115-490: Gardnerian Wicca , or Gardnerian witchcraft , is a tradition in the neopagan religion of Wicca , whose members can trace initiatory descent from Gerald Gardner . The tradition is itself named after Gardner (1884–1964), a British civil servant and amateur scholar of magic . The term "Gardnerian" was probably coined by the founder of Cochranian Witchcraft , Robert Cochrane in the 1950s or 1960s, who himself left that tradition to found his own. Gardner claimed to have learned
230-461: A High Priestess and the High Priest of her choice, and celebrate both a Goddess and a God. Gardnerian Wicca and other forms of British Traditional Wicca operate as an initiatory mystery cult ; membership is gained only through initiation by a Wiccan High Priestess or High Priest. Any valid line of initiatory descent can be traced all the way back to Gerald Gardner , and through him back to
345-421: A category within modern paganism that does not encompass all pagan religions. Other terms some pagans favor include "traditional religion", "indigenous religion", "nativist religion", and "reconstructionism". Various pagans who are active in pagan studies, such as Michael York and Prudence Jones, have argued that, due to the similarities of their worldviews , the modern pagan movement can be treated as part of
460-407: A central role in contemporary Hinduism , but the enormous complexity of ancient ritual ( yajna ) only survives in a tiny minority of Shrauta practitioners. Even Hindus who diligently practice a subset of prescribed rituals are called orthoprax, to contrast them with other Hindus who insist on the importance of correct belief or understanding. The correctness of one's interpretation of the scripture
575-496: A crucial role in inspiring Gardner to establish a new pagan religion. Ruickbie, Hutton, and others further argue that much of what has been published of Gardnerian Wicca, as Gardner's practice came to be known, was written by Blake, Yeats, Valiente and Crowley and contains borrowings from other identifiable sources. The witches Gardner was originally introduced to were originally referred to by him as "the Wica" and he would often use
690-581: A deep-rooted sense of place and people, and eclectics embracing a universality and openness toward humanity and the Earth. Strmiska nevertheless notes that this reconstructionist-eclectic division is "neither as absolute nor as straightforward as it might appear". He cites the example of Dievturība , a form of reconstructionist paganism that seeks to revive the pre-Christian religion of the Latvian people, by noting that it exhibits eclectic tendencies by adopting
805-432: A fictional treatment that did not expose them to prosecution, "High Magic's Aid": Anyhow, I soon found myself in the circle and took the usual oaths of secrecy which bound me not to reveal any secrets of the cult. But, as it is a dying cult, I thought it was a pity that all the knowledge should be lost, so in the end I was permitted to write, as fiction, something of what a witch believes in the novel High Magic's Aid. After
920-435: A form of racism. Other pagan groups allow people of any ethnicity, on the view that the gods and goddesses of a particular region can call anyone to their form of worship. Some such groups feel a particular affinity for the pre-Christian belief systems of a particular region with which they have no ethnic link because they see themselves as reincarnations of people from that society. There is greater focus on ethnicity within
1035-494: A framework, because while seeking a reconstructionist form of historical accuracy, Asatro strongly eschewed the emphasis on ethnicity that is common to other reconstructionist groups. While Wicca is identified as an eclectic form of paganism, Strmiska also notes that some Wiccans have moved in a more reconstructionist direction by focusing on a particular ethnic and cultural link, thus developing such variants as Norse Wicca and Celtic Wicca . Concern has also been expressed regarding
1150-530: A group of people who had preserved their historic occult practices. They recognised him as being "one of them" and convinced him to be initiated. It was only halfway through the initiation, he says, that it dawned on him what kind of group it was, and that witchcraft was still being practised in England. The group into which Gardner was initiated, known as the New Forest coven , was small and utterly secret as
1265-598: A monotheistic focus and ceremonial structure from Lutheranism . Similarly, while examining neo-shamanism among the Sami people of Northern Scandinavia, Siv Ellen Kraft highlights that despite the religion being reconstructionist in intent, it is highly eclectic in the manner in which it has adopted elements from shamanic traditions in other parts of the world. In discussing Asatro – a form of Heathenry based in Denmark – Matthew Amster notes that it did not fit clearly within such
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#17327800435091380-416: A part of the "much larger phenomenon" of efforts to revive "traditional, indigenous, or native religions" that were occurring across the globe. Beliefs and practices vary widely among different pagan groups; however, there are a series of core principles common to most, if not all, forms of modern paganism. The English academic Graham Harvey noted that pagans "rarely indulge in theology". One principle of
1495-510: A polytheistic world-view would be beneficial for western society – replacing the dominant monotheism they see as innately repressive. In fact, many American modern pagans first came to their adopted faiths because it allowed a greater freedom, diversity, and tolerance of worship among the community. This pluralistic perspective has helped the varied factions of modern paganism exist in relative harmony. Most pagans adopt an ethos of " unity in diversity " regarding their religious beliefs. It
1610-442: A range of ecologic and explicitly ecocentric practices, which may overlap with scientific pantheism . Pagans may distinguish their beliefs and practices as a form of religious naturalism or naturalist philosophy , with some engaged as humanistic or atheopagans . For some pagan groups, ethnicity is central to their religion, and some restrict membership to a single ethnic group. Some critics have described this approach as
1725-659: A revival and established the Roman academy which secretly celebrated the Natale di Roma and the birthday of Romulus . The Academy was dissolved in 1468 when Pope Paul II orderd the arrest and execution of some of the members, Pope Sixtus IV allowed Laetus to open the accademy again until the Sack of Rome of the 1527. Positive identification with paganism became more common in the 18th and 19th centuries, when it tied in with criticism of Christianity and organized religion, rooted in
