The Gateway School is an independent school on the Upper West Side of Manhattan serving children ages 5–14 with learning disabilities. It currently enrolls approximately 180 students.
105-452: Gateway students typically have difficulty in mainstream classrooms due to a language-based learning disability ( dyslexia , expressive and receptive language delays, reading and writing disorders); attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ; and/or executive function disorder. The Gateway School of New York was established in 1965 by Elizabeth Freidus and Claire Flom. Freidus was an educator at Columbia University Teachers College ; Claire Flom
210-560: A British physician from Seaford, East Sussex , published a description of a reading-specific learning disorder in a report to the British Medical Journal titled "Congenital Word Blindness". The distinction between phonological versus surface types of dyslexia is only descriptive, and without any etiological assumption as to the underlying brain mechanisms. However, studies have alluded to potential differences due to variation in performance. Over time, we have changed from
315-574: A Hearing Impaired (HI) audio track may be available via headphones to better hear dialog. This choice depends on the level of hearing loss, type of hearing loss, and personal preference. Hearing aid applications are one of the options for hearing loss management. For people with bilateral hearing loss, it is not clear if bilateral hearing aids (hearing aids in both ears) are better than a unilateral hearing aid (hearing aid in one ear). For people with idiopathic sudden hearing loss, different treatment approaches have been suggested that are usually based on
420-676: A Special Education School" for the 2015 issue of The Parents League Review . In the fall of 2015, artwork from Gateway students was on display at the Child Mind Institute in New York City, as part of the Beginning with the Self exhibit. 40°46′20″N 73°59′16″W / 40.772297°N 73.987661°W / 40.772297; -73.987661 Dyslexia Dyslexia , previously known as word blindness ,
525-536: A comprehensive evaluation should consider these different possibilities. These tests and observations can include: Screening procedures seek to identify children who show signs of possible dyslexia. In the preschool years, a family history of dyslexia, particularly in biological parents and siblings, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better than any test. In primary school (ages 5–7), the ideal screening procedure consists of training primary school teachers to carefully observe and record their pupils' progress through
630-488: A conventional hearing test. Auditory brainstem response testing is an electrophysiological test used to test for hearing deficits caused by pathology within the ear, the cochlear nerve and also within the brainstem. A case history (usually a written form, with questionnaire) can provide valuable information about the context of the hearing loss, and indicate what kind of diagnostic procedures to employ. Examinations include otoscopy , tympanometry , and differential testing with
735-400: A feature sometimes called dysorthographia or dysgraphia , which depends on the skill of orthographic coding . Problems persist into adolescence and adulthood and may include difficulties with summarizing stories, memorization, reading aloud, or learning foreign languages. Adults with dyslexia can often read with good comprehension, though they tend to read more slowly than others without
840-418: A full diagnostic assessment to determine the extent and nature of the disorder. Some tests can be administered by a teacher or computer; others require specialized training and are given by psychologists. Some test results indicate how to carry out teaching strategies. Because a variety of different cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and environmental factors all could contribute to difficulty learning to read,
945-567: A group can be ascribed to age and noise exposure . The result is calculated via an algebraic equation that uses the A-weighted sound exposure level, how many years the people were exposed to this noise, how old the people are, and their sex. The model's estimations are only useful for people without hearing loss due to non-job related exposure and can be used for prevention activities. The United States Preventive Services Task Force recommends neonatal hearing screening for all newborns, as
1050-410: A hearing loss is ranked according to ranges of nominal thresholds in which a sound must be so it can be detected by an individual. It is measured in decibels of hearing loss, or dB HL. There are three main types of hearing loss: conductive hearing loss , sensorineural hearing loss , and mixed hearing loss. An additional problem which is increasingly recognised is auditory processing disorder which
1155-492: A hearing test. Hearing diagnosis using mobile application is similar to the audiometry procedure. Audiograms, obtained using mobile applications, can be used to adjust hearing aid applications. Another method for quantifying hearing loss is a speech-in-noise test. which gives an indication of how well one can understand speech in a noisy environment. Otoacoustic emissions test is an objective hearing test that may be administered to toddlers and children too young to cooperate in
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#17327826838271260-468: A learning difficulty and perform worse in spelling tests or when reading nonsense words—a measure of phonological awareness. Dyslexia often co-occurs with other learning disorders, but the reasons for this comorbidity have not been clearly identified. These associated disabilities include: Researchers have been trying to find the neurobiological basis of dyslexia since the condition was first identified in 1881. For example, some have tried to associate
1365-419: A multidisciplinary team approach involving the child's parent(s) and teacher(s), school psychologist, pediatrician, and, as appropriate, speech and language pathologist (speech therapist) , and occupational therapist . Gain familiarity with typical ages children reach various general developmental milestones, and domain-specific milestones, such as phonological awareness (recognizing rhyming words; identifying
1470-400: A normal desire to learn . People with dyslexia have higher rates of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), developmental language disorders , and difficulties with numbers . Dyslexia is believed to be caused by the interaction of genetic and environmental factors. Some cases run in families. Dyslexia that develops due to a traumatic brain injury , stroke , or dementia
