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125-407: The various definitions of intellectual giftedness include either general high ability or specific abilities. For example, by some definitions, an intellectually gifted person may have a striking talent for mathematics without equally strong language skills. In particular, the relationship between artistic ability or musical ability and the high academic ability usually associated with high IQ scores

250-466: A " disorder ", it may be that Einstein's genius and his delay in speaking were developmentally intrinsic to one another. It has been said that gifted children may advance more quickly through stages established by post-Freudian developmentalists such as Jean Piaget . Gifted individuals also experience the world differently, resulting in certain social and emotional issues. Francoy Gagne's (2000) Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent (DMGT)

375-411: A ' protomap ', which is regulated by molecular signals such as fibroblast growth factor FGF8 early in embryonic development. These signals regulate the size, shape, and position of cortical areas on the surface of the cortical primordium, in part by regulating gradients of transcription factor expression, through a process called cortical patterning . Examples of such transcription factors include

500-433: A layer IV are called agranular . Cortical areas that have only a rudimentary layer IV are called dysgranular. Information processing within each layer is determined by different temporal dynamics with that in layers II/III having a slow 2  Hz oscillation while that in layer V has a fast 10–15 Hz oscillation. Based on the differences in laminar organization the cerebral cortex can be classified into two types,

625-404: A lower score on an achievement test than on an IQ test neither necessarily indicates that the test-taker is underachieving nor necessarily that the school curriculum is under-challenging. IQ classification varies from one publisher to another. IQ tests have poor reliability for determining test-takers' rank order at higher IQ levels, and are perhaps only effective at determining whether a student

750-554: A more challenging school curriculum is an ongoing problem in school administration. Because of the key role that gifted education programs in schools play in the identification of gifted individuals, both children and adults, it is worthwhile to examine how schools define the term "gifted". Since Lewis Terman in 1916, psychometricians and psychologists have sometimes equated giftedness with high IQ. Later researchers (e.g., Raymond Cattell , J. P. Guilford , and Louis Leon Thurstone ) have argued that intellect cannot be expressed in such

875-782: A multitude of cultures, such as: Gifted children may develop asynchronously: their minds are often ahead of their physical growth, and specific cognitive and emotional functions are often developed differently (or to differing extents) at different stages of development. One frequently cited example of asynchronicity in early cognitive development is Albert Einstein , who was delayed in speech, but whose later fluency and accomplishments belied this initial delay. Psychologist and cognitive scientist Steven Pinker theorized that, rather than viewing Einstein's (and other famously gifted late-talking individuals) adult accomplishments as existing distinct from, or in spite of, his early language deficits, and rather than viewing Einstein's lingual delay itself as

1000-417: A narrow range of activities, often comprising only a single direction or genre. Aptitude and IQ are different but related concepts relating to human mental ability. Unlike the original idea of IQ, aptitude often refers to one of the many different characteristics which can be independent of each other, such as aptitude for military flight, air traffic control, or computer programming. This approach measures

1125-634: A part of a school that offers GATE programs. Within GATE programs, 29% of the students are Latino and Black, and 57% are White (U.S. Department of Education, 2016). Weinstein (2002) suggests that some teachers recommend racial minority students ‍ — with the exception of Asian students ‍ — to special education and remedial classes more often than gifted and talented classes due to teacher expectancy biases placed on racial minority students. Teachers' expectations of their students' academic performance influence how students perceive themselves. If

1250-443: A smaller proportion than their enrollment in school. For example, statistics from 1993 indicate that in the U.S., Black students represented 16.2% of public school students, but only constituted 8.4% of students enrolled in gifted education programs. Similarly, while Hispanic students represented 9% of public school students, these students only represented 4.7% of those identified as gifted. However, Asian students make up only 3.6% of

1375-445: A standardised basis for the diagnosis of giftedness, psychologists are expected to interpret IQ scores in the context of all available information: standardized intelligence tests ignore actual achievement and can fail to detect giftedness. For example, a specific learning disorder such as dyslexia or dyspraxia can easily decrease scores on intelligence tests and hide true intellectual ability. In educational settings, many schools in

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1500-688: A teacher expects more success academically from specific students, those students are prone to displaying behavior and work ethic that will set them apart from others in a positive light, whereas if a teacher only expects the bare minimum from his or her students, those students will merely do what is expected of them (Weinstein, 2002). Racial minority students who are perceived as being disadvantaged from their peers in regards to socioeconomic status tend to have less supportive relations with their teachers (Fitzpatrick, 2015). Due to this lack of support, teachers do not expect these disadvantaged students to go above and beyond, therefore they are often overlooked when it

1625-524: A unique challenge for the educational system. Teachers and educators will need to make special accommodations for their learning deficits (such as remediation), yet adapt the curriculum to meet their advanced learning needs (for instance, through acceleration or enrichment). Twice-exceptional students are considered to be at risk because they are hidden within the general population of their educational environment, and often viewed as either underachievers or average learners. Early identification and intervention

1750-504: A unitary manner, and have suggested more multifaceted approaches to intelligence. Research conducted in the 1980s and 1990s has provided data that supports notions of multiple components to intelligence. This is particularly evident in the reexamination of "giftedness" by Sternberg and Davidson in their collection of articles Conceptions of Giftedness (1986; second edition 2005). The many different conceptions of giftedness presented, although distinct, are interrelated in several ways. Most of

1875-433: A variety of separate skills, similar to the theory of multiple intelligences and Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory and many other modern theories of intelligence. In general, aptitude tests are more likely to be designed and used for career and employment decisions, and intelligence tests are more likely to be used for educational and research purposes. However, there is a great deal of overlap between them, and they often measure

