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124-836: The systems have been approved by the BGN and the PCGN for application to geographic names, but they have also been used for personal names and text in the US and the UK. Details of all the jointly approved systems are outlined in the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency publication Romanization Systems and Policies (2012), which superseded the BGN 1994 publication Romanization Systems and Roman-Script Spelling Conventions . Romanization systems and spelling conventions for different languages have been gradually introduced over

248-530: A Swiss-Mexican (and later American by treaty ) immigrant and founder of the fort, received Frémont gladly and refitted his expedition party. While at Sutter's Fort, Frémont talked to American settlers, who were growing numerous, and found that Mexican authority over California was very weak. Leaving Sutter's Fort, Frémont and his men headed south along the eastern edge of the San Joaquin Valley and crossed Tehachapi Pass and Antelope Valley, struck

372-560: A blazing trail through Nevada straight to California, having a rendezvous with his men from the split party at Walker Lake in west-central Nevada. Taking 16 men, Frémont split his party again, arriving at Sutter's Fort in the Sacramento Valley on December 9. Frémont promptly sought to stir up patriotic enthusiasm among the American settlers there. He promised that if war with Mexico started, his military force would protect

496-583: A civil government." Kearny, who had earlier trimmed his forces from 300 to 100 dragoons, based upon Kit Carson 's dispatches he was carrying to Washington, stating that Stockton and Fremont had successfully taken control of California. Unknown to Carson at this time, the Californians had revolted, which would lead Kearny to a disastrous attack on waiting Mexican lancers at the Battle of San Pasqual , losing 19 men killed and being himself seriously lanced. He

620-413: A declaration of war with Mexico was imminent. On May 9, 1846, Native Americans ambushed his expedition party in retaliation for numerous killings of Native Americans that Frémont's men had engaged in along the trail, killing three members of Frémont's party in their sleep, including a Native American who was traveling with Frémont. Frémont retaliated by attacking a Klamath fishing village named Dokdokwas

744-487: A detachment of Osos, totaling 125 men, rode south to San Rafael , searching for Captain Joaquin de la Torre and his lancers, rumored to have been ordered by Castro to attack Sonoma, but was unable to find them. On June 28, General Castro, on the other side of San Francisco Bay, sent a row boat across to Point San Pablo on the shores of San Rafael with a message for de la Torre. Kit Carson, Granville Swift and Sam Neal rode to

868-492: A dramatic life of remarkable successes and dismal failures. John Charles Frémont was born on January 21, 1813, the son of Charles Frémon, a French-Canadian immigrant school-teacher, and Anne Beverley Whiting, the youngest daughter of socially prominent Virginia planter Col. Thomas Whiting. At age 17, Anne married Major John Pryor , a wealthy Richmond resident in his early 60s. In 1810, Pryor hired Frémon to tutor his young wife Anne. Pryor confronted Anne when he found out she

992-459: A duel. After an arrangement to postpone the duel, Kearny rode to Los Angeles and refused Frémont's request to join troops in Mexico. Ordered to march with Kearny's army back east, Frémont was arrested on August 22, 1847, when they arrived at Fort Leavenworth . He was charged with mutiny, disobedience of orders, assumption of powers, and several other military offenses. Ordered by Kearny to report to

1116-494: A few of the men left for California via an established southern trade route. Edward and Richard Kern joined J.H. Simpson's military reconnaissance expedition to the Navajos in 1849, and gave the American public some of its earliest authentic graphic images of the people and landscape of Arizona, New Mexico, and southern Colorado; with views of Canyon de Chelly , Chaco Canyon , and El Morro (Inscription Rock) . In 1850, Frémont

1240-468: A former Governor of Vermont , was appointed chairman of the federal commission created to settle Mexican land titles in California; he traveled to San Francisco to begin his work, and his son-in-law Trenor W. Park traveled with him. Frémont hired Park as a managing partner to oversee the day-to-day activities of the estate, and Mexican laborers to wash out the gold on his property in exchange for

1364-728: A liaison team to NGA; that team's operations officer also acts as NGA's Commonwealth liaison. NGA is a member of the National System for Geospatial Intelligence (NSG) and the larger Allied System for Geospatial Intelligence (ASG), which includes close allies Canada , the United Kingdom , Australia , and New Zealand . The U.S. and those four nations also form the Five Eyes intelligence alliance. NGA employs professionals in aeronautical analysis, cartography , geospatial analysis , imagery analysis , marine analysis ,

