large containers for grain storage, common in agricultural societies, are notably absent, further emphasizing
1092-477: The C-Group's reliance on cattle-based subsistence. In funerary contexts, pottery served both practical and ritual purposes. The practice of "killing" pottery, intentionally breaking or penetrating vessels, was a common funerary ritual and likely held symbolic significance. This practice represented offerings or marked transitions between the material and spiritual realms, reinforcing the spiritual importance of ceramics in C-Group burial customs. The exchange between
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#17327650769211144-527: The C-group's adaptation to Egyptian culture was forced or those buried at Fadrus were simply of "low socioeconomic status." According to Peter Behrens (1981) and Marianne Bechaus-Gerst (2000), linguistic evidence indicates that the C-Group peoples spoke Afro-Asiatic languages of the Berber branch. This thesis rests on somewhat sketchy and numerically insufficient lexical evidence. Recent evidence suggests that
1196-545: The Corded Ware replaced their predecessors and expanded to Danubian and Nordic areas of western Germany. One related branch invaded Denmark and southern Sweden ( Single Grave culture ), while the mid-Danubian basin, though showing more continuity, also displayed clear traits of new Indo-European elites ( Vučedol culture ). Simultaneously, in the west, the Artenac peoples reached Belgium. With the partial exception of Vučedol,
1248-686: The Cushitic languages of Lower Nubia. Julien Cooper (2017) states that in antiquity, Cushitic languages were spoken in Lower Nubia (the northernmost part of modern-day Sudan): In antiquity, Afroasiatic languages in Sudan belonged chiefly to the phylum known as Cushitic, spoken on the eastern seaboard of Africa and from Sudan to Kenya, including the Ethiopian Highlands. Julien Cooper (2017) also states that Eastern Sudanic speaking populations from southern and west Nubia gradually replaced
1300-653: The Danubian Lengyel culture absorbed its northern neighbours of the Czech Republic and Poland over a number of centuries, only to recede in the second half of the period. In Bulgaria and Wallachia (Southern Romania ), the Boian-Marica culture evolved into a monarchy with a clearly royal cemetery near the coast of the Black Sea. This model seems to have been copied later in the Tiszan region with
1352-660: The Danubian cultures, so buoyant just a few centuries ago, were wiped off the map of Europe. The rest of the period was the story of a mysterious phenomenon: the Beaker people . This group seems to have been of mercantile character and preferred being buried according to a very specific, almost invariable, ritual. Nevertheless, out of their original area of western Central Europe, they appeared only inside local cultures, so they never invaded and assimilated but rather went to live among those peoples, keeping their way of life. The rest of
1404-556: The Egyptians left, Kerma expanded north controlling the region. Starting with the conquest of Nubia by Egypt under Tuthmosis I in the late 16th century BCE, the C-Group merged with the Egyptians. Early Kerma tumuli were the chosen burial method for Nubians , Pan-graves , and the C-group culture. The C-group tumuli were graves built in a "stone circle" using the "dry stone masonry" technique with an offering chapel decorated with cattle illustrations. However, each culture differed in
1456-651: The Iberian Peninsula: one in the Portuguese region of Estremadura (culture of Vila Nova de São Pedro ), strongly embedded in the Atlantic Megalithic culture; the other near Almería (SE Spain), centred on the large town of Los Millares , of Mediterranean character, probably affected by eastern cultural influxes ( tholoi ). Despite the many differences the two civilizations seemed to be in friendly contact and to have productive exchanges. In
1508-538: The Mediterranean basin, several cultures (most notably Chassey in SE France and La Lagozza in northern Italy) converged into a functional union, of which the most significant characteristic was the distribution network of honey-coloured flint . Despite this unity, the signs of conflicts are clear, as many skeletons show violent injuries. This was the time and area where Ötzi , a man whose well-preserved body
1560-544: The Medjay/Beja people, which is attested in Napatan and Egyptian texts from the 6th century BC on." On page 134: "From the end of the 4th century until the 6th century AD, they held parts of Lower Nubia and some cities of Upper Egypt." He mentions the linguistic relationship between the modern Beja language and the ancient Cushitic Blemmyan language which dominated Lower Nubia and that the Blemmyes can be regarded as
