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55-730: The concept of an "Old Kingdom" as one of three "golden ages" was coined in 1845 by the German Egyptologist Baron von Bunsen , and its definition evolved significantly throughout the 19th and the 20th centuries. Not only was the last king of the Early Dynastic Period related to the first two kings of the Old Kingdom, but the "capital", the royal residence, remained at Ineb-Hedj , the Egyptian name for Memphis . The basic justification for separating

110-457: A bipartite system in his 1849–1858 Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Äthiopien : Auguste Mariette 's 1867 Aperçu de l'histoire ancienne d'Égypte : Alfred Wiedemann 's Ägyptische Geschichte : Henri Gauthier 's 1907–1917 Le Livre des Rois d'Egypte : 19th-century Egyptology did not use the concept of "intermediate periods"; these were included as part of the preceding periods "as times of interval or transition". In 1926, after

165-417: A king's portrayal was about the idea of the office of kingship, which were dependent on the time period. The Old Kingdom was considered a golden age for Egypt, a grandiose height to which all future kingdoms aspired. As such, the king was portrayed as young and vital, with features that agreed with the standards of beauty of the time. The musculature seen in male figures was also applied to kings. A royal rite,

220-403: A large pyramid and several mudbrick mastabas . The pyramid was Egypt's first straight-sided one, but it partially collapsed in ancient times. The area is located around 72 kilometres (45 mi) south of modern Cairo . The pyramid at Meidum is thought to be just the second pyramid of four built by sneferu after Djoser 's and may have been originally built for Huni , the last pharaoh of

275-442: A major product of the Old Kingdom. The position of the figures in this period was mostly limited to sitting or standing, either with feet together or in the striding pose. Group statues of the king with either gods or family members, typically his wife and children, were also common. It was not just the subject of sculpture that was important, but also the material: The use of hard stone, such as gneiss, graywacke, schist, and granite,

330-407: A number of facts contradicting this theory. The Meidum Pyramid seems never to have been completed. Beginning with Sneferu and to the 12th Dynasty , all pyramids had a valley temple, which is missing at Meidum. The mortuary temple, which was found under the rubble at the base of the pyramid, apparently never was finished. Walls were only partly polished. Two stelas inside, usually bearing the names of

385-575: A piece to a particular time frame. Proportions of the human figure are one of the most distinctive, as they vary between kingdoms. Old Kingdom male figures have characteristically broad shoulders and a long torso, with obvious musculature. On the other hand, females are narrower in the shoulders and waist, with longer legs and a shorter torso. However, in the Sixth Dynasty, the male figures lose their muscularity and their shoulders narrow. The eyes also tend to get much larger. In order to help maintain

440-466: A trace of a straight long ramp is widely rejected and contradicted by the fact the recess at the third step is narrower than that of the fourth. More realistic would be a joint to tangential ramps integrated to the E2 steps. The Meidum Pyramid was excavated by John Shae Perring in 1837, Lepsius in 1843 and then by Flinders Petrie later in the nineteenth century, who located the mortuary temple, facing to

495-529: Is an example of a typical Old Kingdom sculpture. The three figures display frontality and axiality, while fitting with the proportions of this time period. The graywacke came from the Eastern Desert in Egypt and is therefore associated with rebirth and the rising of the sun in the east. Periodization of Ancient Egypt The periodization of ancient Egypt is the use of periodization to organize

550-413: Is commonly assumed the pyramid still had five steps in the fifteenth century and was gradually falling further into ruin, because al-Maqrizi described it as looking like a five-stepped mountain, but Mendelssohn claimed this might be the result of a loose translation and al-Makrizi's words would more accurately translate into "five-storied mountain", a description which could even match the present state of

605-640: Is evidence that Merenre was not only active in Nubia like Pepi I but also sent officials to maintain Egyptian rule over Nubia from the northern border to the area south of the third cataract. During the Sixth Dynasty (2345–2181 BC) the power of the pharaoh gradually weakened in favor of powerful nomarchs (regional governors). These no longer belonged to the royal family and their charge became hereditary, thus creating local dynasties largely independent from