1575-454: A person's hearing loss. Hearing loss due to chemicals starts in the high frequency range and is irreversible. It damages the cochlea with lesions and degrades central portions of the auditory system . For some ototoxic chemical exposures, particularly styrene, the risk of hearing loss can be higher than being exposed to noise alone. The effects is greatest when the combined exposure include impulse noise . A 2018 informational bulletin by
1680-698: A privileged status. Due to the various cognitive processes that dyslexia affects and the overwhelming societal stigma around the disability, individuals with dyslexia often employ behaviors of self-stigma and perfectionistic self-presentation in order to cope with their disability. The perfectionist self-presentation is when an individual attempts to present themselves as the perfect ideal image and hides any imperfections. This behavior presents serious risk as it often results in mental health issues and refusal to seek help for their disability. Most dyslexia research relates to alphabetic writing systems , and especially to European languages . However, substantial research
1785-490: A regular font such as Times New Roman and Arial just as quickly, and they show a preference for regular fonts over specially-tailored fonts. Some research has pointed to increased letter-spacing being beneficial. There is currently no evidence showing that music education significantly improves the reading skills of adolescents with dyslexia. Dyslexic children require special instruction for word analysis and spelling from an early age. The prognosis, generally speaking,
1890-407: A static assessment of their current skills. Children with the most need are those who fail to respond to effective teaching, and they are readily identified using this approach." There is a wide range of tests that are used in clinical and educational settings to evaluate the possibility of dyslexia. If initial testing suggests that a person might have dyslexia, such tests are often followed up with
1995-788: A string of neighboring letters sound together. The dual-route system could explain the different rates of dyslexia occurrence between different languages (e.g., the consistency of phonological rules in the Spanish language could account for the fact that Spanish-speaking children show a higher level of performance in non-word reading, when compared to English-speakers). Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learning disorder that impairs accurate and fluent word reading and spelling. Typical—but not universal—features include difficulties with phonological awareness; inefficient and often inaccurate processing of sounds in oral language ( phonological processing ); and verbal working memory deficits. Dyslexia
2100-586: A wide variety of languages. Furthermore, the relationship between phonological capacity and reading appears to be influenced by orthography. Dyslexia was clinically described by Oswald Berkhan in 1881, but the term dyslexia was coined in 1883 by Rudolf Berlin , an ophthalmologist in Stuttgart . He used the term to refer to the case of a young boy who had severe difficulty learning to read and write, despite showing typical intelligence and physical abilities in all other respects. In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan,
2205-443: Is a learning disability that affects either reading or writing. Different people are affected to different degrees. Problems may include difficulties in spelling words, reading quickly, writing words , "sounding out" words in the head , pronouncing words when reading aloud and understanding what one reads. Often these difficulties are first noticed at school. The difficulties are involuntary, and people with this disorder have
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#17327826838272310-631: Is a neurodevelopmental disorder , subcategorized in diagnostic guides as a learning disorder with impairment in reading (ICD-11 prefixes "developmental" to "learning disorder"; DSM-5 uses "specific"). Dyslexia is not a problem with intelligence . Emotional problems often arise secondary to learning difficulties. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke describes dyslexia as "difficulty with phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), spelling, and/or rapid visual-verbal responding". The British Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as "a learning difficulty that primarily affects
2415-473: Is a condition where a person as an immediate decrease in the sensitivity of their sensorineural hearing that does not have a known cause. This type of loss is usually only on one side (unilateral) and the severity of the loss varies. A common threshold of a "loss of at least 30 dB in three connected frequencies within 72 hours" is sometimes used, however there is no universal definition or international consensus for diagnosing idiopathic sudden hearing loss. It
2520-592: Is a consideration when deciding on a treatment approach. Globally, hearing loss affects about 10% of the population to some degree. It caused moderate to severe disability in 124.2 million people as of 2004 (107.9 million of whom are in low and middle income countries). Of these 65 million acquired the condition during childhood. At birth ~3 per 1000 in developed countries and more than 6 per 1000 in developing countries have hearing problems. Hearing loss increases with age. In those between 20 and 35 rates of hearing loss are 3% while in those 44 to 55 it
2625-659: Is a member of the following professional organizations: Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (CHADD), Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), Education Records Bureau (ERB), Independent Schools Admissions Association of Greater New York (ISAAGNY), International Dyslexia Association (IDA), Learning Disabilities Association (LDA), National Association of Independent Schools (NAIS), National Business Officers Association (NBOA), New York Guild of Independent Schools, New York State Association of Independent Schools (NYSAIS), and Parents League of New York Head of School Carolyn Salzman authored an article titled "Choosing
2730-456: Is a progressive loss of ability to hear high frequencies with aging known as presbycusis . For men, this can start as early as 25 and women at 30. Although genetically variable, it is a normal concomitant of ageing and is distinct from hearing losses caused by noise exposure, toxins or disease agents. Common conditions that can increase the risk of hearing loss in elderly people are high blood pressure , diabetes ( hearing loss in diabetes ), or
2835-428: Is a yearly event to promote actions to prevent hearing damage. Avoiding exposure to loud noise can help prevent noise-induced hearing loss. 18% of adults exposed to loud noise at work for five years or more report hearing loss in both ears as compared to 5.5% of adults who were not exposed to loud noise at work. Different programs exist for specific populations such as school-age children, adolescents and workers. But