1840-474: A secular worldview. Humanistic, naturalistic, or secular pagans may recognize deities as archetypes or useful metaphors for different cycles of life, or reframe magic as a purely psychological practice. Contemporary paganism has been associated with the New Age movement, with scholars highlighting their similarities as well as their differences. The academic field of pagan studies began to coalesce in
1955-631: A series of High Priestesses, founding further covens and continuing the initiation of more Wiccans into the tradition. In the UK, Europe and most Commonwealth countries someone self-defined as Wiccan is usually understood to be claiming initiatory descent from Gardner, either through Gardnerian Wicca, or through a derived branch such as Alexandrian Wicca . Elsewhere, these original lineaged traditions are termed " British Traditional Wicca ". Gardnerian Wiccans organize into covens , that traditionally, though not always, are limited to thirteen members. Covens are led by
2070-460: A single cosmology, metaphysical idea, or theological theory as absolute truth. Taoism understands the right way of living as one that is in alignment with the Tao, "The Way", referring to the way of the universe - the patterns of existence around us, which are constantly being explored, understood, and re-interpreted. If you are living in accordance with the pattern of the Tao - the source, the universe,
2185-470: A single one. The category of modern paganism could be compared to the categories of Abrahamic religions and Indian religions in its structure. A second, less common definition found within pagan studies – promoted by the religious studies scholars Michael F. Strmiska and Graham Harvey – characterises modern paganism as a single religion, of which groups like Wicca , Druidry , and Heathenry are denominations . This perspective has been critiqued, given
2300-520: A single word his or her definitive break" from Christianity. He further suggests that the term gained appeal through its depiction in romanticist and 19th-century European nationalist literature, where it had been imbued with "a certain mystery and allure", and that by embracing the word "pagan" modern pagans defy past religious intolerance to honor the pre-Christian peoples of Europe and emphasize those societies' cultural and artistic achievements. "We might say that Reconstructionist Pagans romanticize
2415-611: A surviving pagan religion, but this theory is now rejected by academia. Nevertheless, it was an influence on some neo-pagans. On retirement from the British Colonial Service, Gerald Gardner moved to London but then before World War II moved to Highcliffe , east of Bournemouth and near the New Forest on the south coast of England. After attending a performance staged by the Rosicrucian Order Crotona Fellowship , he reports meeting
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#17327800435092530-689: A variety of degrees; many of them follow a spirituality that they accept as entirely modern, while others claim to adhere to prehistoric beliefs , or else, they attempt to revive indigenous religions as accurately as possible. Modern pagan movements are frequently described on a spectrum ranging from reconstructive , which seeks to revive historical pagan religions; to eclectic movements , which blend elements from various religions and philosophies with historical paganism. Polytheism , animism , and pantheism are common features across pagan theology. Modern pagans can also include atheists , upholding virtues and principles associated with paganism while maintaining
2645-687: A way which will abate the harm." A second ethical guideline is often called the Law of Return, sometimes the Rule of Three . Like the Rede, this guideline teaches Gardnerians that whatever energy or intention one puts out into the world, whether magical or not, will return to that person multiplied by three. This law is controversial, as discussed by John Coughlin, author of The Pagan Resource Guide, in an essay, "The Three-Fold Law." The religion tends to be non-dogmatic, allowing each initiate to find for themselves what
2760-462: Is "a highly diverse phenomenon", "an identifiable common element" nevertheless runs through the pagan movement. Strmiska described paganism as a movement "dedicated to reviving the polytheistic, nature-worshipping pagan religions of pre-Christian Europe and adapting them for the use of people in modern societies." The religious studies scholar Wouter Hanegraaff characterised paganism as encompassing "all those modern movements which are, first, based on
2875-619: Is a "new", "modern" religious movement, even if some of its content derives from ancient sources. Contemporary paganism as practiced in the United States in the 1990s has been described as "a synthesis of historical inspiration and present-day creativity". Eclectic paganism takes an undogmatic religious stance and therefore potentially sees no one as having authority to deem a source apocryphal. Contemporary paganism has therefore been prone to fakelore , especially in recent years as information and misinformation alike have been spread on
2990-628: Is a concept known as reciprocity when discussing traditional or ethnic religions such as that in Ancient Greece , but is limited to correct behavior over any one theological idea. The applicability of biblical law in Christianity is disputed. Most Christians believe that some or all of the Ten Commandments are still binding or have been reinstituted in the law of Christ . A minority of Christians are Torah-observant and at
3105-590: Is based on two factors: Jain siddhanta (teachings of the Tirthankara ) and kriya (practices prevalent at the time of the Tirthankaras). According to Jains, the Tirthankaras based their teachings and philosophy after knowing the realities on this universe (like dravya and tattva ). Based on these realities, they propounded true and eternal principles like ahimsa , truth, karma etc. that govern
3220-553: Is considered to be inherent in Byzantine praxis. Hinduism places an emphasis on orthopraxy in that it is concerned with sanātana dharma (everlasting dharma, with dharma meaning, roughly, appropriate ways to live). In the case of Hinduism orthopraxy and ritualism are conflated. Emphasis on ritual vs. personal salvation ( moksha ) was a major division in classical Hindu philosophy , epitomized by Purva Mimamsa vs. Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta). Ritual ( puja ) continues to play
3335-436: Is correct belief compels correct action, and incorrect action is caused by incorrect beliefs. Taking this combination of "correct belief" and "correct action" a step further, prosperity theology , found in charismatic and Pentecostal traditions, teaches correct religious belief and behavior receives material reward and physical healing, in addition to being a necessary component for accepting God's grace . Prosperity theology
