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83-406: GLONASS ( ГЛОНАСС , IPA: [ɡɫɐˈnas] ; Russian: Глобальная навигационная спутниковая система , romanized : Global'naya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema , lit. 'Global Navigation Satellite System') is a Russian satellite navigation system operating as part of a radionavigation-satellite service . It provides an alternative to Global Positioning System (GPS) and

166-499: A 0 when both inputs match. When searching for a specific bit pattern or PRN sequence in a very long data sequence, a series of XOR gates can be used to compare a string of bits from the data sequence against the target sequence in parallel. The number of 0 outputs can then be counted to determine how well the data sequence matches the target sequence. Correlators are used in many communications devices such as CDMA receivers and decoders for error correction and channel codes. In

249-906: A NOT gate . If we consider the expression ( A ⋅ B ¯ ) + ( A ¯ ⋅ B ) {\displaystyle (A\cdot {\overline {B}})+({\overline {A}}\cdot B)} , we can construct an XOR gate circuit directly using AND, OR and NOT gates . However, this approach requires five gates of three different kinds. As alternative, if different gates are available we can apply Boolean algebra to transform ( A ⋅ B ¯ ) + ( A ¯ ⋅ B ) ≡ ( A + B ) ⋅ ( A ¯ + B ¯ ) {\displaystyle (A\cdot {\overline {B}})+({\overline {A}}\cdot B)\equiv (A+B)\cdot ({\overline {A}}+{\overline {B}})} as stated above, and apply de Morgan's Law to

332-442: A native Russian keyboard layout ( JCUKEN ). In the latter case, they would type using a system of transliteration fitted for their keyboard layout , such as for English QWERTY keyboards, and then use an automated tool to convert the text into Cyrillic. There are a number of distinct and competing standards for the romanization of Russian Cyrillic , with none of them having received much popularity, and, in reality, transliteration

415-412: A 38° cone, using right-hand circular polarization , at an EIRP between 25 and 27 dBW (316 to 500 watts). Note that the 24-satellite constellation is accommodated with only 15 channels by using identical frequency channels to support antipodal (opposite side of planet in orbit) satellite pairs, as these satellites are never both in view of an Earth-based user at the same time. The L2 band signals use

498-528: A 64.8° inclination and an orbital period of 11 hours and 16 minutes (every 17 revolutions, done in 8 sidereal days, a satellite passes over the same location ). GLONASS's orbit makes it especially suited for usage in high latitudes (north or south), where getting a GPS signal can be problematic. The constellation operates in three orbital planes, with eight evenly spaced satellites on each. A fully operational constellation with global coverage consists of 24 satellites, while 18 satellites are necessary for covering

581-410: A CDMA receiver, correlators are used to extract the polarity of a specific PRN sequence out of a combined collection of PRN sequences. A correlator looking for 11010 in the data sequence 1110100101 would compare the incoming data bits against the target sequence at every possible offset while counting the number of matches (zeros): In this example, the best match occurs when the target sequence

664-615: A Latin alphabet for the Russian language was discussed in 1929–30 during the campaign of latinisation of the languages of the USSR , when a special commission was created to propose a latinisation system for Russian. The letters of the Latin script are named in Russian as following (and are borrowed from French and/or German ): XOR gate An XOR gate may serve as a "programmable inverter" in which one input determines whether to invert

747-415: A cascade of binary exclusive-or operations: the first two signals are fed into an XOR gate, then the output of that gate is fed into a second XOR gate together with the third signal, and so on for any remaining signals. The result is a circuit that outputs a 1 when the number of 1s at its inputs is odd, and a 0 when the number of incoming 1s is even. This makes it practically useful as a parity generator or

830-631: A full suite of modernized CDMA signals in the existing L1 and L2 bands, which includes L1SC, L1OC, L2SC, and L2OC, as well as the L3OC signal. Glonass-K2 series should gradually replace existing satellites starting from 2023, when Glonass-M launches will cease. Glonass-KM satellites will be launched by 2025. Additional open signals are being studied for these satellites, based on frequencies and formats used by existing GPS, Galileo, and Beidou/COMPASS signals: Such an arrangement will allow easier and cheaper implementation of multi-standard GNSS receivers. With