2940-407: Is also available regarding people with dyslexia who speak Arabic, Chinese, Hebrew, or other languages. The outward expression of individuals with reading disability, and regular poor readers, is the same in some respects. [REDACTED] This article was submitted to WikiJournal of Medicine for external academic peer review in 2018 ( reviewer reports ). The updated content was reintegrated into
3045-635: Is an increasing concern especially in aging populations. The prevalence of hearing loss increases about two-fold for each decade increase in age after age 40. While the secular trend might decrease individual level risk of developing hearing loss, the prevalence of hearing loss is expected to rise due to the aging population in the US. Another concern about aging process is cognitive decline, which may progress to mild cognitive impairment and eventually dementia. The association between hearing loss and cognitive decline has been studied in various research settings. Despite
3150-548: Is associated with increased difficulties in postural control and increased prevalence of falls. The underlying causal link between the association of hearing loss and falls is yet to be elucidated. There are several hypotheses that indicate that there may be a common process between decline in auditory system and increase in incident falls, driven by physiological, cognitive, and behavioral factors. This evidence suggests that treating hearing loss has potential to increase health-related quality of life in older adults. Depression
3255-433: Is contingent upon having a diagnosis of dyslexia. As a result, when Staffordshire and Warwickshire proposed in 2018 to teach reading to all children with reading difficulties, using techniques proven to be successful for most children with a diagnosis of dyslexia, without first requiring the families to obtain an official diagnosis, dyslexia advocates and parents of children with dyslexia were fearful that they were losing
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3360-1024: Is cumulative; all sources of damage must be considered to assess risk. In the US, 12.5% of children aged 6–19 years have permanent hearing damage from excessive noise exposure. The World Health Organization estimates that half of those between 12 and 35 are at risk from using personal audio devices that are too loud. Hearing loss in adolescents may be caused by loud noise from toys, music by headphones, and concerts or events. Hearing loss can be inherited. Around 75–80% of all these cases are inherited by recessive genes , 20–25% are inherited by dominant genes , 1–2% are inherited by X-linked patterns, and fewer than 1% are inherited by mitochondrial inheritance . Syndromic deafness occurs when there are other signs or medical problems aside from deafness in an individual, such as Usher syndrome , Stickler syndrome , Waardenburg syndrome , Alport's syndrome , and neurofibromatosis type 2 . Nonsyndromic deafness occurs when there are no other signs or medical problems associated with
3465-473: Is defined by a frequency versus intensity graph, or audiogram, charting sensitivity thresholds of hearing at defined frequencies. Because of the cumulative impact of age and exposure to noise and other acoustic insults, 'typical' hearing may not be normal. Hearing loss is sensory, but may have accompanying symptoms: There may also be accompanying secondary symptoms: Hearing loss is associated with Alzheimer's disease and dementia . The risk increases with
3570-653: Is estimated that half of cases of hearing loss are preventable. About 60% of hearing loss in children under the age of 15 can be avoided. There are a number of effective preventative strategies, including: immunization against rubella to prevent congenital rubella syndrome , immunization against H. influenza and S. pneumoniae to reduce cases of meningitis , and avoiding or protecting against excessive noise exposure. The World Health Organization also recommends immunization against measles , mumps , and meningitis , efforts to prevent premature birth , and avoidance of certain medication as prevention. World Hearing Day
3675-432: Is generally measured by playing generated or recorded sounds, and determining whether the person can hear them. Hearing sensitivity varies according to the frequency of sounds. To take this into account, hearing sensitivity can be measured for a range of frequencies and plotted on an audiogram . Other method for quantifying hearing loss is a hearing test using a mobile application or hearing aid application, which includes
3780-512: Is hearing loss that is sustained after the acquisition of language , which can occur due to disease , trauma , or as a side-effect of a medicine. Typically, hearing loss is gradual and often detected by family and friends of affected individuals long before the patients themselves will acknowledge the disability. Post-lingual deafness is far more common than pre-lingual deafness. Those who lose their hearing later in life, such as in late adolescence or adulthood, face their own challenges, living with
3885-415: Is not a hearing loss as such but a difficulty perceiving sound. The shape of an audiogram shows the relative configuration of the hearing loss, such as a Carhart notch for otosclerosis, 'noise' notch for noise-induced damage, high frequency rolloff for presbycusis, or a flat audiogram for conductive hearing loss. In conjunction with speech audiometry, it may indicate central auditory processing disorder, or
3990-748: Is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. In older adults, the suicide rate is higher than it is for younger adults, and more suicide cases are attributable to depression. Different studies have been done to investigate potential risk factors that can give rise to depression in later life. Some chronic diseases are found to be significantly associated with risk of developing depression, such as coronary heart disease , pulmonary disease , vision loss and hearing loss. Hearing loss can contribute to decrease in health-related quality of life, increase in social isolation and decline in social engagement, which are all risk factors for increased risk of developing depression symptoms. Post-lingual deafness
4095-498: Is partly explained by a self-fulfilling referral bias among teachers and professionals. It has even been suggested that the condition affects men and women equally. Some believe that dyslexia is best considered as a different way of learning, with both benefits and downsides. Dyslexia is divided into developmental and acquired forms. Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent to neurological insult, such as traumatic brain injury or stroke . People with acquired dyslexia exhibit some of