1612-530: The Megalithic super-culture , which extended from southern Sweden to southern Spain, including large parts of southern Germany. But the Mediterranean and Danubian groupings of the previous period appear to have been fragmented into many smaller pieces, some of them apparently backward in technological matters. After c. 2600 several phenomena prefigured the changes of the upcoming period. Large towns with stone walls appeared in two different areas of
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1664-470: The area of Dordogne ( Aquitaine , France), a new unexpected culture of bowmen appeared, the culture of Artenac , which would soon take control of western and even northern France and Belgium. In Poland and nearby regions, the putative Indo-Europeans reorganized and consolidated again with the culture of the Globular Amphoras. Nevertheless, the influence of many centuries in direct contact with
1716-718: The centre of the Beaker Pottery returned to Bohemia, while in Iberia there was a decentralization of the phenomenon, with centres in Portugal but also in Los Millares and Ciempozuelos . [REDACTED] Media related to Copper Age in Europe at Wikimedia Commons Lower Nubia Lower Nubia (also called Wawat ) is the northernmost part of Nubia , roughly contiguous with the modern Lake Nasser , which submerged
1768-553: The chapel. In prehistoric times, there had been little distinction between Egyptian and Nubian burial practices, as both were laid in a contracted position in shallow graves. However, as time continues, Nubian cultures continued the contracted body tradition. In contrast, in Egyptian culture, the deceased was placed in an extended position. As Egypt gained control of Kerma in the New Kingdom , Egyptian culture began to spread throughout Lower Nubia . The C-groups cultures now laid
1820-429: The closest common ancestor and thence delineates a related Cushitic language existing in pre-Meroitic Lower Nubia. The disappearance of the C-Group language is somewhat of a mystery. It is possible that with successive phases of Egyptian, Kushite, and Meroitic suzerainty in Lower Nubia that this language became demographically and politically marginalized well before the arrival of Nile Nubian speakers. The C-Group culture
1872-606: The continent remained mostly unchanged and in apparent peace. From c. 2300 BC the first Beaker Pottery appeared in Bohemia and expanded in many directions, but particularly westward, along the Rhone and the sea shores, reaching the culture of Vila Nova (Portugal) and Catalonia (Spain) as its limit. Simultaneously but unrelatedly, c. 2200 BC in the Aegean region, the Cycladic culture decayed, being substituted by
1924-465: The culture of Bodrogkeresztur . Labour specialization, economic stratification and possibly the risk of invasion may have been the reasons behind this development. The influx of early Troy (Troy I) is clear in both the expansion of metallurgy and social organization. In the western Danubian region (the Rhine and Seine basins) the culture of Michelsberg displaced its predecessor, Rössen . Meanwhile, in
1976-590: The deceased supine, shown throughout the Ancient Tekhet, Fadrus cemetery. In the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt, group burials were favored, and this was a trend that was seen in C-group burials. Along with the previously beloved decorations relating to cattle are absent with nearly entirely Egyptian pottery and stone vessels. However, many of their tombs lacked Egyptian funerary goods. The lack of funerary goods could suggest that
2028-501: The earlier Cushitic speaking populations of this region: In Lower Nubia there was an Afroasiatic language, likely a branch of Cushitic. By the end of the first millennium CE this region had been encroached upon and replaced by Eastern Sudanic speakers arriving from the south and west, to be identified first with Meroitic and later migrations attributable to Nubian speakers. In Handbook of Ancient Nubia, Claude Rilly (2019) states that Cushitic languages once dominated Lower Nubia along with
2080-684: The first significant Aegean group: the Cycladic culture after c. 2800 BC . In the North, the supposedly Indo-European groups seemed to recede temporarily, suffering a strong cultural danubianization . In the East, the peoples of beyond the Volga ( Yamnaya culture ), surely eastern Indo-Europeans, ancestors of Iranians , took over southern Russia and Ukraine. In the West the only sign of unity comes from
2132-563: The forts built by the ancient Egyptians was seen as further evidence. Most of what is known about the C-Group peoples comes from Lower Nubia and the Dongola Reach . The northern border of the C-Group was around el-Kubanieh near Aswan . The southern border is still uncertain, but C-Group sites have been found as far south as Eritrea . During the Egyptian Sixth Dynasty , Lower Nubia is described as consisting of