2000-423: A young age, it is possible for them to be constantly aware of the risk of failure. This can be detrimental to their emotional state and academic achievement. If a child comprehends a subject well, but due to a developmental disorder receives poor grades in a subject, the child may have difficulty understanding why there is little success in that subject. Research over the years has shown mixed results when looking at

2125-443: Is "the belief by scholars that each of the seven multiple intelligences is a cognitive style rather than a stand-alone construct". Others consider the theory not to be sufficiently empirical . This perspective has also been criticized on the grounds that it is ad hoc : that Gardner is not expanding the definition of the word "intelligence", but rather denies the existence of intelligence as traditionally understood, and instead uses

2250-438: Is Brodmann area 17, which is the primary visual cortex . In more general terms the cortex is typically described as comprising three parts: sensory, motor, and association areas. The sensory areas are the cortical areas that receive and process information from the senses . Parts of the cortex that receive sensory inputs from the thalamus are called primary sensory areas. The senses of vision, hearing, and touch are served by

2375-493: Is a developmental theory that distinguishes giftedness from talent, offering explanation on how outstanding natural abilities (gifts) develop into specific expert skills (talents). According to DMGT theory, "one cannot become talented without first being gifted, or almost so". There are six components that can interact in countless and unique ways that foster the process of moving from having natural abilities (giftedness) to systematically developed skills. These components consist of

2500-504: Is a federal government statutory definition of gifted and talented students in the United States. The term "gifted and talented" when used in respect to students, children, or youth means students, children, or youth who give evidence of high-performance capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who require services or activities not ordinarily provided by

2625-515: Is a positive step toward diminishing teacher expectancy bias. Weinstein and colleagues (1991) aimed to change the low expectations attached to racial minority students of an urban high school that placed many Black and Latino students in remedial programs rather than college preparatory or honor classes. The study aimed to prepare these racial minority students for college-level academic work while attending high school. With positive teacher attitudes toward students and greater teacher self-efficacy ,

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2750-408: Is a significant indicator of high academic potential. Because of this consideration, if a student scores highly on an IQ test, but performs at an average or below-average level academically, school officials may think that this issue warrants further investigation as an example of underachievement. However, scholars of educational testing point out that a test-taker's scores on any two tests may vary, so

2875-455: Is a strictly quantitative difference, measurable by IQ tests, some authors on the "experience of being" have described giftedness as a fundamentally different way of perceiving the world, which in turn affects every experience had by the gifted individual. This view is doubted by some scholars who have closely studied gifted children longitudinally. Characteristics and attributes associated with giftedness varies across cultures. While intelligence

3000-553: Is attributed to a multiplicity of factors including cultural bias of testing procedures, selective referrals and educator bias, and reliance on deficit-based paradigms. To address the inequities in assessment procedures, researchers suggest the use of multiple tests and alternative methods of testing, such as performance-based assessment measures, oral-expressiveness measures as well as non-verbal ability assessments (such as Naglieri Nonverbal Abilities Tests ( NNAT ) or Raven's Matrix Analogies Tests). According to 2013-2014 data collected by

3125-507: Is composed of three components as follows: Gifted behavior consists of behaviors that reflect an interaction among three basic clusters of human traits—above average ability, high levels of task commitment, and high levels of creativity. Individuals capable of developing gifted behavior are those possessing or capable of developing this composite set of traits and applying them to any potentially valuable area of human performance. Persons who manifest or are capable of developing an interaction among

3250-453: Is connected to various subcortical structures such as the thalamus and the basal ganglia , sending information to them along efferent connections and receiving information from them via afferent connections . Most sensory information is routed to the cerebral cortex via the thalamus. Olfactory information, however, passes through the olfactory bulb to the olfactory cortex ( piriform cortex ). The majority of connections are from one area of

3375-399: Is critical; however, giftedness in the twice-exceptional population is often identified later than in the average population as it is masked by the disability. The disabilities may include auditory processing weaknesses, sensory-motor integration issues, visual perceptual difficulties, spatial disorientation, dyslexia, and attention deficits. Recognition of learning difficulties among the gifted

3500-527: Is extremely important in Western and some other cultures, such an emphasis is not consistent throughout the world. For example, in Japan , there is more of a value placed on an individual's motivation and diligence. When Japanese students are given a task, they attribute success to factors like effort, whereas American students tend to attribute success to ability. Similarly, when Japanese students fail, they refer

3625-419: Is formed of six layers, numbered I to VI, from the outermost layer I – near to the pia mater , to the innermost layer VI – near to the underlying white matter . Each cortical layer has a characteristic distribution of different neurons and their connections with other cortical and subcortical regions. There are direct connections between different cortical areas and indirect connections via the thalamus. One of

3750-606: Is gifted rather than distinguishing among levels of giftedness. The Wechsler test manuals have standard score ceilings of 160. However, higher ceilings, including scores into the exceptionally and profoundly gifted range, exist for the WISC-IV and WISC-V, which were specifically normed on large samples of gifted children. Today, the Wechsler child and adult IQ tests are by far the most commonly used IQ tests in hospitals, schools, and private psychological practice. Older versions of

3875-634: Is incorporated in the curriculum and furthermore when the curriculum itself is designed to be culturally and linguistically compatible. A culturally diverse curriculum and instruction encourages gifted minority students to experience a sense of belonging and validation as scholars. Furthermore, the educator's role in this process is significant as Lee et al. argue that "[t]eacher awareness and understanding of students' racial and cultural differences and their ability to incorporate multicultural perspectives into curricular content and instructional techniques may counter gifted minority students' discomfort in being one of

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4000-431: Is made extremely difficult by virtue of their ability to compensate. Among the signs that the student may be twice-exceptional are apparent inconsistencies between abilities and results, deficits in short-term memory and attention, and negative behaviors such as being sarcastic, negative, or aggressive. A child prodigy who demonstrates qualities to be twice-exceptional may encounter additional difficulties. With insight at