4200-470: Is positive for individuals who are identified in childhood and receive support from friends and family. The New York educational system (NYED) indicates "a daily uninterrupted 90-minute block of instruction in reading" and "instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, reading fluency" so as to improve the individual's reading ability. The prevalence of dyslexia is unknown, but it has been estimated to be as low as 5% and as high as 17% of
4305-447: Is progressive and irreversible, and there are currently no approved or recommended treatments. A few specific kinds of hearing loss are amenable to surgical treatment. In other cases, treatment is addressed to underlying pathologies, but any hearing loss incurred may be permanent. Some management options include hearing aids , cochlear implants , middle ear implants , assistive technology , and closed captioning ; in movie theaters ,
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4410-656: Is recommended for all newborns. Hearing loss can be categorized as mild (25 to 40 dB ), moderate (41 to 55 dB), moderate-severe (56 to 70 dB), severe (71 to 90 dB), or profound (greater than 90 dB). There are three main types of hearing loss: conductive hearing loss , sensorineural hearing loss , and mixed hearing loss. About half of hearing loss globally is preventable through public health measures. Such practices include immunization , proper care around pregnancy , avoiding loud noise, and avoiding certain medications. The World Health Organization recommends that young people limit exposure to loud sounds and
4515-457: Is sometimes called "acquired dyslexia" or alexia . The underlying mechanisms of dyslexia result from differences within the brain's language processing . Dyslexia is diagnosed through a series of tests of memory, vision, spelling, and reading skills. Dyslexia is separate from reading difficulties caused by hearing or vision problems or by insufficient teaching or opportunity to learn. Treatment involves adjusting teaching methods to meet
4620-455: Is the aminoglycosides (main member gentamicin ) and platinum based chemotherapeutics such as cisplatin and carboplatin . In addition to medications, hearing loss can also result from specific chemicals in the environment: metals, such as lead ; solvents , such as toluene (found in crude oil , gasoline and automobile exhaust , for example); and asphyxiants . Combined with noise, these ototoxic chemicals have an additive effect on
4725-466: Is the lexical route, which is the process whereby skilled readers can recognize known words by sight alone, through a "dictionary" lookup procedure. The other mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, which is the process whereby the reader can "sound out" a written word. This is done by identifying the word's constituent parts (letters, phonemes , graphemes ) and applying knowledge of how these parts are associated with each other, for example, how
4830-648: The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) work together to provide standards and enforcement on workplace noise levels. The hierarchy of hazard controls demonstrates the different levels of controls to reduce or eliminate exposure to noise and prevent hearing loss, including engineering controls and personal protective equipment (PPE). Other programs and initiative have been created to prevent hearing loss in
4935-545: The Weber , Rinne , Bing and Schwabach tests. In case of infection or inflammation, blood or other body fluids may be submitted for laboratory analysis. MRI and CT scans can be useful to identify the pathology of many causes of hearing loss. Hearing loss is categorized by severity, type, and configuration. Furthermore, a hearing loss may exist in only one ear (unilateral) or in both ears (bilateral). Hearing loss can be temporary or permanent, sudden or progressive. The severity of
5040-400: The eardrum , causing it to vibrate. The vibrations are transferred by the 3 tiny ear bones of the middle ear to the fluid in the inner ear. The fluid moves hair cells ( stereocilia ), and their movement generates nerve impulses which are then taken to the brain by the cochlear nerve . The auditory nerve takes the impulses to the brainstem, which sends the impulses to the midbrain. Finally,
5145-678: The 2015-2016 school year, Gateway celebrated its 50th anniversary. 2009 - LEED Silver certification from the U.S. Green Building Council 2010 - National Center for Learning Disabilities’ Founders Award for exceptional service to children and families 2011 - Head of School Robert Cunningham named one of the top Game Changers in Education by The Huffington Post Elizabeth Freidus, Founding Director (1965–1978) Davida Sherwood, Ph.D., Director (1978-2004) Robert Cunningham, Head of School (2004-2013) Carolyn Salzman, Head of School (2013–2020) Laurie Gruhn, Head Of School (2020–present) Gateway
5250-677: The Cochrane Review was that further research could modify what is now regarding the effectiveness of the evaluated interventions. The Institute for Occupational Safety and Health of the German Social Accident Insurance has created a hearing impairment calculator based on the ISO 1999 model for studying threshold shift in relatively homogeneous groups of people, such as workers with the same type of job. The ISO 1999 model estimates how much hearing impairment in
5355-516: The HPD (without individual selection, training and fit testing ) does not significantly reduce the risk of hearing loss. The use of antioxidants is being studied for the prevention of noise-induced hearing loss, particularly for scenarios in which noise exposure cannot be reduced, such as during military operations. Noise is widely recognized as an occupational hazard . In the United States,
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#17327826838275460-484: The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) introduces the issue, provides examples of ototoxic chemicals, lists the industries and occupations at risk and provides prevention information. There can be damage either to the ear, whether the external or middle ear, to the cochlea, or to the brain centers that process
5565-656: The Misplaced Pages page under a CC-BY-SA-3.0 license ( 2019 ). The version of record as reviewed is: Osmin Anis, et al. (15 October 2019). "Dyslexia" (PDF) . WikiJournal of Medicine . 6 (1): 5. doi : 10.15347/WJM/2019.005 . ISSN 2002-4436 . Wikidata Q73053061 . Hearing problems Hearing loss is a partial or total inability to hear . Hearing loss may be present at birth or acquired at any time afterwards. Hearing loss may occur in one or both ears. In children, hearing problems can affect