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660-498: Is through the monuments and their inscriptions that scholars have been able to construct a history. Egyptologists also include the Memphite Seventh and Eighth Dynasties in the Old Kingdom as a continuation of the administration, centralized at Memphis. While the Old Kingdom was a period of internal security and prosperity, it was followed by a period of disunity and relative cultural decline referred to by Egyptologists as

715-717: The First Intermediate Period . During the Old Kingdom, the King of Egypt (not called the Pharaoh until the New Kingdom) became a living god who ruled absolutely and could demand the services and wealth of his subjects. Under King Djoser , the first king of the Third Dynasty of the Old Kingdom, the royal capital of Egypt was moved to Memphis, where Djoser established his court. A new era of building

770-657: The First World War , Georg Steindorff 's Die Blütezeit des Pharaonenreiches and Henri Frankfort 's Egypt and Syria in the First Intermediate Period assigned dynasties 6–12 to the terminology " First Intermediate Period ". The terminology had become well established by the 1940s. In 1942, during the Second World War , German Egyptologist Hanns Stock 's Studien zur Geschichte und Archäologie der 13. bis 17. Dynastie fostered use of

825-609: The Third Dynasty , and continued by Sneferu . Because of its unusual appearance, the pyramid is called el-heram el-kaddaab – ( False Pyramid ) in Egyptian Arabic . The pyramid was erected in three phases, numbered E1, E2 and E3 by the archaeologist Borchardt. E1 was a step pyramid similar to the Djoser Pyramid. E2 was an extension around the previous building of roughly 5 m width or 10 cubits, raising

880-565: The Third Dynasty , who ordered the construction of a pyramid (the Step Pyramid ) in Memphis' necropolis, Saqqara . An important person during the reign of Djoser was his vizier , Imhotep . It was in this era that formerly independent ancient Egyptian states became known as nomes , under the rule of the king. The former rulers were forced to assume the role of governors or otherwise work in tax collection. Egyptians in this era believed

935-613: The 3,000-year history of ancient Egypt . The system of 30 dynasties recorded by third-century BC Greek-speaking Egyptian priest Manetho is still in use today; however, the system of "periods" and "kingdoms" used to group the dynasties is of modern origin (19th and 20th centuries CE). The modern system consists of three " Golden Ages " ( Old , Middle , and New Kingdoms), interspersed between "intermediate periods" (often considered times of crisis or Dark Ages) and early and late periods. In his 1844–1857 Ägyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte , Christian Charles Josias von Bunsen became

990-498: The Middle Kingdom ensured that art was axial, symmetrical, proportional, and most importantly reproducible and therefore recognizable. Composite composition, the second principle, also contributes to the goal of identification. Multiple perspectives were used in order to ensure that the onlooker could determine precisely what they saw. Though Egyptian art almost always includes descriptive text, literacy rates were not high, so

1045-788: The Sphinx was built by Djedefre as a monument to his father Khufu.Alternatively, the Sphinx has been proposed to be the work of Khafre and Khufu himself. There were military expeditions into Canaan and Nubia , with Egyptian influence reaching up the Nile into what is today Sudan . The later kings of the Fourth Dynasty were Menkaure (2532–2504 BC), who built the smallest of the three great pyramids in Giza; Shepseskaf (2504–2498 BC); and, perhaps, Djedefptah (2498–2496 BC). The Fifth Dynasty (2494–2345 BC) began with Userkaf (2494–2487 BC) and

1100-420: The art gave another method for communicating the same information. One of the best examples of composite composition is the human form. In most two-dimensional relief, the head, legs, and feet are seen in profile, while the torso faces directly front. Another common example is an aerial view of a building or location. The third principle, the hierarchy of scale, illustrates relative importance in society. The larger

1155-612: The building of the Great Pyramids at Giza. Sneferu was succeeded by his son, Khufu (2589–2566 BC), who built the Great Pyramid of Giza . After Khufu's death, his sons Djedefre (2566–2558 BC) and Khafre (2558–2532 BC) may have quarrelled. The latter built the second pyramid and (in traditional thinking) the Great Sphinx of Giza . Recent re-examination of evidence has led Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev to propose that

