Bone china is a type of vitreous, translucent pottery , the raw materials for which include bone ash , feldspathic material and kaolin . It has been defined as "ware with a translucent body" containing a minimum of 30% of phosphate derived from calcined animal bone or calcium phosphate. Bone china is amongst the strongest of whiteware ceramics , and is known for its high levels of whiteness and translucency. Its high strength allows it to be produced in thinner cross-sections than other types of whiteware. Like stoneware , it is vitrified , but is translucent due to differing mineral properties.
57-679: The Germain Service is an 18th-century tableware set comprising more than a thousand pieces in cast, raised, and chiselled silver, made in the workshop of French silversmith François-Thomas Germain for the Portuguese royal family. This service is now on permanent exhibition as part of the collection of the National Museum of Ancient Art , in Lisbon , Portugal . The service was commissioned by Joseph I of Portugal in 1756, just after
114-609: A charger . The rest of the place setting depends upon the first course, which may be soup, salad or fish. In either arrangement, the napkin may either rest folded underneath the forks , or it may be folded and placed on the dinner plate. When more courses are being served, place settings may become more elaborate and cutlery more specialised. Examples include fruit spoon or fruit knife, cheese knife, and pastry fork . Other types of cutlery, such as boning forks, were used when formal meals included dishes that have since become less common. Carving knives and forks are used to carve roasts at
171-458: A hub for bone china in India, with production in the state totalling 16-17 tonnes per day in 2003. From the start of the first factory, Bengal Potteries, in 1964, bone china output from Indian factories had risen to 10,000 tonnes per year by 2009. In the 21st century, so called Islamic or halal bone china has been developed using bone ash from halal animals. Due to the use of animal bones in
228-540: A permanent replacement for sugar sculptures on the dining table. In wealthy countries, table decorations for the aristocracy were often made of precious metals such as silver-gilt . The model ship or nef was popular throughout the Renaissance. One of the most famous table decorations is the Cellini Salt Cellar . Ephemeral and silver table decorations were sometimes replaced with porcelain after it
285-826: A rarity. The table fork was revived in Italy in the 16th century, and was described for his English readers by Thomas Coryat in the 1590s as "not used in any other country that I saw in my travels". In England and France, it only became common after the 1660s, even in the court of Louis XIV, and for a while seems to have mostly been used by ladies, and for especially messy food, like fruits in syrup . Chopsticks ( Chinese : 筷子 or 箸 ; Pinyin : kuaizi or zhu ) are shaped pairs of equal-length sticks that have been used as both kitchen and eating utensils in much of East and Southeast Asia for over three millennia. Traditionally wood, especially bamboo, although other materials such as plastic or metal are also used. Usually, they have
342-525: A square profile at the slightly thicker end held in the hand, but are round at the other end, that touches the food. Chopsticks have been used since at least the Shang dynasty (1766–1122 BCE). However, the Han dynasty historian Sima Qian wrote that it is likely that chopsticks were also used in the preceding Xia dynasty and even the earlier Erlitou culture , although finding archeological evidence from this era
399-488: A table for a typical meal, along with a soy sauce cruet , a small pitcher for tempura or other sauce, and a tea setting of tea pot, tea cups and tea cup saucers. Tableware for special circumstances has to be adapted. Dining in the outdoors, for example, whether for recreational purposes, as on a picnic or as part of a journey, project or mission requires specialised tableware. It must be portable, more robust and if possible, lighter in weight than tableware used indoors. It
456-541: A variety of plates , bowls ; or cups for individual diners and a range of serving dishes to transport the food from the kitchen or to separate smaller dishes. Plates include charger plates as well as specific dinner plates, lunch plates, dessert plates, salad plates or side plates. Bowls include those used for soup, cereal, pasta, fruit or dessert. A range of saucers accompany plates and bowls, those designed to go with teacups, coffee cups, demitasses and cream soup bowls. There are also individual covered casserole dishes. In
513-641: Is charger (12 inches); dinner plate (10.5 inches); dessert plate (8.5 inches) salad plate (7.5 inches); side plate , tea plate (6.75 inches). Glasses and mugs of various types are an important part of tableware, as beverages are important parts of a meal. Vessels to hold alcoholic beverages such as wine , whether red , white , sparkling tend to be quite specialised in form, with for example Port wine glasses, beer glasses , brandy balloons , aperitif and liqueur glasses all having different shapes. Water glasses , juice glasses and hot chocolate mugs are also differentiated. Their appearance as part of
570-527: Is a light meal, it will typically include the base and one main dish. The base is often served directly to the guest in a bowl, whereas main dishes are chosen by the guest from shared serving dishes on the table. An "elaborate" formal meal would include the following place setting: Japanese ceramic tableware industry is many centuries old. Unlike in Western cultures, where tableware is often produced and bought in matching sets, traditional Japanese tableware