5670-504: The ability to acquire spoken language , and in adults it can create difficulties with social interaction and at work. Hearing loss can be temporary or permanent. Hearing loss related to age usually affects both ears and is due to cochlear hair cell loss. In some people, particularly older people, hearing loss can result in loneliness. Hearing loss may be caused by a number of factors, including: genetics , ageing , exposure to noise , some infections , birth complications, trauma to
5775-587: The adaptations that allow them to live independently. Prelingual deafness is profound hearing loss that is sustained before the acquisition of language, which can occur due to a congenital condition or through hearing loss before birth or in early infancy. Prelingual deafness impairs an individual's ability to acquire a spoken language in children, but deaf children can acquire spoken language through support from cochlear implants (sometimes combined with hearing aids). Non-signing (hearing) parents of deaf babies (90–95% of cases) usually go with oral approach without
5880-543: The association between hearing loss and cognitive decline is mediated through various psychosocial factors, such as decrease in social contact and increase in social isolation . Findings on the association between hearing loss and dementia have significant public health implication, since about 9% of dementia cases are associated with hearing loss. Falls have important health implications, especially for an aging population where they can lead to significant morbidity and mortality. Elderly people are particularly vulnerable to
5985-406: The aural information conveyed by the ears. Damage to the middle ear may include fracture and discontinuity of the ossicular chain. Damage to the inner ear (cochlea) may be caused by temporal bone fracture . People who sustain head injury are especially vulnerable to hearing loss or tinnitus, either temporary or permanent. Sound waves reach the outer ear and are conducted down the ear canal to
6090-403: The brains of people with dyslexia. Observed anatomical differences in the language centers of such brains include microscopic cortical malformations known as ectopias , and more rarely, vascular micro-malformations, and microgyrus —a smaller than usual size for the gyrus. The previously cited studies and others suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed to occur before or during
6195-457: The common problem among people with dyslexia of not being able to see letters clearly to abnormal development of their visual nerve cells. Neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) and positron emission tomography (PET), have shown a correlation between both functional and structural differences in the brains of children with reading difficulties. Some people with dyslexia show less activation in parts of
6300-449: The consequences of injuries caused by falls, since older individuals typically have greater bone fragility and poorer protective reflexes. Fall-related injury can also lead to burdens on the financial and health care systems. In literature, age-related hearing loss is found to be significantly associated with incident falls. There is also a potential dose-response relationship between hearing loss and falls—greater severity of hearing loss
6405-471: The deafness in an individual. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders are reported to cause hearing loss in up to 64% of infants born to alcoholic mothers, from the ototoxic effect on the developing fetus plus malnutrition during pregnancy from the excess alcohol intake. Premature birth can be associated with sensorineural hearing loss because of an increased risk of hypoxia , hyperbilirubinaemia , ototoxic medication and infection as well as noise exposure in
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#17327826838276510-601: The detrimental effects of the untreated condition on quality of life. For the same reason, the US Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion included as one of Healthy People 2020 objectives: to increase the proportion of persons who have had a hearing examination. Management depends on the specific cause if known as well as the extent, type and configuration of the hearing loss. Sudden hearing loss due to an underlying nerve problem may be treated with corticosteroids . Most hearing loss, that result from age and noise,
6615-720: The disorder. Reducing stress and anxiety can sometimes improve written comprehension. For dyslexia intervention with alphabet-writing systems, the fundamental aim is to increase a child's awareness of correspondences between graphemes (letters) and phonemes (sounds), and to relate these to reading and spelling by teaching how sounds blend into words. Reinforced collateral training focused on reading and spelling may yield longer-lasting gains than oral phonological training alone. Early intervention can be successful in reducing reading failure. Research does not suggest that specially-tailored fonts (such as Dyslexie and OpenDyslexic ) help with reading. Children with dyslexia read text set in
6720-404: The ear, and certain medications or toxins. A common condition that results in hearing loss is chronic ear infections . Certain infections during pregnancy, such as cytomegalovirus , syphilis and rubella , may also cause hearing loss in the child. Hearing loss is diagnosed when hearing testing finds that a person is unable to hear 25 decibels in at least one ear. Testing for poor hearing
6825-844: The extrapolation of results for application to the human brain. The orthographic complexity of a language directly affects how difficult it is to learn to read it. English and French have comparatively "deep" phonemic orthographies within the Latin alphabet writing system , with complex structures employing spelling patterns on several levels: letter-sound correspondence, syllables, and morphemes . Languages such as Spanish, Italian and Finnish primarily employ letter-sound correspondence—so-called "shallow" orthographies—which makes them easier to learn for people with dyslexia. Logographic writing systems, such as Chinese characters , have extensive symbol use; and these also pose problems for dyslexic learners. For most people who are right-hand dominant,
6930-408: The first three years of life are believed to be the most important for language development. Universal neonatal hearing screenings have now been widely implemented across the U.S., with rates of newborn screening increasing from less than 3% in the early 1990s to 98% in 2009. Newborns whose screening reveals a high index of suspicion of hearing loss are referred for additional diagnostic testing with