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1210-579: The building site required a full ramp system and had to be volume-saving and cost-effective (otherwise E2 would not have been repeated in E3) which applies for tangential ramps of 10 cubits or 5m width . Another observation are the "ramp prints", recesses in the wall at the eastern wall of the exposed third and fourth step of E2, showing a possible joint to a ramp of almost 5 m width with steep side slopes. The recesses were described by Borchardt and are still visible, best in morning light. Borchardt´s interpretation as

1265-645: The central authority of the Pharaoh. However, Nile flood control was still the subject of very large works, including especially the canal to Lake Moeris around 2300 BC, which was likely also the source of water to the Giza pyramid complex centuries earlier. Internal disorders set in during the incredibly long reign of Pepi II (2278–2184 BC) towards the end of the dynasty. His death, certainly well past that of his intended heirs, might have created succession struggles. The country slipped into civil wars mere decades after

1320-465: The close of Pepi II's reign. The final blow was the 22nd century BC drought in the region that resulted in a drastic drop in precipitation. For at least some years between 2200 and 2150 BC, this prevented the normal flooding of the Nile . Whatever its cause, the collapse of the Old Kingdom was followed by decades of famine and strife. An important inscription on the tomb of Ankhtifi , a nomarch during

1375-560: The connection which that restoration enabled me to establish between Manetho and Eratosthenes, passed with the 4th King of the 13th Dynasty over to the Shepherd-Kings. Compared to the modern arrangement, Bunsen's Old Empire included what is today known as the Middle Kingdom, whereas Bunsen's Middle Empire is today known as the Second Intermediate Period. Bunsen's student Karl Richard Lepsius primarily used

1430-467: The consistency of these proportions, the Egyptians used a series of eight guidelines to divide the body. They occurred at the following locations: the top of the head, the hairline, the base of the neck, the underarms, the tip of the elbow or the bottom of the ribcage, the top of the thigh at the bottom of the buttocks, the knee, and the middle of the lower leg. From the soles of the feet to the hairline

1485-414: The dynasties. The three primary principles of that style, frontality, composite composition, and hierarchy scale, illustrate this quite well. These characteristics, initiated in the Early Dynastic Period and solidified during the Old Kingdom, persisted with some adaptability throughout the entirety of ancient Egyptian history as the foundation of its art. Frontality, the first principle, indicates that art

1540-477: The dynasty sent expeditions to the stone quarries and gold mines of Nubia and the mines of Sinai. there are references and depictions of military campaigns in Nubia and Asia. The sixth dynasty peaked during the reigns of Pepi I and Merenre I with flourishing trade, several mining and quarrying expeditions and major military campaigns. Militarily, aggressive expansion into Nubia marked Pepi I's reign. At least five military expeditions were sent into Canaan. There

1595-523: The dynasty were Menkauhor Kaiu (2421–2414 BC), Djedkare Isesi (2414–2375 BC), and Unas (2375–2345), the earliest ruler to have the Pyramid Texts inscribed in his pyramid. Egypt's expanding interests in trade goods such as ebony , incense such as myrrh and frankincense , gold, copper, and other useful metals inspired the ancient Egyptians to build suitable ships for navigation of the open sea. They traded with Lebanon for cedar and travelled

1650-428: The early First Intermediate Period , describes the pitiful state of the country when famine stalked the land. The most defining feature of ancient Egyptian art is its function, as that was the entire purpose of creation. Art was not made for enjoyment in the strictest sense, but rather served a role of some kind in Egyptian religion and ideology. This fact manifests itself in the artistic style, even as it evolved over

1705-414: The east. In 1920 Ludwig Borchardt studied the area further, followed by Alan Rowe in 1928 and then Ali el-Kholi in the 1970s. In its ruined state, the structure is 213 feet (65 meters) high, and its entrance is aligned north-south, with the entrance in the north, 66 feet (20 meters) above present ground level. The steep descending passage 57 feet (17 meters) long leads to a horizontal passage, just below

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1760-477: The figure, the more important the individual. The king is usually the largest, aside from deities. The similarity in size equated to similarity in position. However, this is not to say that physical differences were not shown as well. Women, for example, are usually shown as smaller than men. Children retain adult features and proportions but are substantially smaller in size. Aside from the three primary conventions, there are several characteristics that can help date