4125-470: Is not known if this is the result of migraine attacks, the cause of them or if both are the result of a shared cause. A later study using a larger patient population reports no change in the cortical thickness in patients with migraine. A genetic disorder of the cerebral cortex, whereby decreased folding in certain areas results in a microgyrus , where there are four layers instead of six, is in some instances seen to be related to dyslexia . The neocortex

4250-454: Is nothing special to consider when we are looking to support gifted individuals on their developmental journey. Talent (skill) An aptitude is a component of a competence to do a certain kind of work at a certain level. Outstanding aptitude can be considered " talent ", or " skill ". Aptitude is inborn potential to perform certain kinds of activities, whether physical or mental , and whether developed or undeveloped. Aptitude

4375-563: Is often contrasted with skills and abilities, which are developed through learning . The mass term ability refers to components of competence acquired through a combination of both aptitude and skills. According to Gladwell (2008) and Colvin (2008), it is often difficult to set apart the influence of talent from the influence of hard training in the case of outstanding performances. Howe, Davidson, and Sloboda argue that talents are acquired rather than innate. Talented individuals generally show high levels of competence immediately in only

4500-442: Is still being explored, with some authors referring to all of those forms of high ability as "giftedness", while other authors distinguish "giftedness" from "talent". There is still much controversy and much research on the topic of how adult performance unfolds from trait differences in childhood, and what educational and other supports best help the development of adult giftedness. The identification of giftedness first emerged after

4625-404: Is termed a sulcus (plural sulci). These surface convolutions appear during fetal development and continue to mature after birth through the process of gyrification . In the human brain , the majority of the cerebral cortex is not visible from the outside, but buried in the sulci. The major sulci and gyri mark the divisions of the cerebrum into the lobes of the brain . The four major lobes are

4750-498: Is that because the inhibitory output is reduced by cholinergic input to the cerebral cortex, this provides the brainstem with adjustable "gain control for the relay of lemniscal inputs". The cortical layers are not simply stacked one over the other; there exist characteristic connections between different layers and neuronal types, which span all the thickness of the cortex. These cortical microcircuits are grouped into cortical columns and minicolumns . It has been proposed that

4875-659: Is the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB), which is given to recruits entering the armed forces of the United States . Another is the SAT, which is designed as a test of aptitude for college in the United States, but has achievement elements. For example, it tests mathematical reasoning, which depends both on mathematical ability and education received in mathematics . Aptitude tests can typically be grouped according to

5000-428: Is the part of the brain responsible for cognition . The six-layered neocortex makes up approximately 90% of the cortex , with the allocortex making up the remainder. The cortex is divided into left and right parts by the longitudinal fissure , which separates the two cerebral hemispheres that are joined beneath the cortex by the corpus callosum . In most mammals, apart from small mammals that have small brains,

5125-407: Is the principal source of corticocortical efferents . Layer IV, the internal granular layer , contains different types of stellate and pyramidal cells, and is the main target of thalamocortical afferents from thalamus type C neurons (core-type) as well as intra-hemispheric corticocortical afferents. The layers above layer IV are also referred to as supragranular layers (layers I-III), whereas

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5250-524: Is thought that layer I serves as a central hub for collecting and processing widespread information. It integrates ascending sensory inputs with top-down expectations, regulating how sensory perceptions align with anticipated outcomes. Further, layer I sorts, directs, and combines excitatory inputs, integrating them with neuromodulatory signals. Inhibitory interneurons, both within layer I and from other cortical layers, gate these signals. Together, these interactions dynamically calibrate information flow throughout

5375-518: Is time for gifted and talented education program nominations. Research suggests that teacher expectancy bias can also be diminished by matching the racial demographics of students to that of teachers. Gershenson and colleagues (2016) found that non-Black teachers held low expectations of their black students, specifically in relation to black male students and math, whereas Black teachers held high expectations of black male students in regards to math. This finding suggests that racial diversity among educators

5500-399: Is usually based on IQ scores. The threshold of IQ = 130 is defined by statistical rarity. By convention, the 5% of scores who fall more than two standard deviations from the mean (or more accurately 1.96 ) are considered atypical . In the case of intelligence, these 5% are partitioned to both sides of the range of scores, and include the 2.5% who score more than two standard deviations below

5625-604: The Stanford-Binet form L-M, which has long been obsolete, as the only test with a sufficient ceiling to identify the exceptionally and profoundly gifted, despite the Stanford-Binet L-M never having been normed on a representative national sample. Because the instrument is outdated, current results derived from the Stanford-Binet L-M generate inflated and inaccurate scores. The IQ assessment of younger children remains debated. While many people believe giftedness

5750-427: The U.S. Department of Labor 's General Learning Ability is determined by combining Verbal, Numerical and Spatial aptitude scores. However, many individuals have skills that are much higher or lower than their overall mental ability level. Aptitude subtests are used intra-individually to determine which tasks that individual is more skilled at performing. This information can be useful for determining which job roles are

5875-500: The basal ganglia . In the primary motor cortex of the frontal lobe, layer V contains giant pyramidal cells called Betz cells , whose axons travel through the internal capsule , the brain stem , and the spinal cord forming the corticospinal tract , which is the main pathway for voluntary motor control. Layer VI, the polymorphic layer or multiform layer , contains few large pyramidal neurons and many small spindle-like pyramidal and multiform neurons; layer VI sends efferent fibers to

6000-408: The frontal , parietal , occipital and temporal lobes. Other lobes are the limbic lobe , and the insular cortex often referred to as the insular lobe . There are between 14 and 16 billion neurons in the human cerebral cortex. These are organised into horizontal cortical layers, and radially into cortical columns and minicolumns . Cortical areas have specific functions such as movement in