913-498: A modulo-2 adder . For example, the 74LVC1G386 microchip is advertised as a three-input logic gate, and implements a parity generator. XOR gates and AND gates are the two most-used structures in VLSI applications. The XOR logic gate can be used as a one-bit adder that adds any two bits together to output one bit. For example, if we add 1 plus 1 in binary , we expect a two-bit answer, 10 (i.e. 2 in decimal). Since

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996-472: A solar array span of 7.2 m (24 ft) for an electrical power generation capability of 1600 watts at launch. The aft payload structure houses 12 primary antennas for L-band transmissions. Laser corner-cube reflectors are also carried to aid in precise orbit determination and geodetic research. On-board cesium clocks provide the local clock source. 52 Glonass-M have been produced and launched. A total of 41 second generation satellites were launched through

1079-404: A total of eight transistors, four less than in the previous design. The XOR function is implemented by passing through to the output the inverted value of A when B is high and passing the value of A when B is at a logic low. so when both inputs are low the transmission gate at the bottom is off and the one at the top is on and lets A through which is low so the output is low. When both are high only

1162-505: A velocity vector measuring within 100 mm/s (3.9 in/s), and timing within 200 nanoseconds , all based on measurements from four first-generation satellites simultaneously; newer satellites such as GLONASS-M improve on this. GLONASS uses a coordinate datum named " PZ-90 " (Earth Parameters 1990 – Parametry Zemli 1990), in which the precise location of the North Pole is given as an average of its position from 1990 to 1995. This

1245-407: Is an inverted-input AND gate . Another alternative arrangement is of five NAND gates in a topology that emphasizes the construction of the function from ( A ⋅ B ¯ ) + ( A ¯ ⋅ B ) {\displaystyle (A\cdot {\overline {B}})+({\overline {A}}\cdot B)} , noting from de Morgan's Law that a NAND gate

1328-521: Is an inverted-input OR gate . For the NAND constructions, the upper arrangement requires fewer gates. For the NOR constructions, the lower arrangement offers the advantage of a shorter propagation delay (the time delay between an input changing and the output changing). XOR chips are readily available. The most common standard chip codes are: Literal interpretation of the name "exclusive or", or observation of

1411-423: Is at a logic high using pass transistor logic to reduce the transistor count and when B is at a logic low, their output is at a high impedance state. The two in the middle are a transmission gate that drives the output to the value of A when B is at a logic low and the two rightmost transistors form an inverter needed to generate B ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {B}}} used by

1494-478: Is composed of 72 frames, each containing 5 strings of 100 bits and taking 10 seconds to transmit, with total length of 36 000 bits or 720 seconds (12 minutes) for the whole navigational message. The additional data are seemingly allocated to critical Lunisolar acceleration parameters and clock correction terms. At peak efficiency, the standard-precision signal offers horizontal positioning accuracy within 5–10 metres, vertical positioning within 15 m (49 ft),

1577-448: Is equivalent to the XOR. An XOR gate circuit can be made from four NAND gates . In fact, both NAND and NOR gates are so-called "universal gates" and any logical function can be constructed from either NAND logic or NOR logic alone. If the four NAND gates are replaced by NOR gates , this results in an XNOR gate , which can be converted to an XOR gate by inverting the output or one of

1660-695: Is in contrast to the GPS's coordinate datum, WGS 84 , which uses the location of the North Pole in 1984. As of 17 September 2007, the PZ-90 datum has been updated to version PZ-90.02 which differ from WGS 84 by less than 400 mm (16 in) in any given direction. Since 31 December 2013, version PZ-90.11 is being broadcast, which is aligned to the International Terrestrial Reference System and Frame 2008 at epoch 2011.0 at

1743-429: Is modulated at 50 bits per second. The superframe of the open signal is 7500 bits long and consists of 5 frames of 30 seconds, taking 150 seconds (2.5 minutes) to transmit the continuous message. Each frame is 1500 bits long and consists of 15 strings of 100 bits (2 seconds for each string), with 85 bits (1.7 seconds) for data and check-sum bits, and 15 bits (0.3 seconds) for time mark. Strings 1-4 provide immediate data for