627-440: Is a traditional handle-less pottery cup from South Asia that is typically undecorated and unglazed, and is meant to be disposable. The earliest pottery in cultures around the world does not seem to have included flatware, concentrating on pots and jars for storage and cooking. Wood does not survive well in most places, and though archaeology has found few wooden plates and dishes from prehistory , they may have been common, once
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#1732771760551684-440: Is another term used to refer to tableware, and crockery refers to ceramic tableware, today often porcelain or bone china . Sets of dishes are referred to as a table service , dinner service or service set . Table settings or place settings are the dishes, cutlery and glassware used for formal and informal dining. In Ireland, tableware is often referred to as delph , the word being an English language phonetic spelling of
741-852: Is commonly made of ceramic materials such as earthenware , stoneware , bone china or porcelain . The popularity of ceramics is at least partially due to the use of glazes as these ensure the ware is impermeable, reduce the adherence of pollutants and ease washing. In 2020, the global market for ceramic tableware was estimated to be worth $ US2.22 billion, with the top five exporting countries being China ($ US834 million), Portugal ($ US215 million), Germany ($ US113 million), Thailand ($ US110 million) and United Kingdom ($ US106 million). Banana leaves are used in some South Asian and Southeast Asian cultures. Tableware can also made of other materials, such as wood (including lacquer ), metals (such as pewter ), tempered glass , acrylic and melamine . Before mass-produced tableware, it
798-555: Is incredibly difficult. Though originating in China, chopsticks later spread to Japan, Korea, Tibet, Vietnam and other parts of Asia. Chopsticks have become more accepted in connection with Asian food in the West, especially in cities with significant Asian diaspora communities. Tableware is generally the functional part of the settings on dining tables but great attention has been paid to the purely decorative aspects, especially when dining
855-492: Is milled to a fine particle size. The kaolin component of the body is needed to give the unfired body plasticity which allows articles to be shaped. This mixture is then fired at around 1200 °C. The raw materials for bone china are comparatively expensive, and the production is labour-intensive, which is why bone china maintains a luxury status and high pricing. The use of hydroxyapatite compounds, derived from rock sources, rather than bone ash has seen increased use since
912-509: Is more usually known as silverware or flatware in the United States, where cutlery usually means knives and related cutting instruments; elsewhere cutlery includes all the forks , spoons and other silverware items. Outside the US, flatware is a term for "open-shaped" dishware items such as plates , dishes and bowls (as opposed to "closed" shapes like jugs and vases). Dinnerware
969-465: Is often called teaware . It developed in the late 17th century, and for some time the serving pots, milk jugs and sugar bowls were often in silver, while the cups and saucers were ceramic, often in Chinese export porcelain or its Japanese equivalent . By the mid 18th century matching sets of European "china" were usual for all the vessels, although these often did not include plates for cake etc. until
1026-409: Is on displaying each individual food in a pleasing way, usually in separate bowls or dishes. Formal table settings are based upon the arrangements used in a family setting, although they can become extremely elaborate with many dishes. Serving bowls and dishes are brought to the table, where guests can choose their own portions. Formal Chinese restaurants often use a large turning wheel in the centre of
1083-524: Is popular in some Asian countries. Chopsticks are made of wood, bamboo , metal, ivory and plastic. Disposable tableware includes all disposable tableware such as paper and plastic . Due to environment concerns, single-use plastic plates and cutlery will be banned in England from October 2023. A similar ban has been place in the EU since July 2021. Canada is also planning such legislation. A kulhar
1140-807: Is regarded as part of entertainment such as in banquets given by important people or special events, such as State occasions. Table decoration may be ephemeral and consist of items made from confectionery or wax; substances commonly employed in Roman banqueting tables of the 17th century. During the reign of George III of the United Kingdom , ephemeral table decoration was done by men known as "table-deckers" who used sand and similar substances to create marmotinto works (sand painting) for single-use decoration. In modern times, ephemeral table decorations continue to be made from sugar or carved from ice . The porcelain figurine began in early 18th-century Germany as
1197-445: Is set on the table so that each dish complements the type of food served in it. Since Japanese meals normally include several small amounts of each food per person, this means that each person has a place setting with several different small dishes and bowls for holding individual food and condiments. The emphasis in a Japanese table setting is on enhancing the appearance of the food, which is partially achieved by showing contrasts between
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#17327717605511254-506: Is the much plainer English silver Lacock Cup , which has survived as it was bequeathed to a church early on, for use as a chalice. The same is true for French silver from the 150 years before the French Revolution , when French styles, either originals or local copies, were used by all the courts of Europe. London silversmiths came a long way behind, but were the other main exporters. French silver now survives almost entirely in