1815-530: The final stage. Thus, the outer surface was polished and the platforms of the steps were not horizontal, but fell off to the outside. This severely compromised the stability and is likely to have caused the collapse of the Meidum Pyramid in a downpour while the building was still under construction. Franck Monnier and others believe the pyramid did not collapse until the New Kingdom , but there are

1870-529: The first Egyptologist to propose what became the modern tripartite division for Egypt's history: Bunsen explained, in the English translation of his 1844 work, how he came to derive the three Kingdoms: In 1834 I discovered in the list of Eratosthenes the key to the restoration of the first 12 Dynasties of Manetho, and was thereby enabled to fix the length of the Old Empire. These two points being settled,

1925-633: The first king of the Fourth Dynasty, held territory from ancient Libya in the west to the Sinai Peninsula in the east, to Nubia in the south. An Egyptian settlement was founded at Buhen in Nubia which endured for 200 years. After Djoser, Sneferu was the next great pyramid builder. He commissioned the building of not one, but three pyramids. The first is called the Meidum Pyramid , named for its location in Egypt . Sneferu abandoned it after

1980-402: The jubilee run which was established during the Old Kingdom, involved the king running around a group of markers that symbolized the geographic borders of Egypt. This was meant to be a demonstration of the king's physical vigor, which determined his capacity to continue his reign. This idea of kingly youth and strength were pervasive in the Old Kingdom and thus shown in the art. The sculpture was

2035-488: The king to be the incarnation of Horus , linking the human and spiritual worlds. Egyptian views on the nature of time during this period held that the universe worked in cycles, and the Pharaoh on earth worked to ensure the stability of those cycles. They also perceived themselves as specially selected people. The Old Kingdom and its royal power reached a zenith under the Fourth Dynasty (2613–2494 BC). King Sneferu,

2090-528: The length of the Red Sea to the Kingdom of Punt - modern-day Eritrea —for ebony, ivory, and aromatic resins. Shipbuilders of that era did not use pegs ( treenails ) or metal fasteners, but relied on the rope to keep their ships assembled. Planks and the superstructure were tightly tied and bound together. This period also witnessed direct trade between Egypt and its Aegean neighbors and Anatolia. The rulers of

2145-670: The next step obviously was, to fill up the chasm between the Old and New Empires, which is commonly called the Hyksos Period ;... I have been fully convinced ever since my first restoration (in 1834) of the three Egyptian Empires, the middle one of which embraces the time of the Hyksos, that the 12th Dynasty of Manetho was the last complete one of the Old Empire, and that the throne of the Memphitic Pharaohs, according to

2200-434: The number of steps from 5 to 7. The second extension E3 turned the original step pyramid design into a true pyramid by filling in the steps with limestone encasing. While this approach is consistent with the design of the other true pyramids, Meidum was affected by construction errors. Firstly, the outer layer was founded on sand and not on rock, like the inner layers. Secondly, the inner step pyramids had been designed as

2255-415: The original ground level, that then leads to a vertical shaft 10 feet (3.0 meters) high that leads to the corbelled burial chamber itself. The chamber is unlikely to have been used for any burial. Flinders Petrie was the first Egyptologist to establish the facts of its original design dimensions and proportions. In its final form it was 1100 cubits of 0.523 m around by 175 cubits high, thus showing

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2310-498: The outer cover were stolen only after they were exposed by the excavations. This makes a catastrophic collapse more probable than a gradual one. The collapse of this pyramid during the reign of Sneferu is the likely reason for the change from 54 to 43 degrees of his second pyramid at Dahshur , the Bent Pyramid . By the time it was investigated by Napoleon's Expedition in 1799, the Meidum Pyramid had its present three steps. It

2365-513: The outside casing fell off of the pyramid. The Meidum pyramid was the first to have an above-ground burial chamber. Using more stones than any other Pharaoh, he built the three pyramids: a now collapsed pyramid in Meidum , the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur , and the Red Pyramid , at North Dahshur. However, the full development of the pyramid style of building was reached not at Saqqara, but during

2420-426: The pharaoh, are missing inscriptions. The burial chamber inside the pyramid itself is uncompleted, with raw walls and wooden supports still in place which are usually removed after construction. Affiliated mastabas were never used or completed and none of the usual burials have been found. Finally, the first examinations of the Meidum Pyramid found everything below the surface of the rubble mound fully intact. Stones from