3450-541: Is emphasized. Self-centered existence is discouraged as a result of this jivatma concept. The Uttara Mimamsa philosophical school explicates this concept eloquently. Moreover, within the context of Uttara Mimamsa the role of puja (ritual) also involves bringing the individual jivatma closer to the Paramatma (the Transcendent Divinity or God). Individuals who have attained this merging then become
3565-461: Is held by a "significant number" of contemporary pagans. Among those who believe in it, there are a variety of different views about what magic is. Many modern pagans adhere to the definition of magic provided by Aleister Crowley , the founder of Thelema : "the Science and Art of causing change to occur in conformity with Will". Also accepted by many is the related definition purportedly provided by
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3680-498: Is its inclusion of female deity which distinguishes pagan religions from their Abrahamic counterparts. In Wicca, male and female deities are typically balanced out in a form of duotheism . Among many pagans, there is a strong desire to incorporate the female aspects of the divine in their worship and within their lives, which can partially explain the attitude which sometimes manifests as the veneration of women . There are exceptions to polytheism in paganism, as seen for instance in
3795-492: Is mentioned extensively in Gardner's "The Meaning of Witchcraft". Near the end of Aleister Crowley 's life, Gardner met with him for the first time on 1 May 1947 and visited him twice more before Crowley's death that autumn; at some point, Crowley gave Gardner an Ordo Templi Orientis (OTO) charter and the 4th OTO degree—the lowest degree authorising use of the charter. Doreen Valiente , one of Gardner's priestesses, identified
3910-447: Is one of the only spiritual communities that is exploring humor, joy, abandonment, even silliness and outrageousness as valid parts of spiritual experience". Domestic worship typically takes place in the home and is carried out by either an individual or family group. It typically involves offerings – including bread, cake, flowers, fruit, milk, beer, or wine – being given to images of deities, often accompanied with prayers and songs and
4025-607: Is that of animism . This has been interpreted in two distinct ways among the pagan community. First, it can refer to a belief that everything in the universe is imbued with a life force or spiritual energy . In contrast, some contemporary pagans believe that there are specific spirits that inhabit various features in the natural world, and that these can be actively communicated with. Some pagans have reported experiencing communication with spirits dwelling in rocks, plants, trees and animals, as well as power animals or animal spirits who can act as spiritual helpers or guides. Animism
4140-415: Is the holistic concept of a universe that is interconnected. This is connected with a belief in either pantheism or panentheism . In both beliefs, divinity and the material or spiritual universe are one. For pagans, pantheism means that "divinity is inseparable from nature and that deity is immanent in nature". Dennis D. Carpenter noted that the belief in a pantheistic or panentheistic deity has led to
4255-509: Is the revival of Ancient Egyptian religious practices . They honor and follow their own selection of neter ( Ancient Egyptian Deities ; Egyptian Language : nṯr , nTr ). They may choose to incorporate Ancient Egyptian philosophies in their daily lives. Reconstructionist religions make full use of orthopraxy, defining their practices as a lifestyle, and identifying correct action as living life in accord with specific ideals and principles, rather than focusing solely on ritual or promoting
4370-474: Is then considered less important than following traditions. For example, Srinivasa Ramanujan was a well-known example of an orthoprax Hindu. In terms of "proper conduct" and other ethical precepts within the Hindu framework, the core belief involves the divinity of each individual soul ( jivatma ). Each person harbors this "indwelling God (divinity)"; thus, conduct which unifies society and facilitates progress
4485-485: Is traditionally done, rather than shared beliefs. Other Neopagans may or may not share this quality, as noted by James R. Lewis , who draws a distinction between "Religious Neo-Pagans" and "God/dess Celebrants." Lewis states the majority of the neopagan movement is strongly opposed to religionist traditions that incorporate any form of orthopraxy or orthodoxy. In fact, many Neopagan organizations, when discussing orthopraxy, limit themselves solely to ritualism. Kemetism
4600-620: The New Forest coven . Rituals and coven practices are kept secret from non-initiates, and many Wiccans maintain secrecy regarding their membership in the religion. Whether any individual Wiccan chooses secrecy or openness often depends on their location, career, and life circumstances. In all cases, Gardnerian Wicca absolutely forbids any member to share the name, personal information, fact of membership, and so on without advanced individual consent of that member for that specific instance of sharing. In Gardnerian Wicca, there are three grades of initiation. Ronald Hutton suggests that "the outlines of
4715-474: The Torah . However, these gestures are intended to be motivated by the system of values and ethics of which they are a part, so that orthodoxy is not seen as simply a way of thinking according to established dogmas. Moreover, Maimonides codifies his 13 principles of faith as a binding theological dogma, and according to Maimonides some laws of the Torah require the acceptance of certain basic beliefs, such as
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4830-504: The Witchcraft Act 1735 ( 9 Geo. 2 . c. 5) made it illegal to claim to predict the future, conjure spirits, or cast spells; it likewise made an accusation of witchcraft a criminal offence. Gardner's enthusiasm for the coven led him to wish to document it, but both the witchcraft laws and the coven's secrecy forbade that, despite his excitement. After World War II, Gardner's High Priestess and coven leader relented sufficiently to allow
4945-564: The Witchcraft Research Association ; at that time, the term was in use by Wiccans in the United States and the United Kingdom, but unconnected to the broader, counterculture pagan movement. The modern popularisation of the terms pagan and neopagan as they are currently understood is largely traced to Oberon Zell-Ravenheart , co-founder of the 1st Neo-Pagan Church of All Worlds who, beginning in 1967 with