1311-638: Is usually carefully packed for transportation to the place where it will be used. Bone china In the mid-18th century, English potters had not succeeded in making hard-paste porcelain (as made in East Asia and Meissen porcelain ), but found bone ash a useful addition to their soft-paste porcelain mixtures. This became standard at the Bow porcelain factory in London (operating from around 1747), and spread to some other English factories. The modern product
1368-481: The 1755 Lisbon earthquake , in an attempt to renew the splendor of the royal court (as the earthquake had, in the words of Royal Jewel Keeper António Pinto da Silva, "[reduced] to ashes all treasure and tapestries of the Royal Household, sparing nothing "); there were, however, troubles in the consignment of the service: in 1765, Germain declared bankruptcy and the order was left unfinished (which precipitated
1425-695: The White House . The factory closed in March 2020. Production in the Soviet Union started in 1969 at the Lomonosov Porcelain Factory . In more recent years, production in China has expanded considerably, and the country is now the biggest producer of bone china in the world. Other countries producing considerable amounts of bone china are Bangladesh , India, Indonesia , Sri Lanka and Thailand . Rajasthan had become
1482-470: The 1990s. If used appropriately the resultant ceramic material conforms to accepted definitions of bone china, and the properties and appearance are indistinguishable from those using naturally derived bone ash. Bone china consists of two crystalline phases, anorthite (CaAl 2 Si 2 O 8 ) and β- tricalcium phosphate / whitlockite (Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 ) embedded in a substantial amount of glass . For almost 200 years from its development bone china
1539-429: The 19th century, crescent-shaped bone dishes could be used to hold side-salad or to discard bones. Warewashing is essential but can be costly regardless of whether done by hand or in a dishwasher . Dishes come in standard sizes, which are set according to the manufacturer. They are similar throughout the industry. Plates are standardised in descending order of diameter size according to function. One standard series
1596-634: The 20th century it began to be made elsewhere, including in Russia , China, and Japan. China is now the world's largest manufacturer. In the UK, references to "china" or "porcelain" can refer to bone china, and "English porcelain" has been used as a term for it, both in the UK and around the world. The first development of what would become known as bone china was made by Thomas Frye at his Bow porcelain factory near Bow in East London in 1748. His factory
1653-832: The Portuguese Crown to start a legal dispute to reclaim the loss of the goods, to no avail). One of the most expressive elements of a great à la française service was missing: the fourth-course surtout . Still, the Germain Service was considered the First Service of the Crown, to which was added the service confiscated from the Duke of Aveiro in 1759 (the Second Service ) — they both made up "all necessary tableware" for court feasts. The Germain Service
1710-522: The Romans, who made great use of spoons, joined by forks later, there were only knives and perhaps wooden spoons for most of the Middle Ages. It was only in the 17th century that hosts among the elite again began to lay out cutlery at the table, although at an Italian banquet in 1536 for Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor , it is recorded that each guest was provided with knife, spoon and fork, evidently
1767-535: The basis for all bone china. It was only in 2009 that his company, Spode , went into receivership before eventually being purchased by Portmeirion Pottery . Raw materials The traditional formulation for bone china is about 25% kaolin , 25% China stone and 50% bone ash . The bone ash that is used in bone china has traditionally been made from cattle bones that have a lower iron content. These bones are crushed before being degelatinised and then calcined to around 1,000 °C to produce bone ash . The ash
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1824-515: The better-off working-class household. Until the mid-19th century the American market was largely served by imports from Britain, with some from China and the European continent. The introduction to Europe of hot drinks, mostly but not only tea and coffee, as a regular feature of eating and entertaining, led to a new class of tableware. In its most common material, various types of ceramics, this
1881-401: The custom in most restaurants, whereas service à la française is the norm in family settings. Place settings for service à la russe dining are arranged according to the number of courses in the meal. The tableware is arranged in a particular order. With the first course, each guest at the table begins by using the tableware placed on the outside of place setting. As each course is finished
1938-655: The form of exported pieces, like the Germain Service for the King of Portugal . In London in the 13th century, the more affluent citizens owned fine furniture and silver, "while those of straiter means possessed only the simplest pottery and kitchen utensils." By the later 16th century, "even the poorer citizens dined off pewter rather than wood" and had plate, jars and pots made from "green glazed earthenware". The nobility often used their arms on heraldic china . The final replacement of silver tableware with porcelain as