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1826-507: Is modulated by an encrypting W code, the GLONASS restricted-use codes are broadcast in the clear using only security through obscurity . The details of the high-precision signal have not been disclosed. The modulation (and therefore the tracking strategy) of the data bits on the L2SF code has recently changed from unmodulated to 250 bit/s burst at random intervals. The L1SF code is modulated by

1909-401: Is offset by 1 bit and all five bits match. When offset by 5 bits, the sequence exactly matches its inverse. By looking at the difference between the number of ones and zeros that come out of the bank of XOR gates, it is easy to see where the sequence occurs and whether or not it is inverted. Longer sequences are easier to detect than short sequences. f ( a , b ) =

1992-597: Is often carried out without any consistent standards. Scientific transliteration, also known as the International Scholarly System , is a system that has been used in linguistics since the 19th century. It is based on the Czech alphabet and formed the basis of the GOST and ISO systems. OST 8483 was the first Soviet standard on romanization of Russian, introduced on 16 October 1935. Developed by

2075-706: Is the main system of the Oxford University Press, and a variation was used by the British Library to catalogue publications acquired up to 1975. The Library of Congress system (ALA-LC) is used for newer acquisitions. The BGN/PCGN system is relatively intuitive for Anglophones to read and pronounce. In many publications, a simplified form of the system is used to render English versions of Russian names, typically converting ë to yo , simplifying -iy and -yy endings to -y , and omitting apostrophes for ъ and ь . It can be rendered using only

2158-473: Is the second navigational system in operation with global coverage and of comparable precision. Satellite navigation devices supporting both GPS and GLONASS have more satellites available, meaning positions can be fixed more quickly and accurately, especially in built-up areas where buildings may obscure the view to some satellites. Owing to its higher orbital inclination , GLONASS supplementation of GPS systems also improves positioning in high latitudes (near

2241-418: Is transmitted with each string; UTC leap second correction is achieved by shortening or lengthening (zero-padding) the final string of the day by one second, with abnormal strings being discarded by the receiver. The strings have a version tag to facilitate forward compatibility : future upgrades to the message format will not break older equipment, which will continue to work by ignoring new data (as long as

2324-451: The Intel 386 CPU. The XOR gate can also be implemented by the use of Transmission gates with pass transistor logic . This implementation uses two Transmission gates and two inverters not shown in the diagram to generate A ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {A}}} and B ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {B}}} for

2407-657: The Roscosmos , consuming a third of its budget in 2010. By 2010, GLONASS had achieved full coverage of Russia's territory . In October 2011, the full orbital constellation of 24 satellites was restored, enabling full global coverage. The GLONASS satellites' designs have undergone several upgrades, with the latest version, GLONASS-K2 , launched in 2023. GLONASS is a global navigation satellite system, providing real time position and velocity determination for military and civilian users. The satellites are located in middle circular orbit at 19,100 km (11,900 mi) altitude with

2490-568: The Russian language (the transliteration of Russian text from the Cyrillic script into the Latin script ), aside from its primary use for including Russian names and words in text written in a Latin alphabet, is also essential for computer users to input Russian text who either do not have a keyboard or word processor set up for inputting Cyrillic, or else are not capable of typing rapidly using

2573-427: The caret symbol ^ to denote bitwise XOR. (Note that the caret does not denote logical conjunction (AND) in these languages, despite the similarity of symbol.) The XOR gate is most commonly implemented using MOSFETs circuits. Some of those implementations include: XOR gates can be implemented using AND-OR-Invert ( AOI ) or OR-AND-Invert (OAI) logic. The metal–oxide–semiconductor ( CMOS ) implementations of

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2656-456: The British Library since 1975. The formal, unambiguous version of the system for bibliographic cataloguing requires some diacritics, two-letter tie characters , and prime marks. The standard is also often adapted as a "simplified" or "modified Library of Congress system" for use in text for a non-specialized audience, omitting the special characters and diacritics, simplifying endings, and modifying iotated initials. British Standard 2979:1958