5060-550: The beliefs of pre-modern peoples across Europe, North Africa, and the Near East . Despite some common similarities, contemporary pagan movements are diverse, sharing no single set of beliefs, practices, or religious texts . Scholars of religion may study the phenomenon as a movement divided into different religions, while others study neopaganism as a decentralized religion with an array of denominations . Adherents rely on pre-Christian , folkloric, and ethnographic sources to
5175-519: The ceremonial magician Dion Fortune : "magic is the art and science of changing consciousness according to the Will". Among those who practice magic are Wiccans , those who identify as neopagan witches , and practitioners of some forms of revivalist neo-Druidism , the rituals of which are at least partially based upon those of ceremonial magic and freemasonry . Discussions about prevailing, returning or new forms of paganism have existed throughout
5290-475: The gay liberation movement's reappropriation of the term " queer ", which had formerly been used only as a term of homophobic abuse. He suggests that part of the term's appeal lay in the fact that a large proportion of pagan converts were raised in Christian families, and that by embracing the term "pagan", a word long used for what was "rejected and reviled by Christian authorities", a convert summarizes "in
5405-436: The nemetons of the ancient Celts. Many pagans hold that different lands and/or cultures have their own natural religion, with many legitimate interpretations of divinity, and therefore reject religious exclusivism . While the pagan community has tremendous variety in political views spanning the whole of the political spectrum , environmentalism is often a common feature. Such views have also led many pagans to revere
5520-408: The 1990s, emerging from disparate scholarship in the preceding two decades. There is "considerable disagreement as to the precise definition and the proper usage" of the term modern paganism . Even within the academic field of pagan studies , there is no consensus about how contemporary paganism can best be defined. Most scholars describe modern paganism as a broad array of different religions, not
5635-817: The Bricket Wood coven, this collective decision resulted in what is now the standard eight festivities in the Wiccan Wheel of the year . The split with Valiente led to the Bricket Wood coven being led by Jack Bracelin and a new High Priestess, Dayonis. This was the first of a number of disputes between individuals and groups, but the increased publicity only seems to have allowed Gardnerian Wicca to grow much more rapidly. Certain others also helped fuel this publicity, such as Alex Sanders (real name Orrell Alexander Carter) and Raymond Buckland . Sanders started his own separate tradition, together with his wife Maxine, known as Alexandrian Wicca and frequently were covered by
5750-492: The English-speaking world have begun using the prefixes "modern" or "contemporary" rather than "neo". Several pagan studies scholars, such as Ronald Hutton and Sabina Magliocco , have emphasized the use of the upper-case "Paganism" to distinguish the modern movement from the lower-case "paganism", a term commonly used for pre-Christian belief systems. In 2015, Rountree opined that this lower case/upper case division
5865-675: The Gospel of the Witches , the Key of Solomon as published by S.L. MacGregor Mathers , Masonic ritual, Crowley, and Rudyard Kipling . Doreen Valiente wrote much of the best-known poetry, including the much-quoted Charge of the Goddess . In 1948–1949, Gardner and Dafo were running a coven separate from the original New Forest coven at a naturist club near Bricket Wood to the north of London. By 1952 Dafo's health had begun to decline, and she
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#17327800435095980-634: The Greek orthos , meaning "straight", and praxis , meaning "action". First used in 1851, there are two versions of the term: orthopraxis and orthopraxy . Orthopraxy is the older and more common term. Although traditionally Christianity is seen as primarily orthodoxical (as in the Nicene Creed 's "I believe in ..."), some Christian denominations and leaders today, from Catholic to Evangelical Christians , have started to describe their religions as both orthodoxical and orthopraxic. The premise
6095-592: The Internet and in print media. A number of Wiccan , pagan and even some Traditionalist or Tribalist groups have a history of Grandmother Stories – typically involving initiation by a Grandmother, Grandfather, or other elderly relative who is said to have instructed them in the secret, millennia-old traditions of their ancestors. As this secret wisdom can almost always be traced to recent sources, tellers of these stories have often later admitted they made them up. Strmiska asserts that contemporary paganism could be viewed as
6210-683: The Mill House, where the New Forest coven performed Gardner's initiation ritual. Scholar Ronald Hutton argues in his Triumph of the Moon that Gardner's tradition was largely the inspiration of members of the Rosicrucian Order Crotona Fellowship and especially that of a woman known by the magical name of " Dafo ". Dr. Leo Ruickbie , in his Witchcraft Out of the Shadows , analysed the documented evidence and concluded that Aleister Crowley played
6325-532: The anthropologist Kathryn Rountree describing paganism as a whole as a "new religious phenomenon". A number of academics, particularly in North America, consider modern paganism a form of nature religion . Some practitioners completely eschew the use of the term pagan , preferring to use more specific names for their religion, such as "Heathen" or "Wiccan". This is because the term pagan originates in Christian terminology, which individuals who object to
6440-457: The archaic language often retained in some Gardnerian lore, the Rede states, "An it harm none, do as thou wilt." Witches [...] are inclined to the morality of the legendary Good King Pausol, "Do what you like so long as you harm no one". But they believe a certain law to be important, "You must not use magic for anything which will cause harm to anyone, and if, to prevent a greater wrong being done, you must discommode someone, you must do it only in
6555-415: The belief systems of the world's Indigenous peoples because the latter lived under colonialism and its legacy , and that while some pagan worldviews bear similarities to those of indigenous communities, they stem from "different cultural, linguistic, and historical backgrounds". Many scholars have favored the use of "neopaganism" to describe this phenomenon, with the prefix "neo-" serving to distinguish