6125-456: The frontal lobe , temporal lobe , the parietal lobe , and the occipital lobe , named from their overlying bones of the skull. Blood supply to the cerebral cortex is part of the cerebral circulation . Cerebral arteries supply the blood that perfuses the cerebrum. This arterial blood carries oxygen, glucose, and other nutrients to the cortex. Cerebral veins drain the deoxygenated blood, and metabolic wastes including carbon dioxide, back to

6250-412: The gift (G) itself, chance (C), environmental catalyst (EC), intrapersonal catalyst (IC), learning/practice (LP) and the outcome of talent (T). It is important to know that (C), (IC), and (EC) can facilitate but can also hinder the learning and training of becoming talented. The learning/practice is the moderator. It is through the interactions, both environmental and intrapersonal that influence

6375-514: The lentiform nucleus , because together they form a lens-shaped body. The putamen and caudate nucleus are also collectively called the corpus striatum after their striped appearance. The association areas are the parts of the cerebral cortex that do not belong to the primary regions. They function to produce a meaningful perceptual experience of the world, enable us to interact effectively, and support abstract thinking and language. The parietal , temporal , and occipital lobes – all located in

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6500-531: The medial ganglionic eminence (MGE) that migrate tangentially to the cortex via the subventricular zone . This migration of GABAergic neurons is particularly important since GABA receptors are excitatory during development. This excitation is primarily driven by the flux of chloride ions through the GABA receptor, however in adults chloride concentrations shift causing an inward flux of chloride that hyperpolarizes postsynaptic neurons . The glial fibers produced in

6625-408: The motor cortex , and sight in the visual cortex . The motor cortex is primarily located in the precentral gyrus , and the visual cortex is located in the occipital lobe. The cerebral cortex is the outer covering of the surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres and is folded into peaks called gyri , and grooves called sulci . In the human brain , it is between 2 and 3-4 mm. thick, and makes up 40% of

6750-420: The preplate . Next, a cohort of neurons migrating into the middle of the preplate divides this transient layer into the superficial marginal zone , which will become layer I of the mature neocortex, and the subplate , forming a middle layer called the cortical plate . These cells will form the deep layers of the mature cortex, layers five and six. Later born neurons migrate radially into the cortical plate past

6875-414: The pyramidal cells of the cerebral cortex. The development process is time ordered and regulated by hundreds of genes and epigenetic regulatory mechanisms . The layered structure of the mature cerebral cortex is formed during development. The first pyramidal neurons generated migrate out of the ventricular zone and subventricular zone , together with reelin -producing Cajal–Retzius neurons , from

7000-515: The superior parietal lobule , and the inferior parietal lobule . For species of mammals, larger brains (in absolute terms, not just in relation to body size) tend to have thicker cortices. The smallest mammals, such as shrews , have a neocortical thickness of about 0.5 mm; the ones with the largest brains, such as humans and fin whales, have thicknesses of 2–4 mm. There is an approximately logarithmic relationship between brain weight and cortical thickness. Magnetic resonance imaging of

7125-568: The Achievement Gap Between Minority and Nonminority Children by Increasing Access to Gifted Programs" Olszewski-Kubilius et al. write that minority students are "less likely to be nominated by teachers as potential candidates for gifted programs and, if nominated, are less likely to be selected for the program, particularly when such traditional measures as I.Q. and achievement tests are used for identification." This underrepresentation of such students in gifted programs

7250-831: The Office of Civil Rights of the Department of Education, White students have more opportunities and exposure to attending schools that offer gifted and talented education programs (GATE) than racial and ethnic minority students, specifically Black and Latino students. Data collected by the Office of Civil Rights department of the Department of Education also reveal that racial/ethnic minority students are underrepresented in gifted and talented education programs. Forty-nine percent of all students enrolled in schools that offer GATE programs are White, whereas 42% of all students enrolled in schools that offer GATE programs are Latino and Black, thus revealing that white people have more opportunities to be

7375-534: The Stanford-Binet test, now obsolete, and the Cattell IQ test purport to yield IQ scores of 180 or higher, but those scores are not comparable to scores on currently normed tests. The Stanford-Binet Third Revision (Form L-M) yields consistently higher numerical scores for the same test-taker than scores obtained on current tests. This has prompted some authors on identification of gifted children to promote

7500-494: The State of Texas: "gifted and talented student" means a child or youth who performs at or shows the potential for performing at a remarkably high level of accomplishment when compared to others of the same age, experience, or environment, and who The major characteristics of these definitions are (a) the diversity of areas in which performance may be exhibited (e.g., intellectual, creativity, artistic, leadership, academically), (b)

7625-467: The US use a variety of assessments of students' capability and potential when identifying gifted children. These may include portfolios of student work, classroom observations, achievement tests, and IQ test scores. Most educational professionals accept that no single criterion can be used in isolation to accurately identify a gifted child. One of the criteria used in identification may be an IQ test score. Until

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7750-419: The addition of new radial units, which is accomplished at the stem cell level. The protomap hypothesis states that the cellular and molecular identity and characteristics of neurons in each cortical area are specified by cortical stem cells , known as radial glial cells , in a primordial map. This map is controlled by secreted signaling proteins and downstream transcription factors . The cerebral cortex

7875-412: The apical tufts are thought to be crucial for the feedback interactions in the cerebral cortex involved in associative learning and attention. While it was once thought that the input to layer I came from the cortex itself, it is now known that layer I across the cerebral cortex receives substantial input from matrix or M-type thalamus cells, as opposed to core or C-type that go to layer IV. It