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2184-664: The historical First and Second Cataracts , which are now both within Lake Nasser. The region was known to Greco-Roman geographers as Triakontaschoinos . It is downstream on the Nile from Upper Nubia . During the Middle Kingdom , Lower Nubia was occupied by Egypt. when the Egyptians withdrew during the second Intermediate Period , Lower Nubia seems to have become part of the Upper Nubian Kingdom of Kerma . The New Kingdom occupied all of Nubia and Lower Nubia
2236-603: The historical region in the 1960s with the construction of the Aswan High Dam . Many ancient Lower Nubian monuments, and all its modern population, were relocated as part of the International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia ; Qasr Ibrim is the only major archaeological site which was neither relocated nor submerged. The intensive archaeological work conducted prior to the flooding means that
2288-479: The history of the area is much better known than that of Upper Nubia. According to David Wengrow , the A-Group Nubian polity of the late 4th millenninum BCE is poorly understood since most of the archaeological remains are submerged underneath Lake Nasser. Its history is also known from its long relations with Egypt , particularly neighboring Upper Egypt . The region was historically defined as between
2340-487: The new palatine phase of the Minoan culture of Crete . The second phase of Beaker Pottery, from c. 2100 BC onwards, was marked by the displacement of the centre of this phenomenon to Portugal, inside the culture of Vila Nova. This new centre's influence reached to all southern and western France but was absent in southern and western Iberia, with the notable exception of Los Millares. After c. 1900 BC ,
2392-512: The still-powerful Danubian peoples had greatly modified their culture. In the southwestern Iberian peninsula , owl -like plaques made of sandstone were discovered and dated to be crafted from 5500 to 4750 BP (Before Present). These are some of the most unique objects discovered in the Chalcolithic ( copper age ) cultural period. They have generally a head, two rounded eyes, and a body. Theses species were modeled after two owl species,
2444-435: The structure of the tumuli. The Nubian's tumuli were a shallow round grave and included animal bones. Pan-Grave tumuli were constructed with large black stones and small white stones in an alternating pattern. The C-group culture was pastoral, with cattle being an essential part of their daily activities, funerary practices, and religion. Many "standing slabs" had illustrations of cattle and cattle horns with fine pottery found in
2496-472: Was brought by invaders or migrants that mingled with the local culture, with the C-Group perhaps originating in the then rapidly drying Sahara . The C-Group were farmers and semi-nomadic herders keeping large numbers of cattle in an area that is today too arid for such herding. Originally they were believed to be a peaceful people due to the lack of weapons in tombs; however, daggers, short swords and battle-axes were found in C-Group graves. Their settling around
2548-616: Was especially closely integrated into Egypt, but with the Third Intermediate Period it became the centre of the independent state of Kush based at Napata at some point. Perhaps around 591 BC the capital of Kush was transferred south to Meroe and Lower Nubia became dominated by the Island of Meroe. With the fall of the Meroitic Empire in the fourth century AD the area became home to X-Group , also known as
2600-600: Was found in the Alps, lived. Another significant development of this period was the Megalithic phenomenon spreading to most places of the Atlantic region, bringing with it agriculture to some underdeveloped regions existing there. This period extends along the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. Most significant is the reorganization of the Danubians into the powerful Baden culture , which extended more or less to what would be
2652-456: Was particularly developed in some areas, along with the processing of those materials into valuable goods. From c. 5000 BC to 3000 BC, copper started being used first in Southeast Europe , then in Eastern Europe, and Central Europe. From c. 3500 onwards, there was an influx of people into Eastern Europe from the Pontic-Caspian steppe ( Yamnaya culture ), creating a plural complex known as Sredny Stog culture . This culture replaced
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#17327650769212704-440: Was primarily centered around cattle herding, which was crucial for their economy, diet, and social structure. Cattle provided important resources such as milk, blood, and hides, which were essential for food, clothing, and other daily necessities. Cattle imagery appears in C-Group art, including pottery and stelae, and was significant in funerary practices, emphasizing their economic and cultural importance. The C-Group people led
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