6670-449: The beliefs and practices that would later become known as Gardnerian Wicca from the New Forest coven , who allegedly initiated him into their ranks in 1939. For this reason, Gardnerian Wicca is usually considered to be the earliest created tradition of Wicca, from which most subsequent Wiccan traditions are derived. From the supposed New Forest coven, Gardner formed his own Bricket Wood coven , and in turn initiated many Witches, including
6785-653: The claim that leftist -oriented forms of paganism were prevalent in North America and the British Isles while rightist -oriented forms of paganism were prevalent in Central and Eastern Europe. They noted that in these latter regions, pagan groups placed an emphasis on "the centrality of the nation, the ethnic group, or the tribe". Rountree wrote that it was wrong to assume that "expressions of Paganism can be categorized straight-forwardly according to region", but acknowledged that some regional trends were visible, such as
6900-705: The conclusion, based upon her ethnographic fieldwork in California that certain pagan beliefs "arise from what they experience during religious ecstasy". Sociologist Margot Adler highlighted how several pagan groups, like the Reformed Druids of North America and the Erisian movement incorporate a great deal of play in their rituals rather than having them be completely serious and somber. She noted that there are those who would argue that "the Pagan community
7015-413: The contemporary Hindu scene are also moving towards this union of external activity and internal development. Islam generally stresses orthopraxy over orthodoxy. This can be seen in the fact that the account to be rendered on the day of judgement (yaum al-Din) is one of works. However, since the practice is held to come from doctrine, this is essentially orthodoxy applied to practice. Jain orthopraxy
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#17327800435097130-424: The context of Orthodoxy, praxis is mentioned opposite theology, in the sense of 'theory and practice'. Rather, it is a word that means, globally, all that Orthodox do. Praxis is 'living Orthodoxy'. Praxis is perhaps most strongly associated with worship . " Orthopraxis " is said to mean "right glory" or "right worship"; only correct (or proper) practice, particularly correct worship, is understood as establishing
7245-880: The conviction that what Christianity has traditionally denounced as idolatry and superstition actually represents/represented a profound and meaningful religious worldview and, secondly, that a religious practice based on this worldview can and should be revitalized in our modern world." Discussing the relationship between the different pagan religions, religious studies scholars Kaarina Aitamurto and Scott Simpson wrote that they were "like siblings who have taken different paths in life but still retain many visible similarities". But there has been much "cross-fertilization" between these different faiths: many groups have influenced, and been influenced by, other pagan religions, making clear-cut distinctions among them more difficult for scholars to make. The various pagan religions have been academically classified as new religious movements , with
7360-452: The coven. Gardner reported that witches were taught that the power of the human body can be released, for use in a coven's circle, by various means, and released more easily without clothing. A simple method was dancing round the circle singing or chanting; another method was the traditional "binding and scourging." In addition to raising power, "binding and scourging" can heighten the initiates' sensitivity and spiritual experience. Following
7475-602: The dictum of Saint Maximus the Confessor : "Theology without action is the theology of demons." Union with God , to which Christians hold that Jesus invited man, requires not just faith , but correct practice of faith. This idea is found in the Scriptures ( 1 Corinthians 11:2, 2 Thessalonians 2:14) and the Church Fathers , and is linked with the term praxis in Byzantine theology and vocabulary. In
7590-405: The early issues of Green Egg , used both terms for the growing movement. This usage has been common since the pagan revival in the 1970s. According to Strmiska, the reappropriation of the term "pagan" by modern pagans served as "a deliberate act of defiance" against "traditional, Christian-dominated society", allowing them to use it as a source of "pride and power". In this, he compared it to
7705-425: The early modern period. One reason was increased contacts with areas outside of Europe, which happened through trade, Christian mission and colonization. Increased knowledge of other cultures led to questions of whether their practices even fit into the definitions of religion, and paganism was incorporated in the idea of progress , where it was ranked as a low, undeveloped form of religion. Another reason for change
7820-617: The first and second positive commandments in Maimonides' Sefer Hamitzvot , which mandate the belief in God and his indivisible unity, or the recitation of the Shema . Maimonides' codification of Jewish law even contains a section entitled Yesodei HaTorah , which delineates the required beliefs of Judaism. British Traditional Wicca is highly orthopraxic, with "traditions" (as denominations are called) being precisely that — defined by what
7935-565: The first two [initiation] rituals are very clearly Masonic ." In Gardnerian Wicca, the two principal deities are the Horned God and the Mother Goddess . Gardnerians use specific names for the God and the Goddess in their rituals. Doreen Valiente , a Gardnerian High Priestess, revealed that there were more than one. The Gardnerian tradition teaches a core ethical guideline, often referred to as "The Rede" or "The Wiccan Rede ". In
8050-553: The form of creeds , and ritualism more narrowly centers on the strict adherence to prescribed rites or rituals , orthopraxy is focused on issues of family , cultural integrity , the transmission of tradition , sacrificial offerings , concerns of purity , ethical system , and the enforcement thereof. In Hinduism , orthopraxy and ritualism are often interconnected. Judaism and Christianity are also considered both religions and orthopraxies, as they guide adherents in both practice and belief. The term orthopraxy comes from
8165-534: The form of Ukrainian paganism promoted by Lev Sylenko , which is devoted to a monotheistic veneration of the god Dazhbog . As noted above, pagans with naturalistic worldviews may not believe in or work with deities at all. Pagan religions commonly exhibit a metaphysical concept of an underlying order that pervades the universe, such as the concept of harmonia embraced by Hellenists and that of Wyrd found in Heathenry. A key part of most pagan worldviews