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1488-693: A longstanding legend of a " Buenaventura River " that flowed out the Great Basin across the Sierra Nevada. After exploring Utah Lake, Frémont traveled by way of the Pueblo until he reached Bent's Fort on the Arkansas River. In August 1844, Frémont and his party finally arrived back in St. Louis, ending the journey that lasted over one year. His wife Jessie and Frémont returned to Washington, where

1612-552: A military expedition of 300 men to capture Santa Barbara . In September, Mexican Californians unwilling to be ruled by the United States, under José María Flores , fought back and retook Los Angeles , driving out Americans. In December 1846, U.S. Brigadier General Stephen W. Kearny arrived in California under "orders from President Polk " after taking New Mexico , then to march onto "California where, "Should you conquer and take possession of California, you will establish

1736-748: A northwest passage up the Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean . President Thomas Jefferson had envisioned a Western empire, and also sent the Pike Expedition under Zebulon Pike to explore the southwest. American and European fur trappers , including Peter Skene Ogden and Jedediah Smith , explored much of the American West in the 1820s. Frémont, who would later be known as The Pathfinder , carried on this tradition of Western overland exploration, building on and adding to

1860-551: A percentage of the profits. Frémont acquired large landholdings in San Francisco, and while developing his Las Mariposas gold ranch, he lived a wealthy lifestyle in Monterey. Legal issues, however, soon mounted over property and mineral rights. Disputes erupted as squatters moved on Frémont's Las Mariposas land mining for gold. There was question whether the three mining districts on the land were public domain, while

1984-456: A plan to advance their vision of Manifest Destiny. With a keen interest in the potential of railroads, Sen. Benton had sought support from the Senate for a railroad connecting St. Louis to San Francisco along the 38th parallel, the latitude which both cities approximately share. After Benton failed to secure federal funding, Frémont secured private funding. In October 1848 he embarked with 35 men up

2108-468: A proud, reserved, restless loner who although self-disciplined, was ready to prove himself and unwilling to play by the rules. The young Frémont was considered to be "precious, handsome, and daring," having the ability of obtaining protectors. A lawyer, John W. Mitchell, provided for Frémont's early education whereupon Frémont in May 1829 entered Charleston College , teaching at intervals in the countryside, but

2232-508: A rancher, borrowing money from his father-in-law Benton and Senator John Dix to construct a house, corral, and barn. Frémont ordered a sawmill and had it shipped by the Aspinwall steamer Fredonia to Las Mariposas . Frémont was informed by Sonora Mexicans that gold had been discovered on his property. Frémont was instantly a wealthy man, a five-mile quartz vein produced hundreds of pounds of placer gold each month. In 1851 Hiland Hall ,

2356-543: A rancheria (see Sutter Buttes massacre ). In early June, believing war with Mexico to be a virtual certainty, Frémont joined the Sacramento Valley insurgents in a "silent partnership", rather than head back to St. Louis, as originally planned. On June 10, instigated by Frémont, four men from Frémont's party and 10 rebel volunteers seized 170 horses intended for Castro's Army and returned them to Frémont's camp. According to historian H. H. Bancroft, Frémont incited

2480-717: A replacement or separated portion of the Analysis and Production Directorate. The deputy associate director of operations directly oversees NGA Operations Center (itself led by a director and deputy director) the Office of NGA Defense, the Office of Expeditionary Operations, and NGA leadership at the three National Reconnaissance Office Aerospace Data facilities. NGA contains NGA Support Teams (NST), which work with directorates, are detailed internationally, deploy with warfighters, or liaise with service branches. Multiple NGA Command NSTs also exist. NGA's western operations, such as

2604-589: A roughly sewn flag and formed the Bear Flag Republic , electing William Ide as their leader. The four prisoners were then taken to Frémont's camp 80 miles (130 km) away. On June 15, the prisoners and escorts arrived at Frémont's new camp on the American River, but Frémont publicly denied responsibility for the raid. The escorts then removed the prisoners south to Sutter's Fort, where they were imprisoned by Sutter under Frémont's orders. It

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2728-540: A third expedition for Frémont. The plan for Frémont under the War Department was to survey the central Rockies, the Great Salt Lake region, and part of the Sierra Nevada. Back in St. Louis, Frémont organized an armed surveying expedition of 60 men, with Carson as a guide, and two distinguished scouts, Joseph Walker and Alexis Godey . Working with Benton and Secretary of Navy George Bancroft , Frémont