2739-539: The Ground Control segment; they use Earth Centred Earth Fixed (ECEF) Cartesian coordinates in position and velocity, and include lunisolar acceleration parameters. The almanac uses modified orbital elements (Keplerian elements) and is updated daily. The more accurate high-precision signal is available for authorized users, such as the Russian military, yet unlike the United States P(Y) code, which

2822-492: The IEC rectangular symbol, raises the question of correct behaviour with additional inputs. If a logic gate were to accept three or more inputs and produce a true output if exactly one of those inputs were true, then it would in effect be a one-hot detector (and indeed this is the case for only two inputs). However, it is rarely implemented this way in practice. It is most common to regard subsequent inputs as being applied through

2905-487: The L1OF signal. The open standard-precision signal is generated with modulo-2 addition (XOR) of 511 kbit/s pseudo-random ranging code, 50 bit/s navigation message, and an auxiliary 100 Hz meander sequence ( Manchester code ), all generated using a single time/frequency oscillator. The pseudo-random code is generated with a 9-stage shift register operating with a period of 1 milliseconds . The navigational message

2988-542: The Latin Alphabet is an adoption of ISO 9:1995 . It is the official standard of both Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). GOST 52535.1-2006 Identification cards. Machine readable travel documents. Part 1. Machine readable passports is an adoption of an ICAO standard for travel documents. It was used in Russian passports for a short period during 2010–2013 ( see below ). The standard

3071-685: The National Administration for Geodesy and Cartography at the USSR Council of Ministers , GOST 16876-71 has been in service since 1973. Replaced by GOST 7.79-2000. This standard is an equivalent of GOST 16876-71 and was adopted as an official standard of the COMECON . GOST 7.79-2000 System of Standards on Information, Librarianship, and Publishing–Rules for Transliteration of the Cyrillic Characters Using

3154-452: The XOR gate corresponding to the AOI logic above are shown below. On the left, the nMOS and pMOS transistors are arranged so that the input pairs A ⋅ B ¯ {\displaystyle A\cdot {\overline {B}}} and A ¯ ⋅ B {\displaystyle {\overline {A}}\cdot B} activate the 2 pMOS transistors of

3237-649: The XOR gate with inputs A and B . The behavior of XOR is summarized in the truth table shown on the right. There are three schematic symbols for XOR gates: the traditional ANSI and DIN symbols and the IEC symbol. In some cases, the DIN symbol is used with ⊕ instead of ≢. For more information see Logic Gate Symbols . The "=1" on the IEC symbol indicates that the output is activated by only one active input. The logic symbols ⊕, J pq , and ⊻ can be used to denote an XOR operation in algebraic expressions. C-like languages use

3320-399: The XOR gate. The trade-off with the previous implementation is that since transmission gates are not ideal switches, there is resistance associated with them, so depending on the signal strength of the input, cascading them may degrade the output levels. The previous transmission gate implementation can be further optimized from eight to six transistors by implementing the functionality of

3403-622: The basic letters and punctuation found on English-language keyboards: no diacritics or unusual letters are required, although the interpunct character (·) may be used to avoid ambiguity. This particular standard is part of the BGN/PCGN romanization system which was developed by the United States Board on Geographic Names and by the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use . The portion of

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3486-519: The bottom to Vss for a logic low. If inverted inputs (for example from a flip-flop ) are available, this gate can be used directly. Otherwise, two additional inverters with two transistors each are needed to generate A ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {A}}} and B ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {B}}} , bringing the total number of transistors to twelve. The AOI implementation without inverted input has been used, for example, in

3569-502: The centimetre level, but ideally a conversion to ITRF2008 should be done. Since 2008, new CDMA signals are being researched for use with GLONASS. The interface control documents for GLONASS CDMA signals was published in August 2016. According to GLONASS developers, there will be three open and two restricted CDMA signals. The open signal L3OC is centered at 1202.025 MHz and uses BPSK(10) modulation for both data and pilot channels;

3652-454: The constellation still transmits old string types), but up-to-date equipment will be able to use additional information from newer satellites. The navigational message of the L3OC signal is transmitted at 100 bit/s, with each string of symbols taking 3 seconds (300 bits). A pseudo-frame of 6 strings takes 18 seconds (1800 bits) to transmit. A superframe of 8 pseudo-frames is 14,400 bits long and takes 144 seconds (2 minutes 24 seconds) to transmit