8000-584: The areas normally derived from the caudal medial cortex, such as the visual cortex . On the contrary, if mutations in Emx2 occur, it can cause the Pax6-expressing domain to expand and result in the frontal and motor cortical regions enlarging. Therefore, researchers believe that similar gradients and signaling centers next to the cortex could contribute to the regional expression of these transcription factors. Two very well studied patterning signals for

8125-498: The best fits for employees or applicants. Often, before more rigorous aptitude tests are used, individuals are screened for a basic level of aptitude through a previously-completed process, such as SAT scores, GRE scores, GATE scores, degrees, or other certifications. Examples of aptitude tests include; Tests that assess learned skills or knowledge are frequently called achievement tests . However, certain tests can assess both types of constructs. An example that leans both ways

8250-405: The body onto the posterior central gyrus has been illustrated as a deformed human representation, the somatosensory homunculus , where the size of different body parts reflects the relative density of their innervation. Areas with much sensory innervation, such as the fingertips and the lips, require more cortical area to process finer sensation. The motor areas are located in both hemispheres of

8375-441: The brain (MRI) makes it possible to get a measure for the thickness of the human cerebral cortex and relate it to other measures. The thickness of different cortical areas varies but in general, sensory cortex is thinner than motor cortex. One study has found some positive association between the cortical thickness and intelligence . Another study has found that the somatosensory cortex is thicker in migraine patients, though it

8500-422: The brain's mass. 90% of the cerebral cortex is the six-layered neocortex whilst the other 10% is made up of the three/four-layered allocortex . There are between 14 and 16 billion neurons in the cortex. These cortical neurons are organized radially in cortical columns , and minicolumns , in the horizontally organized layers of the cortex. The neocortex is separable into different regions of cortex known in

8625-455: The cerebral cortex are not strictly necessary for survival. Thus, the evolution of the cerebral cortex has seen the advent and modification of new functional areas—particularly association areas that do not directly receive input from outside the cortex. A key theory of cortical evolution is embodied in the radial unit hypothesis and related protomap hypothesis, first proposed by Rakic. This theory states that new cortical areas are formed by

8750-400: The cerebral cortex can become specialized for different functions. Rapid expansion of the cortical surface area is regulated by the amount of self-renewal of radial glial cells and is partly regulated by FGF and Notch genes . During the period of cortical neurogenesis and layer formation, many higher mammals begin the process of gyrification , which generates the characteristic folds of

8875-399: The cerebral cortex is folded, providing a greater surface area in the confined volume of the cranium . Apart from minimising brain and cranial volume, cortical folding is crucial for the brain circuitry and its functional organisation. In mammals with small brains, there is no folding and the cortex is smooth. A fold or ridge in the cortex is termed a gyrus (plural gyri) and a groove

9000-485: The cerebral cortex. Gyrification is regulated by a DNA-associated protein Trnp1 and by FGF and SHH signaling. Of all the different brain regions, the cerebral cortex shows the largest evolutionary variation and has evolved most recently. In contrast to the highly conserved circuitry of the medulla oblongata , for example, which serves critical functions such as regulation of heart and respiration rates, many areas of

9125-482: The cerebral hemispheres and later cortex. Cortical neurons are generated within the ventricular zone , next to the ventricles . At first, this zone contains neural stem cells , that transition to radial glial cells –progenitor cells, which divide to produce glial cells and neurons. The cerebral cortex is composed of a heterogenous population of cells that give rise to different cell types. The majority of these cells are derived from radial glia migration that form

9250-403: The clearest examples of cortical layering is the line of Gennari in the primary visual cortex . This is a band of whiter tissue that can be observed with the naked eye in the calcarine sulcus of the occipital lobe. The line of Gennari is composed of axons bringing visual information from the thalamus into layer IV of the visual cortex . Staining cross-sections of the cortex to reveal

9375-402: The comparison with other groups (e.g., those in general education classrooms or of the same age, experience, or environment), and (c) the use of terms that imply a need for development of the gift (e.g., capability and potential). Another understanding of giftedness is that of asynchronous development. This asynchrony has also been referred to as “dyssynchrony” (Terrassier 1985). It can be within

9500-462: The cortex include FGF and retinoic acid . If FGFs are misexpressed in different areas of the developing cortex, cortical patterning is disrupted. Specifically, when Fgf8 is increased in the anterior pole, Emx2 is downregulated and a caudal shift in the cortical region occurs. This ultimately causes an expansion of the rostral regions. Therefore, Fgf8 and other FGFs play a role in the regulation of expression of Emx2 and Pax6 and represent how

9625-430: The cortex reflects that of the corresponding sensing organ, in what is known as a topographic map . Neighboring points in the primary visual cortex , for example, correspond to neighboring points in the retina . This topographic map is called a retinotopic map . In the same way, there exists a tonotopic map in the primary auditory cortex and a somatotopic map in the primary sensory cortex. This last topographic map of

9750-581: The cortex to another, rather than from subcortical areas; Braitenberg and Schüz (1998) claim that in primary sensory areas, at the cortical level where the input fibers terminate, up to 20% of the synapses are supplied by extracortical afferents but that in other areas and other layers the percentage is likely to be much lower. The whole of the cerebral cortex was divided into 52 different areas in an early presentation by Korbinian Brodmann . These areas, known as Brodmann areas , are based on their cytoarchitecture but also relate to various functions. An example

9875-408: The cortex with younger neurons in superficial layers and older neurons in deeper layers. In addition, laminar neurons are stopped in S or G2 phase in order to give a fine distinction between the different cortical layers. Laminar differentiation is not fully complete until after birth since during development laminar neurons are still sensitive to extrinsic signals and environmental cues. Although