1995-439: The guest leaves the used cutlery on the used plate or bowl, which are removed from the table by the server. In some case, the original set is kept for the next course. To begin the next course, the diner uses the next item on the outside of the place setting, and so on. Forks are placed on the left of a dinner plate, knives to the right of the plate, and spoons to the outer right side of the place setting. Items of tableware include
2052-481: The items. Each bowl and dish may have a different shape, colour or pattern. A basic complete place setting for one person in Japan would include the following: Not all of these plates and bowls would be necessary for one meal. A rice bowl, a soup bowl, two or three small dishes with accompanying foods, and two or three condiment dishes for person would be typical. Various serving bowls and platters would also be set on
2109-472: The more numerous its pieces. The materials used were often controlled by sumptuary laws . In the late Middle Ages and for much of the Early Modern period much of a great person's disposable assets were often in "plate", vessels and tableware in precious metal, and what was not in use for a given meal was often displayed on a dressoir de parement or buffet (similar to a large Welsh dresser ) against
2166-412: The next century. This move to local china was rather delayed by the tendency of some early types of European soft-paste porcelain to break if too hot liquid was poured into it. The knife is the oldest type of cutlery; early ones were normally carried by the individual at all times. Forks and spoons came later, and are initially only for the wealthy, who typically carried their own personal set. After
2223-578: The norm in French aristocratic dining had taken place by the 1770s. After this the enormous development of European porcelain and cheaper fine earthenwares like faience and creamware , as well as the resumption of large imports of Chinese export porcelain , often armorial porcelain decorated to order, led to matching "china" services becoming affordable by an ever-wider public. By 1800 cheap versions of these were often brightly decorated with transfer printing in blue, and were beginning to be affordable by
2280-534: The rich. Religious considerations influenced the choice of materials. Muhammad spoke against using gold at table, as the contemporary elites of Persia and the Byzantine Empire did, and this greatly encouraged the growth of Islamic pottery . In Europe, the elites dined off metal, usually silver for the rich and pewter for the middling classes, from the ancient Greeks and Romans until the 18th century. A trencher (from Old French tranchier 'to cut')
2337-973: The serving of tea or coffee also have long cultural traditions. They include teapots and coffee pots as well as samovars , sugar bowls ; milk or cream jugs . Serving utensils are implements used to move food from serving dishes to individual plates. In family-style dining , these might include serving spoons . A fish slice is an early example of a specialty silver service utensil used in waiter or butler service. Place markers are used to designate assigned seats to guests. They are typically used at large formal functions such as weddings, banquets for dignitaries, politicians or diplomats as well as on special occasions such as large children's parties. Some are collectible. Chinese table settings are traditional in style. Table setting practices in Japan and other parts of East Asia have been influenced by Chinese table setting customs. The emphasis in Chinese table settings
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2394-456: The table to rotate food for easier service. In a family setting, a meal typically includes a fan dish, which constitutes the meal's base (much like bread forms the base of various sandwiches), and several accompanying mains, called cai dish ( choi or seoung in Cantonese). More specifically, fan usually refers to cooked rice, but can also be other staple grain-based foods. If the meal
2451-516: The table. A wide range of serving dishes are used to transport food from kitchen to table or to serve it at table, to make food service easier and cleaner or more efficient and pleasant. Serving dishes include: butter dishes ; casseroles ; fruit bowls; ramekins or lidded serving bowls; compotes ; pitchers or jugs ; platters , salvers , and trays ; salt and pepper shakers or salt cellars ; sauce or gravy boats ; tureens and tajines ; vegetable or salad bowls. A range of items specific to
2508-415: The tableware depends on the meal and the style of table arrangement. Tea and coffee tend to involve strong social rituals and so teacups and, coffee cups (including demitasse cups) have a shape that depends on the culture and the social situation in which the drink is taken. Cutlery is an important part of tableware. A basic formal place setting will usually have a dinner plate at the centre, resting on
2565-405: The tools to fashion them were available. Ancient elites in most cultures preferred flatware in precious metals ("plate") at the table; China and Japan were two major exceptions, using lacquerware and later fine pottery, especially porcelain . In China bowls have always been preferred to plates. In Europe pewter was often used by the less well off, and eventually the poor, and silver or gold by
2622-707: The wall in the dining hall. At the wedding of Philip the Good , Duke of Burgundy , and Isabella of Portugal in 1429, there was a dresser 20 feet long on either side of the room, each with five rows of plate; a similar display on three dressoirs could be seen at the State Banquet in Buckingham Palace for the US President, Donald Trump in 2019. Inventories of King Charles V of France (r. 1364–1380) record that he had 2,500 pieces of plate. Plate