2852-655: A united front and a fresh face for the party, the Republicans nominated Frémont for president over other candidates, and conservative William L. Dayton of New Jersey , for vice president, at their June 1856 convention held in Philadelphia. The Republican campaign used the slogan "Free Soil, Free Men, and Frémont" to crusade for free farms (homesteads) and against the Slave Power . Frémont, popularly known as The Pathfinder , however, had voter appeal and remained

2976-764: A wealthy man during the California Gold Rush . He became one of the first two U.S. senators elected from the new state of California in 1850. At the beginning of the American Civil War in 1861, he was given command of the Department of the West by President Abraham Lincoln . Frémont had successes during his brief tenure there, though he ran his department autocratically and made hasty decisions without consulting President Lincoln or Army headquarters. He issued an unauthorized emancipation edict and

3100-472: A winter passage across the mountainous west, Frémont was optimistic that a railroad along the 38th Parallel was viable and that winter travel along the line would be possible through the Rocky Mountains. In 1856, Frémont (age 43) became the first presidential candidate of the newly-formed Republican Party . The Republicans, whose party had been established in 1854, were united in their opposition to

3224-401: Is currently reconsidering legislation to surround Next NGA St. Louis with a protection zone that would bar certain businesses, such as gas stations, hazardous material companies, and foreign government-supported enterprises, from building around the site for security purposes. NGA is headed by a director, currently Navy Vice Adm. Frank D. Whitworth ; the director is followed in precedence by

3348-407: Is split into various directorates led by directors (D/XX) and associate deputy directors (ADD/XX) with "XX" standing in for each directorate's two-letter designation. Known directorates and leadership figures include but are not limited to the: An Analysis and Production Directorate (P or "Production" Directorate) existed in 2011, although NGA presently has a Directorate for Analysis which may be

3472-661: Is the third-largest government building in the Washington metropolitan area after The Pentagon and the Ronald Reagan Building . In addition to using GEOINT for U.S. military and intelligence efforts, NGA provides assistance during natural and artificial disasters, aids in security planning for major events such as the Olympic Games , disseminates maritime safety information, and gathers data on climate change . The eighth and current director of

3596-475: The Bear Flag Republic , now totaling 428 men. Stockton incorporated the California Battalion into the U.S. military giving them soldiers pay. Frémont and about 160 of his troops went by ship to San Diego, and with Stockton's marines took Los Angeles on August 13. Frémont afterwards went north to recruit more Californians into his battalion. In late 1846, under orders from Stockton, Frémont led

3720-610: The California genocide . Frémont was court-martialed and convicted of mutiny and insubordination after a conflict over who was the rightful military governor of California . His sentence was commuted, and he was reinstated by President James K. Polk , but Frémont resigned from the Army. Afterwards, he settled in California at Monterey while buying cheap land in the Sierra foothills. Gold was found on his Mariposa ranch, and Frémont became

3844-616: The Dalecarlia Reservoir . AMS was designated as an Engineer field activity, effective July 1, 1942, by General Order 22, OCE, June 19, 1942. The Army Map Service also combined many of the Army's remaining geographic intelligence organizations and the Engineer Technical Intelligence Division. AMS was redesignated the U.S. Army Topographic Command (USATC) on September 1, 1968, and continued as an independent organization until 1972, when it

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3968-719: The Kansas River on June 15, 1842, following the Platte River to the South Pass, and starting from Green River he explored the Wind River Range . Frémont climbed a 13,745-foot mountain (4,189 m), Frémont's Peak , planted an American flag, claiming the Rocky Mountains and the West for the United States. On Frémont's return trip he and his party carelessly rafted the swollen Platte River losing much of his equipment. His five-month exploration, however,

4092-511: The Missouri , Kansas and Arkansas rivers to explore the terrain. The artists and brothers Edward Kern and Richard Kern, and their brother Benjamin Kern, were part of the expedition, but Frémont was unable to obtain the valued service of Kit Carson as guide as in his previous expeditions. On his party's reaching Bent's Fort , he was strongly advised by most of the trappers against continuing