10000-517: The cortex. The motor areas are very closely related to the control of voluntary movements, especially fine fragmented movements performed by the hand. The right half of the motor area controls the left side of the body, and vice versa. Two areas of the cortex are commonly referred to as motor: In addition, motor functions have been described for: Just underneath the cerebral cortex are interconnected subcortical masses of grey matter called basal ganglia (or nuclei). The basal ganglia receive input from

10125-449: The deep layer neurons, and become the upper layers (two to four). Thus, the layers of the cortex are created in an inside-out order. The only exception to this inside-out sequence of neurogenesis occurs in the layer I of primates , in which, in contrast to rodents , neurogenesis continues throughout the entire period of corticogenesis . The map of functional cortical areas, which include primary motor and visual cortex, originates from

10250-467: The dendrites become dramatically increased in number, such that they can accommodate up to a hundred thousand synaptic connections with other neurons. The axon can develop to extend a long way from the cell body. The first divisions of the progenitor cells are symmetric, which duplicates the total number of progenitor cells at each mitotic cycle . Then, some progenitor cells begin to divide asymmetrically, producing one postmitotic cell that migrates along

10375-556: The development of IQ tests for school placement. It has since become an important issue for schools, as the instruction of gifted students often presents special challenges . During the twentieth century, gifted children were often classified via IQ tests; other identification procedures have been proposed but are only used in a minority of cases in most public schools in the English-speaking world. Developing useful identification procedures for students who could benefit from

10500-505: The different cell types of the neocortex and it is a period associated with an increase in neurogenesis . Similarly, the process of neurogenesis regulates lamination to form the different layers of the cortex. During this process there is an increase in the restriction of cell fate that begins with earlier progenitors giving rise to any cell type in the cortex and later progenitors giving rise only to neurons of superficial layers. This differential cell fate creates an inside-out topography in

10625-422: The divisions of the cortex of the cerebrum into the lobes of the brain . There are four main lobes: the frontal lobe , parietal lobe , temporal lobe , and occipital lobe . The insular cortex is often included as the insular lobe. The limbic lobe is a rim of cortex on the medial side of each hemisphere and is also often included. There are also three lobules of the brain described: the paracentral lobule ,

10750-756: The eighteenth century. Autistic savantism refers to the exceptional abilities occasionally exhibited by people with autism or other pervasive developmental disorders . These abilities often come with below-age-level functioning in most, if not all areas of skilled performance. The term was introduced in a 1978 article in Psychology Today describing this condition. It is also proposed that there are savants with normal or superior IQ such as those with Asperger syndrome , who demonstrate special abilities involving numbers, mathematics, mechanical, and spatial skills. The majority of students enrolled in gifted programs are White; Black and Hispanic students constitute

10875-822: The failure to lack of effort. On the other hand, American students believe failure is due to a lack of ability. There are conceptions in rural Kenya that identify four types of intelligence: initiative (paro), knowledge and skills (rieko), respect (luoro), and comprehension of how to handle real-life problems (winjo). Chan cites the Chinese belief that aspects of giftedness are innate, but that people can become gifted through industriousness, perseverance, and learning. Not all who are intellectually gifted display every noticeable characteristic. There are many reasons gifted students who have various backgrounds are not as successful at Western intelligence/achievement tests: Many traits that demonstrate intellectual giftedness are identified across

11000-596: The few minority students in gifted programs." The term twice-exceptional was coined by James J. Gallagher to denote students who are both gifted and have disabilities. In other words, twice-exceptional students are those who have two special needs. For instance, they might have gifted learning needs and a learning disability . Or, they may be a gifted learner and have a developmental disability , such as autism spectrum disorder . People have known about twice-exceptional students for decades; however, identification and program strategies remain ambiguous. These students represent

11125-399: The first divisions of the progenitor cells are radially oriented, spanning the thickness of the cortex from the ventricular zone to the outer, pial surface, and provide scaffolding for the migration of neurons outwards from the ventricular zone . At birth there are very few dendrites present on the cortical neuron's cell body, and the axon is undeveloped. During the first year of life

11250-513: The genes EMX2 and PAX6 . Together, both transcription factors form an opposing gradient of expression. Pax6 is highly expressed at the rostral lateral pole, while Emx2 is highly expressed in the caudomedial pole. The establishment of this gradient is important for proper development. For example, mutations in Pax6 can cause expression levels of Emx2 to expand out of its normal expression domain, which would ultimately lead to an expansion of

11375-605: The gifted' was coined." (Neihart, 1999, p.10). This event also sparked the birth of the organization SENG, founded by Dr. James T. Webb, as a way to support and educate the gifted community about these needs. A 2016 review of research facilitated by the National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC) in the United States continues to show that, as a whole, gifted children and young adults are not more susceptible to social and emotional challenges than their typically developing peers. That does not mean, however, that there

11500-432: The heart. The main arteries supplying the cortex are the anterior cerebral artery , the middle cerebral artery , and the posterior cerebral artery . The anterior cerebral artery supplies the anterior portions of the brain, including most of the frontal lobe. The middle cerebral artery supplies the parietal lobes, temporal lobes, and parts of the occipital lobes. The middle cerebral artery splits into two branches to supply

11625-532: The human, each hemispheric cortex has a total surface area of about 0.12 square metres (1.3 sq ft). The folding is inward away from the surface of the brain, and is also present on the medial surface of each hemisphere within the longitudinal fissure . Most mammals have a cerebral cortex that is convoluted with the peaks known as gyri and the troughs or grooves known as sulci. Some small mammals including some small rodents have smooth cerebral surfaces without gyrification . The larger sulci and gyri mark