3735-585: The current satellite (string types 10, 11, and 12 in a sequence) and part of the almanac for three satellites (three strings of type 20). To transmit the full almanac for all current 24 satellites, a superframe of 8 pseudo-frames is required. In the future, the superframe will be expanded to 10 pseudo-frames of data to cover full 30 satellites. The message can also contain Earth's rotation parameters, ionosphere models, long-term orbit parameters for GLONASS satellites, and COSPAS-SARSAT messages. The system time marker

3818-499: The end of 2013. As with the previous generation, the second generation spacecraft were launched three at a time using Proton-K Blok-DM2 or Proton-K Briz-M boosters. Some were launched alone with Soyuz-2-1b / Fregat . In July 2015, ISS Reshetnev announced that it had completed the last GLONASS-M (No. 61) spacecraft and it was putting it in storage waiting for launch, along with eight previously built satellites. As on 22 September 2017, GLONASS-M No.52 satellite went into operation and

3901-472: The exclusive-or operation. Hence, a suitable setup of XOR gates can model a linear-feedback shift register, in order to generate random numbers. XOR gates may be used in simplest phase detectors . An XOR gate may be used to easily change between buffering or inverting a signal. For example, XOR gates can be added to the output of a seven-segment display decoder circuit to allow a user to choose between active-low or active-high output. XOR gates produce

3984-730: The full almanac. The navigational message of the L1OC signal is transmitted at 100 bit/s. The string is 250 bits long and takes 2.5 seconds to transmit. A pseudo-frame is 1500 bits (15 seconds) long, and a superframe is 12,000 bits or 120 seconds (2 minutes). L2OC signal does not transmit any navigational message, only the pseudo-range codes: Glonass-M spacecraft produced since 2014 include L3OC signal Glonass-K1 test satellite launched in 2011 introduced L3OC signal. Glonass-M satellites produced since 2014 (s/n 755+) will also transmit L3OC signal for testing purposes. Enhanced Glonass-K1 and Glonass-K2 satellites, to be launched from 2023, will feature

4067-399: The inputs (e.g. with a fifth NOR gate ). An alternative arrangement is of five NOR gates in a topology that emphasizes the construction of the function from ( A + B ) ⋅ ( A ¯ + B ¯ ) {\displaystyle (A+B)\cdot ({\overline {A}}+{\overline {B}})} , noting from de Morgan's Law that a NOR gate

4150-1165: The introduction of CDMA signals, the constellation will be expanded to 30 active satellites by 2025; this may require eventual deprecation of FDMA signals. The new satellites will be deployed into three additional planes, bringing the total to six planes from the current three—aided by System for Differential Correction and Monitoring ( SDCM ), which is a GNSS augmentation system based on a network of ground-based control stations and communication satellites Luch 5A and Luch 5B . Six additional Glonass-V satellites, using Tundra orbit in three orbital planes, will be launched starting in 2025; this regional high-orbit segment will offer increased regional availability and 25% improvement in precision over Eastern Hemisphere , similar to Japanese QZSS system and Beidou-1 . The new satellites will form two ground traces with inclination of 64.8°, eccentricity of 0.072, period of 23.9 hours, and ascending node longitude of 60° and 120°. Glonass-V vehicles are based on Glonass-K platform and will broadcast new CDMA signals only. Previously Molniya orbit , geosynchronous orbit , or inclined orbit were also under consideration for

4233-496: The introduction of a dedicated Latin alphabet for writing the Russian language. Such an alphabet would not necessarily bind closely to the traditional Cyrillic orthography. The transition from Cyrillic to Latin has been proposed several times throughout history (especially during the Soviet era), but was never conducted on a large scale, except for informal romanizations in the computer era. The most serious possibility of adoption of

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4316-534: The inverter that generates A ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {A}}} and the bottom pass-gate with just two transistors arranged like an inverter but with the source of the pMOS connected to B {\displaystyle B} instead of Vdd and the source of the nMOS connected to B ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {B}}} instead of GND. The two leftmost transistors mentioned above, perform an optimized conditional inversion of A when B