4216-755: The National Imagery and Mapping Agency ( NIMA ) from 1996 to 2003, it is a member of the United States Intelligence Community . NGA headquarters, also known as NGA Campus East or NCE, is located at Fort Belvoir North Area in Springfield, Virginia . The agency also operates major facilities in the St. Louis, Missouri area (referred to as NGA Campus West or NCW), as well as support and liaison offices worldwide. The NGA headquarters, at 2,300,000 square feet (210,000 m ),

4340-674: The Oregon Trail , the Oregon Country , the Great Basin , and Sierra Nevada Mountains to California. Through his power and influence, Senator Benton obtained for Frémont the leadership, funding, and patronage of three expeditions. The opening of the American West began in 1804, when the Lewis and Clark Expedition (led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark ) started exploration of the new Louisiana Purchase territory to find

4464-901: The Panic of 1873 . Frémont served as Governor of the Arizona Territory from 1878 to 1881. After his resignation as governor, he retired from politics and died destitute in New York City in 1890. Historians portray Frémont as controversial, impetuous, and contradictory. Some scholars regard him as a military hero of significant accomplishment, while others view him as a failure who repeatedly defeated his own best interests. The keys to Frémont's character and personality, several historians argue, lie in his having been born "illegitimate" (to unwed parents) and in his drive for success, need for self-justification, and passive-aggressive behavior. His biographer Allan Nevins wrote that Frémont lived

4588-571: The Savannah . When Sloat learned that Frémont had acted on his own authority (thus raising doubt about a war declaration), he retired to his cabin. On July 23, Stockton mustered Frémont's party and the former Bear Flaggers into military service as the "Naval Battalion of Mounted Volunteer Riflemen" with Frémont appointed major in command of the California Battalion , which he had helped form with his survey crew and volunteers from

4712-506: The Spanish Trail at present Victorville, California and then northeast through present-day Las Vegas , through Utah and back to South Pass. Exploring the Great Basin , Frémont verified that all the land (centered on modern-day Nevada between Reno and Salt Lake City) was an endorheic , without any outlet rivers flowing towards the sea. The finding contributed greatly to a better understanding of North American geography, and disproved

4836-680: The USS Portsmouth , commanded by John B. Montgomery , was anchored at Sausalito . Frémont sent Lt. Gillespie to Montgomery and requested supplies including 8,000 percussion caps, 300 pounds (140 kg) of rifle lead, one keg of powder, and food provisions, intending to head back to St. Louis. On May 31, Frémont made his camp on the Bear and Feather rivers 60 miles (97 km) north of Sutter's Fort , where American immigrants ready for revolt against Mexican authority joined his party. From there he made another attack on local Native Americans in

4960-860: The War Department Map Collection, effective April 1, 1939. With the advent of the Second World War aviation, field surveys began giving way to photogrammetry , photo interpretation , and geodesy . During wartime, it became increasingly possible to compile maps with minimal field work. Out of this emerged AMS, which absorbed the existing ERP in May 1942. It was located at the Dalecarlia Site (including buildings now named for John C. Frémont and Charles H. Ruth ) on MacArthur Blvd., just outside Washington, D.C., in Montgomery County, Maryland, and adjacent to

5084-482: The adjutant general in Washington to stand for court-martial, Frémont was found innocent of mutiny , but was convicted on January 31, 1848, of disobedience toward a superior officer and military misconduct. While approving the court's decision, President James K. Polk quickly commuted Frémont's sentence of dishonorable discharge and reinstated him into the Army, due to his war services. Polk felt that Frémont

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5208-498: The 2005 BRAC process. The cost of the new center, as of March 2009, was expected to be $ 2.4 billion. The center's campus is approximately 2,400,000 square feet (220,000 m ) and was completed in September 2011. NGA is currently constructing a new facility in St. Louis, Missouri , Next NGA St. Louis, at a cost of $ 1.7 billion. The facility is expected to hold 3,000 employees and open by 2025. St. Louis' city legislature

5332-419: The American public. Historians are divided in their opinions on this period of Frémont's career. Mary Lee Spence and Donald Jackson, editors of a large collection of letters by Fremont and others dating from this period, concluded that "...in the California episode, Frémont was as often right as wrong. And even a cursory investigation of the court-martial record produces one undeniable conclusion: neither side in

5456-414: The American settlers indirectly and "guardedly" to revolt. On June 14, 34 armed rebels independently captured Sonoma, the largest settlement in northern California, and forced the surrender of Colonel Mariano Vallejo , taking him and three others prisoner. The following day, the rebelling Americans, who were called Osos (Spanish for "bears") by the residents of Sonoma, amidst a brandy-filled party, hoisted