11750-505: The investigators define giftedness in terms of multiple qualities, not all of which are intellectual. IQ scores are often viewed as inadequate measures of giftedness. Motivation , high self-concept , and creativity are key qualities in many of these broadened conceptions of giftedness. Joseph Renzulli 's (1978) "three ring" definition of giftedness is one frequently mentioned conceptualization of giftedness. Renzulli's definition, which defines gifted behaviors rather than gifted individuals,

11875-439: The large area of neocortex which has six cell layers, and the much smaller area of allocortex that has three or four layers: There is a transitional area between the neocortex and the allocortex called the paralimbic cortex , where layers 2, 3 and 4 are merged. This area incorporates the proisocortex of the neocortex and the periallocortex of the allocortex. In addition, the cerebral cortex may be classified into four lobes :

12000-400: The late 1960s, when "giftedness" was defined solely based on an IQ score, a school district simply set an arbitrary score (usually in the 130 range) and a student either did or did not "make the cut". This method is still used by many school districts because it is simple and objective. Although a high IQ score is not the sole indicator of giftedness, usually if a student has a very high IQ, that

12125-422: The late 90s, the development of the brain of people with high IQ scores has been shown to be different to that of people with average IQ scores. A longitudinal study over 6 years has shown that high-IQ children have a thinner cerebral cortex when young, which then grows quickly and becomes significantly thicker than the other children's by the time they become teenagers. In psychology, identification of giftedness

12250-399: The layers below are referred to as infragranular layers (layers V and VI). African elephants , cetaceans , and hippopotamus do not have a layer IV with axons which would terminate there going instead to the inner part of layer III. Layer V, the internal pyramidal layer , contains large pyramidal neurons. Axons from these leave the cortex and connect with subcortical structures including

12375-448: The left and right hemisphere, where they branch further. The posterior cerebral artery supplies the occipital lobes. The circle of Willis is the main blood system that deals with blood supply in the cerebrum and cerebral cortex. The prenatal development of the cerebral cortex is a complex and finely tuned process called corticogenesis , influenced by the interplay between genes and the environment. The cerebral cortex develops from

12500-449: The majority of the cells that compose the cortex are derived locally from radial glia there is a subset population of neurons that migrate from other regions. Radial glia give rise to neurons that are pyramidal in shape and use glutamate as a neurotransmitter , however these migrating cells contribute neurons that are stellate-shaped and use GABA as their main neurotransmitter. These GABAergic neurons are generated by progenitor cells in

12625-413: The mean and the 2.5% who score more than two standard deviations above the mean. Because the average of IQ is 100 and its standard deviation is 15, this rule places the threshold for intellectual disability at IQ = 70, and the symmetrical threshold for giftedness at IQ = 130 (rounded). This arbitrary threshold is used by most psychologists in most countries. While IQ testing has the advantage of providing

12750-482: The minicolumns are the basic functional units of the cortex. In 1957, Vernon Mountcastle showed that the functional properties of the cortex change abruptly between laterally adjacent points; however, they are continuous in the direction perpendicular to the surface. Later works have provided evidence of the presence of functionally distinct cortical columns in the visual cortex (Hubel and Wiesel , 1959), auditory cortex, and associative cortex. Cortical areas that lack

12875-452: The most anterior part, the forebrain region, of the neural tube . The neural plate folds and closes to form the neural tube . From the cavity inside the neural tube develops the ventricular system , and, from the neuroepithelial cells of its walls, the neurons and glia of the nervous system. The most anterior (front, or cranial) part of the neural plate, the prosencephalon , which is evident before neurulation begins, gives rise to

13000-437: The needs of a greater number of children (Colangelo, 2003). Savants are individuals who perform exceptionally in a single field of learning. More often, the terms savant and savantism describe people with a competence level in a single field of learning well beyond what is considered normal, even among the gifted community. Such individuals are alternatively termed idiot savants ─ a term that has been mentioned as early as

13125-452: The neocortex, shaping perceptions and experiences. Layer II, the external granular layer , contains small pyramidal neurons and numerous stellate neurons. Layer III, the external pyramidal layer , contains predominantly small and medium-size pyramidal neurons, as well as non-pyramidal neurons with vertically oriented intracortical axons; layers I through III are the main target of commissural corticocortical afferents , and layer III

13250-430: The norm. This asynchrony increases with higher intellectual capacity. The uniqueness of the gifted renders them particularly vulnerable and requires modifications in parenting, teaching and counseling in order for them to develop optimally.” This definition shares many commonalities with the definitions above, but also emphasizes the parenting and counseling differences gifted students may need to be fully supported. Since

13375-444: The person; where the child has distinctly different development levels socially, emotionally, physically, or even between different academic areas. It can also be asynchrony between the child and their social and/or academic environment. The Columbus Group came together in 1991 to talk about their concerns that the current trends in gifted education focused overwhelmingly on achievement and the future impact these students could have on

13500-434: The plural as cortices, and include the motor cortex and visual cortex . About two thirds of the cortical surface is buried in the sulci and the insular cortex is completely hidden. The cortex is thickest over the top of a gyrus and thinnest at the bottom of a sulcus. The cerebral cortex is folded in a way that allows a large surface area of neural tissue to fit within the confines of the neurocranium . When unfolded in

13625-770: The position of neuronal cell bodies and the intracortical axon tracts allowed neuroanatomists in the early 20th century to produce a detailed description of the laminar structure of the cortex in different species. The work of Korbinian Brodmann (1909) established that the mammalian neocortex is consistently divided into six layers. Layer I is the molecular layer , and contains few scattered neurons, including GABAergic rosehip neurons . Layer I consists largely of extensions of apical dendritic tufts of pyramidal neurons and horizontally oriented axons, as well as glial cells . During development, Cajal–Retzius cells and subpial granular layer cells are present in this layer. Also, some spiny stellate cells can be found here. Inputs to