4399-519: The last term to get ( A + B ) ⋅ ( A ⋅ B ) ¯ {\displaystyle (A+B)\cdot {\overline {(A\cdot B)}}} which can be implemented using only four gates as shown on the right. intuitively, XOR is equivalent to OR except for when both A and B are high. So the AND of the OR with then NAND that gives a low only when both A and B are high

4482-519: The military "Cosmos-NNNN" designation. The true first generation of GLONASS (also called Uragan) satellites were all three-axis stabilized vehicles, generally weighing 1,250 kg (2,760 lb) and were equipped with a modest propulsion system to permit relocation within the constellation. Over time they were upgraded to Block IIa, IIb, and IIv vehicles, with each block containing evolutionary improvements. Six Block IIa satellites were launched in 1985–1986 with improved time and frequency standards over

4565-544: The most prolific of the first generation. Used exclusively from 1988 to 2000, and continued to be included in launches through 2005, a total of 56 satellites were launched. The design life was three years, however numerous spacecraft exceeded this, with one late model lasting 68 months, nearly double. Block II satellites were typically launched three at a time from the Baikonur Cosmodrome using Proton-K Blok-DM2 or Proton-K Briz-M boosters. The only exception

4648-407: The navigation data at 50 bit/s without a Manchester meander code . The high-precision signal is broadcast in phase quadrature with the standard-precision signal, effectively sharing the same carrier wave, but with a ten-times-higher bandwidth than the open signal. The message format of the high-precision signal remains unpublished, although attempts at reverse-engineering indicate that the superframe

4731-484: The new system and the old one, citizens who wanted to retain the old version of a name's transliteration, especially one that had been in the old pre-2010 passport, could apply to the local migration office before they acquired a new passport. The standard was abandoned in 2013. In 2013, Order No. 320 of the Federal Migration Service of Russia came into force. It states that all personal names in

4814-402: The one at the bottom is active and lets the inverted value of A through and since A is high the output will again be low. Similarly if B stays high but A is low the output would be A ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {A}}} which is high as expected and if B is low but A is high the value of A passes through and the output is high completing the truth table for

4897-422: The only combination for which the OR and XOR gate outputs differ, an OR gate may be replaced by an XOR gate (or vice versa) without altering the resulting logic. This is convenient if the circuit is being implemented using simple integrated circuit chips which contain only one gate type per chip. Pseudo-random number (PRN) generators , specifically linear-feedback shift registers (LFSR), are defined in terms of

4980-492: The open signals; this places peak signal strength away from the center frequency of narrow-band open signals. Binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) is used by standard GPS and GLONASS signals. Binary offset carrier (BOC) is the modulation used by Galileo , modernized GPS , and BeiDou-2 . The navigational message of CDMA signals is transmitted as a sequence of text strings. The message has variable size - each pseudo-frame usually includes six strings and contains ephemerides for

5063-454: The orbital grouping has again increased to 24 space vehicles. GLONASS-K is a substantial improvement of the previous generation: it is the first unpressurised GLONASS satellite with a much reduced mass of 750 kg (1,650 lb) versus the 1,450 kg (3,200 lb) of GLONASS-M. It has an operational lifetime of 10 years, compared to the 7-year lifetime of the second generation GLONASS-M. It will transmit more navigation signals to improve

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5146-1065: The other input, or to simply pass it along with no change. Hence it functions as a inverter (a NOT gate) which may be activated or deactivated by a switch. XOR can also be viewed as addition modulo 2. As a result, XOR gates are used to implement binary addition in computers. A half adder consists of an XOR gate and an AND gate . The gate is also used in subtractors and comparators . The algebraic expressions A ⋅ B ¯ + A ¯ ⋅ B {\displaystyle A\cdot {\overline {B}}+{\overline {A}}\cdot B} or ( A + B ) ⋅ ( A ¯ + B ¯ ) {\displaystyle (A+B)\cdot ({\overline {A}}+{\overline {B}})} or ( A + B ) ⋅ ( A ⋅ B ) ¯ {\displaystyle (A+B)\cdot {\overline {(A\cdot B)}}} or A ⊕ B {\displaystyle A\oplus B} all represent