2475-425: The pyramid with four bands of different masonry at the base and a step on top. The particular nature of the Meidum Pyramid building phases allows conclusions on the building process and the used ramp system. The pyramid extensions E2 and E3 both were ring-shaped extensions only 5 m wide around the previous building core in full building height. Even the mass volume was relatively small compared with complete pyramids,

2530-568: The same proportions as the Great Pyramid at Giza, and therefore the same circular symbolism. Petrie wrote in the 1892 excavation report that "We see then that there is an exactly analogous theory for the dimensions of Medum [sic] to that of the Great Pyramid; in each the approximate ratio of 7:44 is adopted, as referred to the radius and circle ..." These proportions equated to the four outer faces sloping in by precisely 51.842° or 51°50'35", which would have been understood and expressed by

2585-451: The solar aspect of their religion and the inundations of the Nile. Though the above concepts apply to most, if not all, figures in Egyptian art, there are additional characteristics that applied to the representations of the king. Their appearance was not an exact rendering of the king's visage, though kings are somewhat identifiable through looks alone. Identification could be supplied by inscriptions or context. A huge, more important part of

2640-500: The term " Second Intermediate Period ". In 1978, British Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen 's book The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100–650 BC) coined the term " Third Intermediate Period ". Meidum Meidum , Maydum or Maidum ( Arabic : ميدوم , Ancient Egyptian : Mr(y)-Jtmw , lit.   'beloved of Atum ', Ancient Greek : Μοι(ε)θυμις ) is an archaeological site in Lower Egypt . It contains

2695-581: The two periods is the revolutionary change in architecture accompanied by the effects on Egyptian society and the economy of large-scale building projects. The Old Kingdom is most commonly regarded as the period from the Third Dynasty to the Sixth Dynasty (2686–2181 BC). Information from the Fourth to the Sixth Dynasties of Egypt is scarce, and historians regard the history of the era as literally "written in stone" and largely architectural in that it

2750-469: Was Sahure's son. Neferirkare introduced the prenomen in the royal titulary. He was followed by two short-lived kings, his son Neferefre (2455–2453 BC) and Shepseskare , the latter of uncertain parentage. Shepseskare may have been deposed by Neferefre's brother Nyuserre Ini (2445–2421 BC), a long-lived pharaoh who built extensively in Abusir and restarted royal activity in Giza. The last pharaohs of

2805-504: Was also divided into thirds, one-third between the soles and the knee, another third between the knee and the elbow, and the final third from the elbow to the hairline. The broad shoulders that appeared in the Fifth Dynasty constituted roughly that one-third length as well. These proportions not only help with the identification of representations and the reproduction of art but also tie into the Egyptian ideal of order, which tied into

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2860-424: Was initiated at Saqqara under his reign. King Djoser's architect, Imhotep , is credited with the development of building with stone and with the conception of the new architectural form , the step pyramid . The Old Kingdom is best known for a large number of pyramids constructed at this time as burial places for Egypt's kings. The first King of the Old Kingdom was Djoser (sometime between 2691 and 2625 BC) of

2915-458: Was marked by the growing importance of the cult of sun god Ra . Consequently, fewer efforts were devoted to the construction of pyramid complexes than during the Fourth Dynasty and more to the construction of sun temples in Abusir . Userkaf was succeeded by his son Sahure (2487–2475 BC), who commanded an expedition to Punt . Sahure was in turn succeeded by Neferirkare Kakai (2475–2455 BC), who

2970-456: Was relatively common in the Old Kingdom. The color of the stone had a great deal of symbolism and was chosen deliberately. Four colors were distinguished in the ancient Egyptian language: black, green, red, and white. Black was associated with Egypt due to the color of the soil after the Nile flood, green with vegetation and rebirth, red with the sun and its regenerative cycle, and white with purity. The statue of Menkaure with Hathor and Anput

3025-408: Was viewed directly from the front. One was meant to approach a piece as they would a living individual, for it was meant to be a place of manifestation. The act of interaction would bring forth the divine entity represented in the art. It was therefore imperative that whoever was represented be as identifiable as possible. The guidelines developed in the Old Kingdom and the later grid system developed in

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