5580-597: The Arkansas, he might have succeeded. On November 25 at what is now Florence, Colorado , he turned sharply south. By the time his party crossed the Sangre de Cristo Range via Mosca Pass , they had already experienced days of bitter cold, blinding snow and difficult travel. Some of the party, including the guide Wootton, had already turned back, concluding that further travel would be impossible. Benjamin Kern and "Old Bill" Williams were killed by Ute warriors while retracing

5704-467: The California Battalion refused to join the U.S. Army. Frémont gave orders for the California Battalion not to surrender arms, rode to Monterey to talk to Kearny, and told Kearny he would obey orders. Kearny sent Col. Richard B. Mason , who was to succeed Kearny as military governor of California, to Los Angeles, both to inspect troops and to give Frémont further orders. Frémont and Mason, however, were at odds with each other and Frémont challenged Mason to

5828-846: The DMA, the Central Imagery Office (CIO), and the Defense Dissemination Program Office (DDPO) in their entirety, and the mission and functions of the NPIC. Also merged into NIMA were the imagery exploitation, dissemination, and processing elements of the Defense Intelligence Agency , National Reconnaissance Office , and the Defense Airborne Reconnaissance Office . NIMA's creation was clouded by

5952-734: The Great Basin between the Rockies and the Sierras and advance Benton's dream of acquiring the West for the United States. Frémont and his party turned south along the eastern flank of the Cascades to Pyramid Lake , which he named. Staying on the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada mountain range, they went on south as far as present-day Minden, Nevada , reaching the Carson River on January 18, 1844. From there Frémont turned west into

6076-555: The Merced Mining Company was actively mining on Frémont's property. Since Alvarado had purchased Las Mariposas on a "floating grant", the property borders were not precisely defined by the Mexican government. Alvarado's ownership of the land was legally contested since Alvarado never actually settled on the property as required by Mexican law. All of these matters lingered and were argued in court for many years until

6200-565: The Navy Department had sent orders for Sloat and his successors to establish military rule over California. These orders, however, postdated Kearny's orders to establish military control over California. Kearny did not have the troop strength to enforce those orders, and was forced to rely on Stockton's Marines and Frémont's California Battalion until army reinforcements arrived. On February 13, specific orders were sent from Washington through Commanding General Winfield Scott giving Kearny

6324-475: The Pierce Administration and the spread of slavery into the West. Initially, Frémont was asked to be the Democratic candidate by former Virginia Governor John B. Floyd and the powerful Preston family. Frémont announced that he was for Free Soil Kansas and was against the enforcement of the 1850 Fugitive Slave Law . However, Republican leaders Nathaniel P. Banks , Henry Wilson , and John Bigelow were able to get Frémont to join their political party. Seeking

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6448-475: The Roman alphabet but use letters not present in the English alphabet. These conventions exist for the following four languages: National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency The National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency ( NGA ) is a combat support agency within the United States Department of Defense whose primary mission is collecting, analyzing, and distributing geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) in support of national security . Initially known as

6572-572: The Senate Committee on Military Affairs. Benton invited Frémont to his Washington home where he met Benton's 16-year-old daughter Jessie Benton . A romance blossomed between the two; however, Benton was initially against it because Frémont was not considered upper society. In 1841, Frémont (age 28) and Jessie eloped and were married by a Catholic priest. Initially Benton was furious at their marriage, but in time, because he loved his daughter, he accepted their marriage and became Frémont's patron. Benton, Democratic Party leader for more than 30 years in

6696-414: The Senate in 1846, served as a guide for thousands of American emigrants, depicting the entire length of the Oregon Trail . When Nicollet was too ill to continue any further explorations, Frémont was chosen to be his successor. His first important expedition was planned by Benton, Senator Lewis Linn , and other Westerners interested in acquiring the Oregon Territory. The scientific expedition started in

6820-496: The Senate, championed the expansionist movement, a political cause that became known as Manifest Destiny . The expansionists believed that the North American continent, from one end to the other, north and south, east and west, should belong to the citizens of the U.S. They believed it was the nation's destiny to control the continent. This movement became a crusade for politicians such as Benton and his new son-in-law. Benton pushed appropriations through Congress for national surveys of