8280-461: The framework of male/female polarity. The letter's signatories claimed that biological gender essentialism was fundamental to Gardnerian practice, and that initiates who disagreed with this view of gender had effectively left the Gardnerian tradition. These claims were met by members of the Gardnerian community with refutation of the ability of those signatories to eject legitimate initiates from
8395-564: The fulness glory given to God. This is one of the primary purposes of liturgy (divine labor), the work of the people. Some Byzantine sources maintain that in the West , Christianity has been reduced "to intellectual, ethical or social categories," whereas right worship is fundamentally important in our relationship to God, forming the faithful into the Body of Christ and providing the path to "true religious education". A "symbiosis of worship and work"
8510-413: The gods reflected the dynamics of life on Earth, allowing for the expression of humour. One view in the pagan community is that these polytheistic deities are not viewed as literal entities, but as Jungian archetypes or other psychological constructs that exist in the human psyche. Others adopt the belief that the deities have both a psychological and external existence. Many pagans believe adoption of
8625-408: The idea of interconnectedness playing a key part in pagans' worldviews. The prominent Reclaiming priestess Starhawk related that a core part of goddess-centred pagan witchcraft was "the understanding that all being is interrelated, that we are all linked with the cosmos as parts of one living organism. What affects one of us affects us all." Another pivotal belief in the contemporary pagan movement
8740-644: The ideas of the Age of Enlightenment and Romanticism . The approach to paganism varied during this period; Friedrich Schiller 's 1788 poem " Die Götter Griechenlandes " presents ancient Greek religion as a powerful alternative to Christianity, whereas others took interest in paganism through the concept of the noble savage , often associated with Jean-Jacques Rousseau . During the French Revolution and First French Republic , some public figures incorporated pagan themes in their worldviews. An explicit example
8855-484: The impact of Catholicism on paganism in Southern Europe. "Modern Pagans are reviving, reconstructing, and reimagining religious traditions of the past that were suppressed for a very long time, even to the point of being almost totally obliterated... Thus, with only a few possible exceptions, today's Pagans cannot claim to be continuing religious traditions handed down in an unbroken line from ancient times to
8970-506: The lack of core commonalities in issues such as theology, cosmology, ethics, afterlife, holy days, or ritual practices within the pagan movement. Contemporary paganism has been defined as "a collection of modern religious, spiritual, and magical traditions that are self-consciously inspired by the pre- Judaic , pre-Christian, and pre- Islamic belief systems of Europe, North Africa, and the Near East." Thus it has been said that although it
9085-534: The last years of his life. Gardner even courted the attentions of the tabloid press, to the consternation of some more conservative members of the tradition. In Gardner's own words, "Witchcraft doesn't pay for broken windows!" Gardner knew many famous occultists. Ross Nichols was a friend and fellow Druid (until 1964 member of the Druid Order , when he left to found his own Druidic Order of Bards, Ovates, and Druids ). Nichols edited Gardner's "Witchcraft Today" and
9200-625: The lighting of candles and incense. Common pagan devotional practices have thus been compared to similar practices in Hinduism, Buddhism, Shinto, Roman Catholicism, and Orthodox Christianity, but contrasted with that in Protestantism, Judaism, and Islam. Although animal sacrifice was a common part of pre-Christian ritual in Europe, it is rarely practiced in contemporary paganism. Paganism's public rituals are generally calendrical, although
9315-551: The modern period. Before the 20th century, Christian institutions regularly used paganism as a term for everything outside of Christianity, Judaism and – from the 18th century – Islam. They frequently associated paganism with idolatry, magic and a general concept of "false religion", which for example has made Catholics and Protestants accuse each other of being pagans. Various folk beliefs have periodically been labeled as pagan and churches have demanded that they should be purged. The Western attitude to paganism gradually changed during
9430-511: The modern religions from their ancient, pre-Christian forerunners. Some pagan practitioners also prefer "neopaganism", believing that the prefix conveys the reformed nature of the religion, such as its rejection of practices such as animal sacrifice . Conversely, most pagans do not use the word neopagan , with some expressing disapproval of it, arguing that the term "neo" offensively disconnects them from what they perceive as their pre-Christian forebears. To avoid causing offense, many scholars in
9545-548: The natural world, bound in kinship to all life and the Earth itself. The animistic aspects of pagan theology assert that all things have a soul – not just humans or organic life – so this bond is held with mountains and rivers as well as trees and wild animals. As a result, pagans believe the essence of their spirituality is both ancient and timeless, regardless of the age of specific religious movements. Places of natural beauty are therefore treated as sacred and ideal for ritual, like
9660-470: The origins of modern pagan movements lies in the romanticist and national liberation movements that developed in Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries. The publications of studies into European folk customs and culture by scholars like Johann Gottfried Herder and Jacob Grimm resulted in a wider interest in these subjects and a growth in cultural self-consciousness. At the time, it was commonly believed that almost all such folk customs were survivals from
9775-534: The other extreme are antinomian and Christian anarchistic views. Praxis is a key to understanding the Byzantine tradition, which is observed by the Eastern Orthodox Church and some Eastern Catholic Churches . This is because praxis is the basis of the understanding of faith and works as conjoint, without separating the two. The importance of praxis, in the sense of action, is indicated in
9890-516: The pagan movement is polytheism , the belief in and veneration of multiple gods or goddesses. Within the pagan movement, there can be found many deities, both male and female, who have various associations and embody forces of nature, aspects of culture, and facets of human psychology. These deities are typically depicted in human form, and are viewed as having human faults. They are therefore not seen as perfect, but rather are venerated as being wise and powerful. Pagans feel that this understanding of