13750-448: The posterior part of the cortex – integrate sensory information and information stored in memory. The frontal lobe or prefrontal association complex is involved in planning actions and movement, as well as abstract thought. Globally, the association areas are organized as distributed networks. Each network connects areas distributed across widely spaced regions of the cortex. Distinct networks are positioned adjacent to one another yielding

13875-418: The primary visual cortex, primary auditory cortex and primary somatosensory cortex respectively. In general, the two hemispheres receive information from the opposite (contralateral) side of the body . For example, the right primary somatosensory cortex receives information from the left limbs, and the right visual cortex receives information from the left visual field . The organization of sensory maps in

14000-554: The process of learning and practice along with/without chance that natural abilities are transformed into talents. Multiple intelligences has been associated with giftedness or overachievement of some developmental areas (Colangelo, 2003). Multiple intelligences has been described as an attitude towards learning, instead of techniques or strategies (Cason, 2001). Howard Gardner proposed in Frames of Mind (Gardner 1983/1994) that intellectual giftedness may be present in areas other than

14125-440: The psychological well-being of gifted children, according to a 1999 review of research by Neihart. The timeline of research into the impact of giftedness on mental health shows swings from the view point that it increases risk in the late 19th century to Terman's research that the gifted experienced fewer adjustment issues than others. In 1981, a gifted high school student died of suicide and "the phrase, 'social and emotional needs of

14250-459: The radial glial fibers, leaving the ventricular zone , and one progenitor cell, which continues to divide until the end of development, when it differentiates into a glial cell or an ependymal cell . As the G1 phase of mitosis is elongated, in what is seen as selective cell-cycle lengthening, the newly born neurons migrate to more superficial layers of the cortex. The migrating daughter cells become

14375-426: The same kinds of abilities. For example, aptitude tests such as the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery measure enough aptitudes that they could also serve as a measure of general intelligence. A single construct such as mental ability is measured with multiple tests. Often, a person's group of test scores will be highly correlated with each other, which makes a single measure useful in many cases. For example,

14500-406: The school in order to fully develop such capabilities." (The Improving America’s Schools Act of 1994, P.L. 103–382, Title XIV, p. 388) This definition has been adopted partially or completely by the majority of the individual states in the United States (which have the main responsibility for education policy as compared to the federal government). Most states have a definition similar to that used in

14625-471: The student body, yet constitute 14% in the gifted programs. Poor students are also underrepresented in gifted programs, even more than Black and Hispanic students are. Lack of equity and access in programs for the gifted has been acknowledged since the early twentieth century. In the 1920s, research by Lillian Steele Proctor pointed to systemic racism as a contributor to the relative invisibility of gifted African American youth. In their 2004 study, "Addressing

14750-460: The students who were once on track to being recommended for remedial classes were performing at advanced academic levels after 2 years of intervention. They were also more heavily involved in leadership roles at their high school. This study supports the claim that teacher expectancy contributes to how a student sees him or herself in regards to achievements (Weinstein et al., 1991). Gifted students of color experience success when multicultural content

14875-451: The substantia nigra of the midbrain and motor areas of the cerebral cortex, and send signals back to both of these locations. They are involved in motor control. They are found lateral to the thalamus. The main components of the basal ganglia are the caudate nucleus , the putamen , the globus pallidus , the substantia nigra , the nucleus accumbens , and the subthalamic nucleus . The putamen and globus pallidus are also collectively known as

15000-492: The thalamus, establishing a very precise reciprocal interconnection between the cortex and the thalamus. That is, layer VI neurons from one cortical column connect with thalamus neurons that provide input to the same cortical column. These connections are both excitatory and inhibitory. Neurons send excitatory fibers to neurons in the thalamus and also send collaterals to the thalamic reticular nucleus that inhibit these same thalamus neurons or ones adjacent to them. One theory

15125-409: The three clusters require a wide variety of educational opportunities and services that are not ordinarily provided through regular instructional programs. In Identifying Gifted Children: A Practical Guide , Susan K. Johnsen explains that gifted children all exhibit the potential for high performance in the areas included in the United States' federal definition of gifted and talented students: There

15250-516: The type of cognitive ability they measure, whether that be fluid or crystallized intelligence . Cerebral cortex The cerebral cortex , also known as the cerebral mantle , is the outer layer of neural tissue of the cerebrum of the brain in humans and other mammals . It is the largest site of neural integration in the central nervous system , and plays a key role in attention , perception , awareness , thought , memory , language , and consciousness . The cerebral cortex

15375-489: The typical intellectual realm. The concept of Multiple Intelligences (MI) makes the field aware of additional potential strengths and proposes a variety of curricular methods. Gardner argued that there are eight intelligences, or different areas in which people assimilate or learn about the world around them: interpersonal, intrapersonal, bodily-kinesthetic, linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, naturalistic, and spatial-visual. The most common criticism of Gardner's MI theory

15500-520: The word "intelligence" where other people have traditionally used words like "ability" and " aptitude ". Identification of gifted students with MI is a challenge since there is no simple test to determine the giftedness of MI. Assessing by observation is potentially most accurate, but potentially highly subjective. MI theory can be applied to not only gifted students, but it can be a lens through which all students can be assessed. This more global perspective may lead to more child-centered instruction and meet

15625-532: The world, and were missing focusing on and valuing who those children are in the moment, and what their lived experiences were like. They created a definition of giftedness that centers around asynchrony and intensity, which first appeared in print in an article titled “Giftedness: The View from Within” (Morelock, 1992). It states that: “Giftedness is asynchronous development in which advanced cognitive abilities and heightened intensity combine to create inner experiences and awareness that are qualitatively different from

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