6944-450: The Senate. Neither Heydenfeldt, nor Frémont's other second-time competitor King, were able to obtain a majority of votes, allowing Gwin to be California's lone senator. Frémont's term lasted 175 days from September 10, 1850, to March 3, 1851, and he only served 21 working days in Washington in the Senate. Pro-slavery John B. Weller , supported by the Chivs, was elected one year later to the empty Senate seat previously held by Frémont. In

7068-493: The Supreme Court finally ruled in Frémont's favor in 1856. Although Frémont's legal victory allowed him to keep his wealth, it created lingering animosity among his neighbors. During the late 1850s, Frederick H. Billings , a partner in the Halleck, Peachy & Billings law firm that employed Park, partnered with Frémont in several successful business ventures. Billings later embarked on several trips to Europe in an unsuccessful effort to sell Frémont's Mariposa mine shares. At

7192-528: The U.S. Air Force's Aeronautical Chart and Information Center (ACIC) and was located in St. Louis, Missouri. NIMA was established on October 1, 1996, by the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1997. The creation of NIMA followed more than a year of study, debate, and planning by the defense, intelligence, and policy-making communities (as well as the Congress) and continuing consultations with customer organizations. The creation of NIMA centralized responsibility for imagery and mapping. NIMA combined

7316-524: The U.S. Navy had occupied Monterey and Yerba Buena. Two days later, Frémont received a letter from Sloat, describing the capture of Monterey and ordering Frémont to bring at least 100 armed men to Monterey. Frémont would bring 160 men. On July 15, Commodore Robert F. Stockton arrived in Monterey to replace the 65-year-old Sloat in command of the Pacific Squadron. Sloat named Stockton commander-in-chief of all land forces in California. On July 19, Frémont's party entered Monterey, where he met with Sloat on board

7440-455: The U.S. Navy's Pacific Squadron , sailed into Monterey harbor with orders to seize San Francisco Bay and blockade the other California ports upon learning "without a doubt" that war had been declared. On July 5, Sloat received a message from Montgomery reporting the events in Sonoma and Frémont's involvement. Believing Frémont to be acting on orders from Washington, Sloat began to carry out his orders. Early on July 7, 225 sailors and marines on

7564-410: The United States Navy frigate USS Savannah and the two sloops USS Cyane and USS Levant landed and captured Monterey with no shots being fired and raised the flag of the United States. Commodore Sloat had his proclamation read and posted in English and Spanish: "... henceforth California would be a portion of the United States." On July 10, Frémont received a message from Montgomery that

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7688-556: The Virginia House of Delegates refused the divorce petition, it was impossible for the couple to marry. In Savannah, Anne took in boarders while Frémon taught French and dancing. Their domestic slave , Black Hannah, helped raise young John. On December 8, 1818, Frémont's father died in Norfolk, Virginia , leaving Anne a widow to take care of John and several young children alone on a limited inherited income. Anne and her family moved to Charleston, South Carolina . Frémont, knowing his origins and coming from relatively modest means, grew up

7812-498: The Walla Walla River at the Columbia River in Oregon. Frémont's endurance, energy, and resourcefulness over the long journey was remarkable. Traveling west along the Columbia, they came within sight of the Cascade Range peaks and saw Mount St. Helens and Mount Hood . Reaching the Dalles on November 5, Frémont left his party and traveled to the Hudson’s Bay Company Fort Vancouver for supplies. Rather than turning around and heading back to St. Louis, Frémont resolved to explore

7936-462: The agency is Vice Admiral Frank D. Whitworth III . U.S. mapping and charting efforts remained relatively unchanged until World War I , when aerial photography became a major contributor to battlefield intelligence. Using stereo viewers, photo-interpreters reviewed thousands of images. Many of these were of the same target at different angles and times, giving rise to what became modern imagery analysis and mapmaking. The Engineer Reproduction Plant

8060-500: The area of GEOINT . As a part of the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) process, all major Washington, D.C.–area NGA facilities, including those in Bethesda, Maryland; Reston, Virginia ; and Washington, D.C., would be consolidated at a new facility at the Fort Belvoir proving grounds. This new facility, later known as NCE , houses several thousand people and is situated on the former Engineer Proving Ground site near Fort Belvoir. NGA facilities in St. Louis were not affected by

8184-419: The authority to be military governor of California. Kearny, however, did not directly inform Frémont of these orders from Scott. Kearny ordered that Frémont's California Battalion be enlisted into the U.S. Army and Frémont bring his battalion archives to Kearny's headquarters in Monterey. Frémont delayed obeying these orders, hoping Washington would send instructions for Frémont to be military governor. Also,