5229-509: The passports must be transliterated by using the ICAO system , which is published in Doc 9303 " Machine Readable Travel Documents, Part 3 ". The system differs from the GOST R 52535.1-2006 system in two things: ц is transliterated into ts (as in pre-2010 systems), ъ is transliterated into ie (a novelty). In a second sense, the romanization or Latinization of Russian may also indicate

5312-471: The poles). Development of GLONASS began in the Soviet Union in 1976. Beginning on 12 October 1982, numerous rocket launches added satellites to the system until the completion of the constellation in 1995. In 2001, after a decline in capacity during the late 1990s, the restoration of the system was made a government priority, and funding increased substantially. GLONASS is the most expensive program of

5395-402: The prototypes, and increased frequency stability. These spacecraft also demonstrated a 16-month average operational lifetime. Block IIb spacecraft, with a two-year design lifetimes, appeared in 1987, of which a total of 12 were launched, but half were lost in launch vehicle accidents. The six spacecraft that made it to orbit worked well, operating for an average of nearly 22 months. Block IIv was

5478-733: The ranging code transmits at 10.23 million chips per second, modulated onto the carrier frequency using QPSK with in-phase data and quadrature pilot. The data is error-coded with 5-bit Barker code and the pilot with 10-bit Neuman-Hoffman code. Open L1OC and restricted L1SC signals are centered at 1600.995 MHz, and open L2OC and restricted L2SC signals are centered at 1248.06 MHz, overlapping with GLONASS FDMA signals. Open signals L1OC and L2OC use time-division multiplexing to transmit pilot and data signals, with BPSK(1) modulation for data and BOC(1,1) modulation for pilot; wide-band restricted signals L1SC and L2SC use BOC (5, 2.5) modulation for both data and pilot, transmitted in quadrature phase to

5561-598: The regional segment. The main contractor of the GLONASS program is Joint Stock Company Information Satellite Systems Reshetnev (ISS Reshetnev, formerly called NPO-PM). The company, located in Zheleznogorsk , is the designer of all GLONASS satellites, in cooperation with the Institute for Space Device Engineering ( ru:РНИИ КП ) and the Russian Institute of Radio Navigation and Time. Serial production of

5644-507: The same FDMA as the L1 band signals, but transmit straddling 1246 MHz with the center frequency 1246 MHz + n × 0.4375 MHz, where n spans the same range as for L1. In the original GLONASS design, only obfuscated high-precision signal was broadcast in the L2 band, but starting with GLONASS-M, an additional civil reference signal L2OF is broadcast with an identical standard-precision code to

5727-421: The same code as their standard-precision signal; however each transmits on a different frequency using a 15-channel frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) technique spanning either side from 1602.0 MHz , known as the L1 band. The center frequency is 1602 MHz + n × 0.5625 MHz, where n is a satellite's frequency channel number ( n =−6,...,0,...,6, previously n =0,...,13). Signals are transmitted in

5810-453: The satellites is accomplished by the company Production Corporation Polyot in Omsk . Over the three decades of development, the satellite designs have gone through numerous improvements, and can be divided into three generations: the original GLONASS (since 1982), GLONASS-M (since 2003) and GLONASS-K (since 2011). Each GLONASS satellite has a GRAU designation 11F654, and each of them also has

5893-502: The system pertaining to the Russian language was adopted by BGN in 1944 and by PCGN in 1947. In Soviet international passports , transliteration was based on French rules but without diacritics and so all names were transliterated in a French-style system . In 1997, with the introduction of new Russian passports , a diacritic-free English-oriented system was established by the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs , but

5976-447: The system was also abandoned in 2010. In 2006, GOST R 52535.1-2006 was adopted, which defines technical requirements and standards for Russian international passports and introduces its own system of transliteration. In 2010, the Federal Migration Service of Russia approved Order No. 26, stating that all personal names in the passports issued after 2010 must be transliterated using GOST R 52535.1-2006. Because of some differences between