10005-417: The pagan movements in continental Europe than within the pagan movements in North America and the British Isles. Such ethnic paganisms have variously been seen as responses to concerns about foreign ideologies, globalization , cosmopolitanism , and anxieties about cultural erosion. Although they acknowledged that it was "a highly simplified model", Aitamurto and Simpson wrote that there was "some truth" to
10120-410: The past, while eclectic pagans idealize the future. In the first case, there is a deeply felt need to connect with the past as a source of spiritual strength and wisdom; in the second case, there is the idealistic hope that a spirituality of nature can be gleaned from ancient sources and shared with all humanity." — Religious studies scholar Michael Strmiska Modern pagan attitudes differ regarding
10235-500: The planet Earth as Mother Earth , who is often referred to as Gaia after the ancient Greek goddess of the Earth. Pagan ritual can take place in both a public and private setting. Contemporary pagan ritual is typically geared towards "facilitating altered states of awareness or shifting mind-sets". To induce such altered states of consciousness, pagans use such elements as drumming, visualization, chanting, singing, dancing, and meditation. American folklorist Sabina Magliocco came to
10350-545: The pre-Christian festivals that pagans use as a basis varied across Europe. Nevertheless, common to almost all pagan religions is an emphasis on an agricultural cycle and respect for the dead. Common pagan festivals include those marking the summer solstice and winter solstice as well as the start of spring and the harvest. In Wicca and Druidry, a Wheel of the Year has been developed which typically involves eight seasonal festivals. The belief in magical rituals and spells
10465-507: The pre-Christian period. These attitudes would also be exported to North America by European immigrants in these centuries. Orthopraxy In the study of religion, orthopraxy is correct conduct, both ethical and liturgical , as opposed to faith or grace . Orthopraxy is in contrast with orthodoxy , which emphasizes correct belief. The word is a neoclassical compound — ὀρθοπραξία ( orthopraxia ) meaning 'right practice'. While orthodoxies make use of codified beliefs, in
10580-528: The present. They are modern people with a great reverence for the spirituality of the past, making a new religion – a modern Paganism – from the remnants of the past, which they interpret, adapt, and modify according to modern ways of thinking." — Religious studies scholar Michael Strmiska Although inspired by the pre-Christian belief systems of the past, modern paganism is not the same phenomenon as these lost traditions and in many respects differs from them considerably. Strmiska stresses that modern paganism
10695-570: The press. Buckland, who authored dozens of books on the subject, brought the Gardnerian tradition to the United States in 1964, later to start his own tradition known as Seax Wicca. On July 18, 2022, an open letter titled "A Declaration of the Traditional Gardnerian Wica" was electronically published by 47 Third-degree and autonomous Second-degree Gardnerian initiates, representing coven leaders and Gardnerian Elders, who identified themselves as practicing Gardnerian Wicca within
10810-594: The reconstructionist side can be placed those movements which often favour the designation "Native Faith", including Romuva , Heathenry , Roman Traditionalism and Hellenism . On the eclectic side has been placed Wicca , Thelema , Adonism , Druidry , the Goddess Movement , Discordianism and the Radical Faeries . Strmiska also suggests that this division could be seen as being based on "discourses of identity", with reconstructionists emphasizing
10925-523: The ritual experience means by using the basic language of the shared ritual tradition, to be discovered through the Mysteries. The tradition is often characterized as an orthopraxy (correct practice) rather than an orthodoxy (correct thinking), with adherents placing greater emphasis on a shared body of practices as opposed to faith. In the early 20th century, Margaret Murray promoted the theory that persecuted witches had actually been followers of
11040-519: The same global phenomenon as pre-Christian Ancient religions , living Indigenous religions , and world religions like Hinduism , Shinto , and Afro-American religions . They have also suggested that these could all be included under the rubric of "paganism". This approach has been received critically by many specialists in religious studies. Critics have pointed out that such claims would cause problems for analytic scholarship by lumping together belief systems with very significant differences, and that
11155-613: The source material surrounding pre-Christian belief systems. Strmiska notes that pagan groups can be "divided along a continuum: at one end are those that aim to reconstruct the ancient religious traditions of a particular ethnic group or a linguistic or geographic area to the highest degree possible; at the other end are those that freely blend traditions of different areas, peoples, and time periods." Strmiska argues that these two poles could be termed reconstructionism and eclecticism , respectively. Reconstructionists do not altogether reject innovation in their interpretation and adaptation of
11270-452: The source material, however they do believe that the source material conveys greater authenticity and thus should be emphasized. They often follow scholarly debates about the nature of such pre-Christian religions, and some reconstructionists are themselves scholars. Eclectic pagans , conversely, seek general inspiration from the pre-Christian past, and do not attempt to recreate past rites or traditions with specific attention to detail. On
11385-405: The spiritual guides to the community. Later developments within the Hindu religious and philosophic tradition thus try to unify these concepts of ritual, proper conduct, and personal salvation instead of leaving them in mutually conflicting terms. The movement inspired by Pandurang Shastri Athavale termed Swadhyaya seems to be one manifestation of this syncretism. However, other movements within
11500-520: The term " Witch Cult " to describe the religion. Other terms used, included "Witchcraft" or "the Old Religion." Later publications standardised the spelling to "Wicca" and it came to be used as the term for the Craft, rather than its followers. "Gardnerian" was originally a pejorative term used by Gardner's contemporary Roy Bowers (also known as Robert Cochrane), a British cunning man , who nonetheless