7035-530: The global population), and moderate to severe disability in 124 million people. Of those with moderate to severe disability 108 million live in low and middle income countries. Of those with hearing loss, it began during childhood for 65 million. Those who use sign language and are members of Deaf culture may see themselves as having a difference rather than a disability . Many members of Deaf culture oppose attempts to cure deafness and some within this community view cochlear implants with concern as they have
7140-717: The goal of providing early intervention and access to language. The American Academy of Pediatrics advises that children should have their hearing tested several times throughout their schooling: While the American College of Physicians indicated that there is not enough evidence to determine the utility of screening in adults over 50 years old who do not have any symptoms, the American Language, Speech Pathology and Hearing Association recommends that adults should be screened at least every decade through age 50 and at three-year intervals thereafter, to minimize
7245-484: The hearing loss degree. There are several hypotheses including cognitive resources being redistributed to hearing and social isolation from hearing loss having a negative effect. According to preliminary data, hearing aid usage can slow down the decline in cognitive functions . Hearing loss is responsible for causing thalamocortical dysrthymia in the brain which is a cause for several neurological disorders including tinnitus and visual snow syndrome . Hearing loss
7350-426: The initial sounds in words). Do not rely on tests exclusively. Careful observation of the child in the school and home environments, and sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are just as important as tests. Look at the empirically supported response to intervention (RTI) approach, which "... involves monitoring the progress of a group of children through a programme of intervention rather than undertaking
7455-552: The instructors of a person with dyslexia lack the necessary training to support a child with the condition, there is often a negative effect on the student's learning participation. Since at least the 1960s in the UK, the children diagnosed with developmental dyslexia have consistently been from privileged families. Although half of prisoners in the UK have significant reading difficulties, very few have ever been evaluated for dyslexia. Access to some special educational resources and funding
7560-463: The intelligence-based model to the age-based model, in terms of those with Dyslexia. As is the case with any disorder, society often makes an assessment based on incomplete information. Before the 1980s, dyslexia was thought to be a consequence of education, rather than a neurological disability. As a result, society often misjudges those with the disorder. There is also sometimes a workplace stigma and negative attitude towards those with dyslexia. If
7665-496: The left inferior frontal gyrus has shown differences in phonological processing in people with dyslexia. Neurophysiological and imaging procedures are being used to ascertain phenotypic characteristics in people with dyslexia, thus identifying the effects of dyslexia-related genes. The dual-route theory of reading aloud was first described in the early 1970s. This theory suggests that two separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involved in reading aloud. One mechanism
7770-467: The left hemisphere of the brain involved with reading, such as the inferior frontal gyrus , inferior parietal lobule , and the middle and ventral temporal cortex . Over the past decade, brain activation studies using PET to study language have produced a breakthrough in the understanding of the neural basis of language. Neural bases for the visual lexicon and for auditory verbal short-term memory components have been proposed, with some implication that
7875-534: The left hemisphere of their brain is more specialized for language processing . With regard to the mechanism of dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialization is less pronounced or absent in people with dyslexia. In other studies, dyslexia is correlated with anatomical differences in the corpus callosum , the bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres. Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate changes in connectivity or in gray matter density in areas related to reading and language. Finally,
7980-1555: The neonatal units. Also, hearing loss in premature babies is often discovered far later than a similar hearing loss would be in a full-term baby because normally babies are given a hearing test within 48 hours of birth, but doctors must wait until the premature baby is medically stable before testing hearing, which can be months after birth. The risk of hearing loss is greatest for those weighing less than 1500 g at birth. Disorders responsible for hearing loss include auditory neuropathy , Down syndrome , Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease variant 1E, autoimmune disease , multiple sclerosis , meningitis , cholesteatoma , otosclerosis , perilymph fistula , Ménière's disease , recurring ear infections, strokes, superior semicircular canal dehiscence , Pierre Robin , Treacher-Collins , Usher Syndrome , Pendred Syndrome , and Turner syndrome, syphilis , vestibular schwannoma , and viral infections such as measles , mumps , congenital rubella (also called German measles) syndrome, several varieties of herpes viruses , HIV/AIDS , and West Nile virus . Some medications may reversibly or irreversibly affect hearing. These medications are considered ototoxic . This includes loop diuretics such as furosemide and bumetanide, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) both over-the-counter (aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen) as well as prescription (celecoxib, diclofenac, etc.), paracetamol, quinine , and macrolide antibiotics . Others may cause permanent hearing loss. The most important group
8085-419: The nerves from the ear to the brain. Identification of a hearing loss is usually conducted by a general practitioner medical doctor , otolaryngologist , certified and licensed audiologist , school or industrial audiometrist , or other audiometric technician. Diagnosis of the cause of a hearing loss is carried out by a specialist physician (audiovestibular physician) or otorhinolaryngologist . Hearing loss
8190-440: The number of syllables in words—both of which depend on phonological awareness. They may also show difficulty in segmenting words into individual sounds (such as sounding out the three sounds of k , a , and t in cat ) or may struggle to blend sounds, indicating reduced phonemic awareness . Difficulties with word retrieval or naming things is also associated with dyslexia. People with dyslexia are commonly poor spellers ,