2679-452: The ware "bone china". Among his developments was to abandon Frye's procedure of calcining the bone together with some of the other raw body materials, instead calcining just the bone. Bone china quickly proved to be highly popular, leading to its production by other English pottery manufacturers. Both Spode's formulation and his business were successful: his formulation of 6 parts bone ash, 4 parts china stone and 3.5 parts kaolin , remains
2736-520: The word Delft , the town from which so much delftware came. Silver service or butler service are methods for a butler or waiter to serve a meal. Setting the table refers to arranging the tableware, including individual place settings for each diner at the table as well as decorating the table itself in a manner suitable for the occasion. Tableware and table decoration are typically more elaborate for special occasions. Unusual dining locations demand tableware be adapted. In recent centuries, flatware
2793-482: Was almost exclusively produced in the UK ; it was ignored by most European and Asian countries already making porcelain. During the middle part of the 20th century manufacturers in other countries began production, with the first successful ones outside the UK being Japan 's Noritake , Nikko and Narumi. Lenox was the only major manufacturer of bone china in the United States, and supplied Presidential dinner service to
2850-487: Was commonly used in medieval cuisine . A trencher was originally a flat round of (usually stale) bread used as a plate , upon which the food could be placed to eat. At the end of the meal, the trencher could be eaten with sauce, but could also be given as alms to the poor. Similar use of bread is still found with the bread bowl . The trencher was not fully replaced in France until the 1650s, although in Italy maiolica
2907-771: Was developed by the Staffordshire potter Josiah Spode in the early 1790s. Spode included kaolin , so his formula, sometimes called "Staffordshire bone-porcelain", was effectively hard-paste, but stronger, and versions were adopted by all the major English factories by around 1815. From its initial development and up to the latter part of the 20th century, bone china was almost exclusively an English product, with production being very largely localised in Stoke-on-Trent . Most major English firms made or still make it, including Spode , and Royal Worcester , Royal Crown Derby , Royal Doulton , Wedgwood , and Mintons . In
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#17327717605512964-442: Was fashioned from available materials, such as wood. Industrialisation and developments in ceramic manufacture made inexpensive tableware available. It is sold either by the piece or as a matched set for a number of diners, normally four, six, eight or twelve place settings. Cutlery is normally made of metal, especially stainless steel , though large pieces such as ladles for serving may be of wood. The use of porcelain for spoons
3021-445: Was located very close to the cattle markets and slaughterhouses of London and Essex , and hence had easy access to animal bones. Frye used up to 45% bone ash in his formulation to create what he called "fine porcelain". Later, Josiah Spode in Stoke-on-Trent further developed the concept between 1789 and 1793, introducing his "Stoke China" in 1796. He died suddenly the year later, and his son Josiah Spode II quickly rechristened
3078-568: Was made in Europe from the 18th century onwards. A table setting in Western countries is mainly in one of two styles: service à la russe (French for "in the Russian style "), where each course of the meal is brought out in specific order; and service à la française (French for "in the French style"), where all the courses for the meal are arranged on the table and presented at the same time that guests are seated. Service à la russe has become
3135-508: Was often melted down to finance wars or building, or until the 19th century just for remaking in a more fashionable style, and hardly any of the enormous quantities recorded in the later Middle Ages survives. The French Royal Gold Cup now in the British Museum , in solid gold and decorated with enamel and pearls, is one of few secular exceptions. Weighing more than two kilos, it was perhaps passed around for ceremonial toasts. Another
3192-506: Was used from the 15th century. Orders survive for large services. At an Este family wedding feast in Ferrara in 1565, 12,000 plates painted with the Este arms were used, though the "top table" probably ate off precious metal. Possession of tableware has to a large extent been determined by individual wealth; the greater the means, the higher was the quality of tableware that was owned and
3249-1059: Was used publicly for the first time during the ceremonies of the Acclamation of Queen Maria I , the daughter of Joseph I, on 13 May 1777. In 2006, the Germain Service was made part of the Ministry of Culture 's list of Portuguese National Treasures. Tableware Tableware items are the dishware and utensils used for setting a table, serving food, and dining. The term includes cutlery , glassware , serving dishes, serving utensils, and other items used for practical as well as decorative purposes. The quality, nature, variety and number of objects varies according to culture, religion, number of diners, cuisine and occasion. For example, Middle Eastern, Indian or Polynesian food culture and cuisine sometimes limits tableware to serving dishes, using bread or leaves as individual plates, and not infrequently without use of cutlery. Special occasions are usually reflected in higher quality tableware. Cutlery
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