6059-628: The system's accuracy — including new CDMA signals in the L3 and L5 bands, which will use modulation similar to modernized GPS, Galileo, and BeiDou. Glonass-K consist of 26 satellites having satellite index 65-98 and widely used in Russian Military space. The new satellite's advanced equipment—made solely from Russian components — will allow the doubling of GLONASS' accuracy. As with the previous satellites, these are 3-axis stabilized, nadir pointing with dual solar arrays. The first GLONASS-K satellite

6142-399: The territory of Russia. To get a position fix the receiver must be in the range of at least four satellites. GLONASS satellites transmit two types of signals: open standard-precision signal L1OF/L2OF, and obfuscated high-precision signal L1SF/L2SF. The signals use similar DSSS encoding and binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) modulation as in GPS signals. All GLONASS satellites transmit

6225-401: The top left or the 2 pMOS transistors of the top right respectively, connecting Vdd to the output for a logic high. The remaining input pairs A ⋅ B {\displaystyle A\cdot B} and A ¯ ⋅ B ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {A}}\cdot {\overline {B}}} activate each one of the two nMOS paths in

6308-458: The trailing sum bit in this output is achieved with XOR, the preceding carry bit is calculated with an AND gate . This is the main principle in Half Adders . A slightly larger Full Adder circuit may be chained together in order to add longer binary numbers. In certain situations, the inputs to an OR gate (for example, in a full-adder) or to an XOR gate can never be both 1's. As this is

6391-527: The transmission gate and the pass transistor logic circuit. As with the previous implementation, the direct connection of the inputs to the outputs through the pass gate transistors or through the two leftmost transistors, should be taken into account, especially when cascading them. If a specific type of gate is not available, a circuit that implements the same function can be constructed from other available gates. A circuit implementing an XOR function can be trivially constructed from an XNOR gate followed by

6474-399: The transmitting satellite, and are repeated every frame; the data include ephemeris , clock and frequency offsets, and satellite status. Strings 5-15 provide non-immediate data (i.e. almanac ) for each satellite in the constellation, with frames I-IV each describing five satellites, and frame V describing remaining four satellites. The ephemerides are updated every 30 minutes using data from

6557-671: The use of diacritics) that faithfully represents the original and allows for reverse transliteration for Cyrillic text in any contemporary language. The UNGEGN , a Working Group of the United Nations , in 1987 recommended a romanization system for geographical names, which was based on the 1983 version of GOST 16876-71 . It may be found in some international cartographic products. American Library Association and Library of Congress (ALA-LC) romanization tables for Slavic alphabets are used in North American libraries and in

6640-458: Was substituted in 2013 by GOST R ISO/ IEC 7501-1-2013, which does not contain romanization, but directly refers to the ICAO romanization ( see below ). Names on street and road signs in the Soviet Union were romanized according to GOST 10807-78 (tables 17, 18), which was amended by newer Russian GOST R 52290-2004 (tables Г.4, Г.5), the romanizations in both the standards are practically identical. ISO/R 9, established in 1954 and updated in 1968,

6723-708: Was successfully launched on 26 February 2011. Due to their weight reduction, GLONASS-K spacecraft can be launched in pairs from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome launch site using the substantially lower cost Soyuz-2.1b boosters or in six-at-once from the Baikonur Cosmodrome using Proton-K Briz-M launch vehicles. The ground control segment of GLONASS is almost entirely located within former Soviet Union territory, except for several in Brazil and one in Nicaragua. Romanization of Russian The romanization of

6806-570: Was the adoption of the scientific transliteration by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It covers Russian and seven other Slavic languages. ISO 9:1995 is the current transliteration standard from ISO. It is based on its predecessor ISO/R 9:1968, which it deprecates; for Russian, the two are the same except in the treatment of five modern letters. ISO 9:1995 is the first language-independent, univocal system of one character for one character equivalents (by

6889-473: Was when, on two launches, an Etalon geodetic reflector satellite was substituted for a GLONASS satellite. The second generation of satellites, known as Glonass-M , were developed beginning in 1990 and first launched in 2003. These satellites possess a substantially increased lifetime of seven years and weigh slightly more at 1,480 kg (3,260 lb). They are approximately 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in) in diameter and 3.7 m (12 ft) high, with

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