8295-402: The observed neural manifestation of developmental dyslexia is task-specific (i.e., functional rather than structural). fMRIs of people with dyslexia indicate an interactive role of the cerebellum and cerebral cortex as well as other brain structures in reading. The cerebellar theory of dyslexia proposes that impairment of cerebellum-controlled muscle movement affects the formation of words by
8400-420: The person's needs. While not curing the underlying problem, it may decrease the degree or impact of symptoms. Treatments targeting vision are not effective. Dyslexia is the most common learning disability and occurs in all areas of the world. It affects 3–7% of the population; however, up to 20% of the general population may have some degree of symptoms. While dyslexia is more often diagnosed in boys, this
8505-597: The phonics curriculum, and thereby identify children progressing slowly. When teachers identify such students they can supplement their observations with screening tests such as the Phonics screening check used by United Kingdom schools during Year one . In the medical setting, child and adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasizes that "[g]iven the high prevalence of developmental disorders in school-aged children, all children seen in clinics should be systematically screened for developmental disorders irrespective of
8610-525: The population globally. The majority of hearing loss is not due to age, but due to noise exposure. Various governmental, industry and standards organizations set noise standards. Many people are unaware of the presence of environmental sound at damaging levels, or of the level at which sound becomes harmful. Common sources of damaging noise levels include car stereos, children's toys, motor vehicles, crowds, lawn and maintenance equipment, power tools, gun use, musical instruments, and even hair dryers. Noise damage
8715-700: The population. Dyslexia is diagnosed more often in males. There are different definitions of dyslexia used throughout the world. Further, differences in writing systems may affect development of written language ability due to the interplay between auditory and written representations of phonemes. Dyslexia is not limited to difficulty in converting letters to sounds, and Chinese people with dyslexia may have difficulty converting Chinese characters into their meanings. The Chinese vocabulary uses logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writing where one character can represent an individual phoneme. The phonological-processing hypothesis attempts to explain why dyslexia occurs in
8820-448: The potential of age-appropriate development of language due to early exposure to a sign language by sign-competent parents, thus they have the potential to meet language milestones, in sign language in lieu of spoken language. Hearing loss has multiple causes, including ageing, genetics, perinatal problems and acquired causes like noise and disease. For some kinds of hearing loss the cause may be classified as of unknown cause . There
8925-483: The potential to eliminate their culture. Use of the terms "hearing impaired", "deaf-mute", or "deaf and dumb" to describe deaf and hard of hearing people is discouraged by many in the deaf community as well as advocacy organizations, as they are offensive to many deaf and hard of hearing people. Human hearing extends in frequency from 20 to 20,000 Hz, and in intensity from 0 dB to 120 dB HL or more. 0 dB does not represent absence of sound, but rather
9030-400: The presence of a schwannoma or other tumor. People with unilateral hearing loss or single-sided deafness (SSD) have difficulty in hearing conversation on their impaired side, localizing sound, and understanding speech in the presence of background noise. One reason for the hearing problems these patients often experience is due to the head shadow effect . Idiopathic sudden hearing loss
9135-499: The presenting problem/s." Thambirajah recommends screening for developmental disorders, including dyslexia, by conducting a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, and obtaining a school report regarding academic and social functioning. Through the use of compensation strategies, therapy and educational support, individuals with dyslexia can learn to read and write. There are techniques and technical aids that help to manage or conceal symptoms of
9240-511: The proportion of variance associated with a person's environment and the proportion associated with their genes. Both environmental and genetic factors appear to contribute to reading development. Studies examining the influence of environmental factors such as parental education and teaching quality have determined that genetics have greater influence in supportive, rather than less optimal, environments. However, more optimal conditions may just allow those genetic risk factors to account for more of
9345-405: The signal goes to the auditory cortex of the temporal lobe to be interpreted as sound. Hearing loss is most commonly caused by long-term exposure to loud noises, from recreation or from work, that damage the hair cells, which do not grow back on their own. Older people may lose their hearing from long exposure to noise, changes in the inner ear, changes in the middle ear, or from changes along
9450-800: The signs or symptoms of the developmental disorder, but require different assessment strategies and treatment approaches. Pure alexia , also known as agnosic alexia or pure word blindness , is one form of alexia which makes up "the peripheral dyslexia" group. In early childhood, symptoms that correlate with a later diagnosis of dyslexia include delayed onset of speech and a lack of phonological awareness . A common myth closely associates dyslexia with mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards. These behaviors are seen in many children as they learn to read and write, and are not considered to be defining characteristics of dyslexia. School-age children with dyslexia may exhibit signs of difficulty in identifying or generating rhyming words , or counting
9555-488: The sixth month of fetal brain development, may have caused the abnormalities. Abnormal cell formations in people with dyslexia have also been reported in non-language cerebral and subcortical brain structures. Several genes have been associated with dyslexia, including DCDC2 and KIAA0319 on chromosome 6 , and DYX1C1 on chromosome 15 . The contribution of gene–environment interaction to reading disability has been intensely studied using twin studies , which estimate