11615-869: The term wish to avoid. Some favor the term "ethnic religion"; the World Pagan Congress, founded in 1998, soon renamed itself the European Congress of Ethnic Religions (ECER), enjoying that term's association with the Greek ethnos and the academic field of ethnology . Within linguistically Slavic areas of Europe, the term "Native Faith" is often favored as a synonym for paganism, rendered as Ridnovirstvo in Ukrainian, Rodnoverie in Russian, and Rodzimowierstwo in Polish. Alternately, many practitioners in these regions view "Native Faith" as
11730-504: The term would serve modern pagan interests by making the movement appear far larger on the world stage. Doyle White writes that modern religions that draw upon the pre-Christian belief systems of other parts of the world, such as Sub-Saharan Africa or the Americas, cannot be seen as part of the contemporary pagan movement, which is "fundamentally Eurocentric ". Similarly, Strmiska stresses that modern paganism should not be conflated with
11845-571: The time Gardner spent on the Isle of Man, the coven began to experiment with circle dancing as an alternative. It was also about this time that the lesser 4 of the 8 Sabbats were given greater prominence. Bricket Wood coven members liked the Sabbat celebrations so much, they decided that there was no reason to keep them confined to the closest full moon meeting, and made them festivities in their own right. As Gardner had no objection to this change suggested by
11960-447: The tradition and accusations of transphobia. Pagan blog site The Wild Hunt noted that because of Gardnerian Wicca's decentralized structure and emphasis on coven autonomy, "the proclamation effectively only applies to covens that are led by or hive from the documents' signers." Neopagan Modern paganism , also known as contemporary paganism and neopaganism , spans a range of new religious movements variously influenced by
12075-401: The universe. Jain rituals were codified on the basis of these principles to give effect to the teachings of the Tirthankaras. Judaism is also considered both a religion and orthopraxy as it guides its adherents in both practice and belief. Judaism attaches primary importance to the practice of the mitzvot , and that each act of daily life comply with the ethical and ritual teachings of
12190-476: The utility of the term "reconstructionism" when dealing with paganisms in Central and Eastern Europe, because in many of the languages of these regions, equivalents of the term "reconstructionism" – such as the Czech Historická rekonstrukce and Lithuanian Istorinė rekonstrukcija – are already used to define the secular hobby of historical re-enactment . The spectrum of modern paganism includes
12305-496: The witchcraft laws were repealed in 1951, and replaced by the Fraudulent Mediums Act, Gerald Gardner went public, publishing his first non-fiction book, "Witchcraft Today", in 1954. Gardner continued, as the text often iterates, to respect his oaths and the wishes of his High Priestess in his writing. Gardner said that the "Witchcraft" religion was dying out, and he pursued publicity and welcomed new initiates during
12420-399: The woman who initiated Gardner as Dorothy Clutterbuck , referenced in "A Witches' Bible" by Janet and Stewart Farrar . Valiente's identification was based on references Gardner made to a woman he called "Old Dorothy" whom Valiente remembered. Biographer Philip Heselton corrects Valiente, clarifying that Clutterbuck (Dorothy St. Quintin-Fordham, née Clutterbuck), a Pagan-minded woman, owned
12535-531: Was Gabriel André Aucler , who responded to both Christianity and Enlightenment atheism by performing pagan rites and arguing for renewed pagan religiosity in his book La Thréicie (1799). Great God! I'd rather be A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn; So might I, standing on this pleasant lea, Have glimpses that would make me less forlorn; Have sight of Proteus rising from the sea; Or hear old Triton blow his wreathèd horn. — William Wordsworth , " The World Is Too Much with Us ", lines 9–14 One of
12650-480: Was "now [the] convention" in pagan studies. Among the critics of the upper-case P are York and Andras Corban-Arthen, president of the ECER. Capitalizing the word, they argue, makes "Paganism" appear as the name of a cohesive religion rather than a generic religious category, and comes off as naive, dishonest or as an unwelcome attempt to disrupt the spontaneity and vernacular quality of the movement. The term "neo-pagan"
12765-402: Was also a concept common to many pre-Christian European religions, and in adopting it, contemporary pagans are attempting to "reenter the primeval worldview" and participate in a view of cosmology "that is not possible for most Westerners after childhood." All pagan movements place great emphasis on the divinity of nature as a primary source of divine will , and on humanity's membership of
12880-408: Was coined in the 19th century in reference to Renaissance and Romanticist Hellenophile classical revivalism . By the mid-1930s "neopagan" was being applied to new religious movements like Jakob Wilhelm Hauer 's German Faith Movement and Jan Stachniuk 's Polish Zadruga , usually by outsiders and often pejoratively. Pagan as a self-designation appeared in 1964 and 1965, in the publications of
12995-497: Was increasingly wary of Gardner's publicity-seeking. In 1953 Gardner met Doreen Valiente who was to become his High Priestess in succession to Dafo. The question of publicity led to Doreen and others formulating thirteen proposed 'Rules for the Craft', which included restrictions on contact with the press. Gardner responded with the sudden production of the Wiccan Laws which led to some of his members, including Valiente, leaving
13110-423: Was initiated into Gardnerian Wicca a couple of years following Gardner's death. Gardner stated that the rituals of the existing group were fragmentary at best, and he set about fleshing them out, drawing on his library and knowledge as an occultist and amateur folklorist . Gardner borrowed and wove together appropriate material from other artists and occultists, most notably Charles Godfrey Leland 's Aradia, or
13225-585: Was the circulation of ancient writings such as those attributed to Hermes Trismegistus ; this made paganism an intellectual position some Europeans began to self-identify with, starting at the latest in the 15th century with people like Gemistus Pletho , who wanted to establish a new form of Greco-Roman polytheism. Gemistus Pletho influenced Cosimo de Medici to establish the Florentine Neoplatonic Academy and consequentially Julius Pomponius Laetus (student of Pletho) also advocated for
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