9660-447: The skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling" and is characterized by "difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed". Phonological awareness enables one to identify, discriminate, remember ( working memory ), and mentally manipulate the sound structures of language— phonemes , onsite-rime segments, syllables, and words. The following can be done to assess for dyslexia: Apply
9765-501: The softest sound an average unimpaired human ear can hear; some people can hear down to −5 or even −10 dB. Sound is generally uncomfortably loud above 90 dB and 115 dB represents the threshold of pain . The ear does not hear all frequencies equally well: hearing sensitivity peaks around 3,000 Hz. There are many qualities of human hearing besides frequency range and intensity that cannot easily be measured quantitatively. However, for many practical purposes, normal hearing
9870-512: The support of sign language, as these families lack previous experience with sign language and cannot competently provide it to their children without learning it themselves. This may in some cases (late implantation or not sufficient benefit from cochlear implants) bring the risk of language deprivation for the deaf baby because the deaf baby would not have a sign language if the child is unable to acquire spoken language successfully. The 5–10% of cases of deaf babies born into signing families have
9975-411: The suspected cause of the sudden hearing loss. Treatment approaches may include corticosteroid medications, rheological drugs, vasodilators, anesthetics, and other medications chosen based on the suspected underlying pathology that caused the sudden hearing loss. The evidence supporting most treatment options for idiopathic sudden hearing loss is very weak and adverse effects of these different medications
10080-539: The tongue and facial muscles, resulting in the fluency problems that some people with dyslexia experience. The cerebellum is also involved in the automatization of some tasks, such as reading. The fact that some children with dyslexia have motor task and balance impairments could be consistent with a cerebellar role in their reading difficulties. However, the cerebellar theory has not been supported by controlled research studies. Research into potential genetic causes of dyslexia has its roots in post-autopsy examination of
10185-550: The underlying causal mechanism for age-related hearing loss and cognitive decline. One hypothesis is that this association can be explained by common etiology or shared neurobiological pathology with decline in other physiological system. Another possible cognitive mechanism emphasize on individual's cognitive load . As people developing hearing loss in the process of aging, the cognitive load demanded by auditory perception increases, which may lead to change in brain structure and eventually to dementia. One other hypothesis suggests that
10290-518: The use of personal audio players to an hour a day in an effort to limit exposure to noise. Early identification and support are particularly important in children. For many, hearing aids , sign language , cochlear implants and subtitles are useful. Lip reading is another useful skill some develop. Access to hearing aids, however, is limited in many areas of the world. As of 2013 hearing loss affects about 1.1 billion people to some degree. It causes disability in about 466 million people (5% of
10395-420: The use of certain medications harmful to the ear. While everyone loses hearing with age, the amount and type of hearing loss is variable. Noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL), also known as acoustic trauma , typically manifests as elevated hearing thresholds (i.e. less sensitivity or muting). Noise exposure is the cause of approximately half of all cases of hearing loss, causing some degree of problems in 5% of
10500-467: The variability in study design and protocols, the majority of these studies have found consistent association between age-related hearing loss and cognitive decline, cognitive impairment, and dementia. The association between age-related hearing loss and Alzheimer's disease was found to be nonsignificant, and this finding supports the hypothesis that hearing loss is associated with dementia independent of Alzheimer pathology. There are several hypotheses about
10605-411: The variance in outcome because the environmental risk factors have been minimized. As environment plays a large role in learning and memory, it is likely that epigenetic modifications play an important role in reading ability. Measures of gene expression , histone modifications , and methylation in the human periphery are used to study epigenetic processes; however, all of these have limitations in
10710-461: The worker and type of employment. Some hearing protectors universally block out all noise, and some allow for certain noises to be heard. Workers are more likely to wear hearing protector devices when they are properly fitted. Often interventions to prevent noise-induced hearing loss have many components. A 2017 Cochrane review found that stricter legislation might reduce noise levels. Providing workers with information on their sound exposure levels
10815-766: The workplace. For example, the Safe-in-Sound Award was created to recognize organizations that can demonstrate results of successful noise control and other interventions. Additionally, the Buy Quiet program was created to encourage employers to purchase quieter machinery and tools. By purchasing less noisy power tools like those found on the NIOSH Power Tools Database and limiting exposure to ototoxic chemicals, great strides can be made in preventing hearing loss. Companies can also provide personal hearing protector devices tailored to both
10920-612: Was not shown to decrease exposure to noise. Ear protection, if used correctly, can reduce noise to safer levels, but often, providing them is not sufficient to prevent hearing loss. Engineering noise out and other solutions such as proper maintenance of equipment can lead to noise reduction, but further field studies on resulting noise exposures following such interventions are needed. Other possible solutions include improved enforcement of existing legislation and better implementation of well-designed prevention programmes, which have not yet been proven conclusively to be effective. The conclusion of
11025-537: Was the mother of Gateway's first student. The initial class consisted of five students in a space rented from Madison Avenue Presbyterian Church on Manhattan's Upper East Side. The school remained in this location for 36 years. In 2001, Gateway moved into a converted brownstone at 236 Second Avenue near Union Square. With the decision to add a Middle School to the existing Lower School, Gateway began searching for an even larger building, and it debuted its current home on West 61st Street, near Lincoln Center , in 2008. In
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