8308-428: The beach to intercept the three unarmed men who came ashore, including Don José Berreyesa and the 20-year-old de Haro twin brothers Ramon and Francisco, sons of Don Francisco de Haro . The three were murdered in cold blood. Exactly who committed the murders is a point of controversy, but later accounts point to Carson acting at the behest, if not the order, of Frémont. On July 1, Commodore John D. Sloat , commanding

8432-440: The campaign calling her Our Jessie . Jessie and the Republican propaganda machine ran a strong campaign, but she was unable to get her powerful father, Senator Benton, to support Frémont. While praising Frémont, Benton announced his support for Buchanan. Frémont, along with the other presidential candidates, did not actively participate in the campaign, and he mostly stayed home at 56 West Street, in New York City. This practice

8556-421: The casualties vary. Expedition members Thomas E. Breckenridge and Thomas S. Martin claim the number of Native Americans killed as "120–150" and "over 175" respectively, but the eyewitness Tustin claimed that at least 600–700 Native Americans were killed on land, with another 200 or more dying in the water. There are no records of any expedition members being killed or wounded in the massacre. Kit Carson , one of

8680-405: The cold and snowy Sierra Nevada, becoming one of the first Americans to see Lake Tahoe . Carson successfully led Frémont's party through a new pass over the high Sierras, which Frémont named Carson Pass in his honor. Frémont and his party then descended the American River to Sutter's Fort (Spanish: Nueva Helvetia) at present-day Sacramento, California , in early March. Captain John Sutter ,

8804-529: The construction of Next NGA St. Louis campus in St. Louis, Missouri , are headed by the NGA St. Louis executive (who can concurrently serve in other leadership roles). There is also an NGA Equality Executive. Other organizations present in NGA, which may or may not be components of directorates, include: Additionally, military Service GEOINT Offices (SGOs) liaise with NGA, but belong to their respective military service branches and represent their geospatial intelligence needs. The Canadian Armed Forces deploys

8928-644: The controversy acquitted itself with distinction." Allan Nevins states that Kearny: Theodore Grivas wrote that "It does not seem quite clear how Frémont, an army officer, could have imagined that a naval officer [Stockton] could have protected him from a charge of insubordination toward his superior officer [Kearny]". Grivas goes on to say, however, that "This conflict between Kearny, Stockton, and Frémont perhaps could have been averted had methods of communication been what they are today." Intent on restoring his honor and explorer reputation after his court martial, in 1848, Frémont and his father-in-law Sen. Benton developed

9052-490: The course of several years. The currently used set is available on the UK government site. A complete list of BGN/PCGN systems and agreements covering the following languages is given below (the date of adoption is given in the parentheses). The status "agreement" refers to systems which were created by authorities of the corresponding nations and then adopted by BGN and PCGN. In addition to the systems above, BGN/PCGN adopted Roman Script Spelling Conventions for languages that use

9176-919: The creation of the National Photographic Interpretation Center (NPIC), a joint project of the CIA and DIA . NPIC was a component of the CIA's Directorate of Science and Technology (DDS&T) and its primary function was imagery analysis . NPIC became part of the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (now NGA) in 1996. NPIC first identified the Soviet Union 's basing of missiles in Cuba in 1962. By exploiting images from U-2 overflights and film from canisters ejected by orbiting Corona satellites , NPIC analysts developed

9300-515: The deputy director and chief of staff, currently Brett Markham. The holders of these three offices comprise NGA's executive leadership team. While NGA's director and deputy director oversee the agency as a whole, the Chief of Staff is tasked with overseeing NGA's executive support staff, administrative services, logistics, personnel security, human resources, employee training and development, corporate communications, and congressional engagement. NGA

9424-646: The expedition trail to look for gear and survivors. Although the passes through the Sangre de Cristo had proven too steep for a railroad, Frémont pressed on. From this point the party might still have succeeded had they gone up the Rio Grande to its source, or gone by a more northerly route, but the route they took brought them to the very top of Mesa Mountain. By December 12, on Boot Mountain, it took ninety minutes to progress three hundred yards. Mules began dying and by December 20, only 59 animals remained alive. It

9548-406: The fall of 1853, Frémont embarked on another expedition to identify a viable route for a transcontinental railroad along the 38th parallel. The party journeyed between Missouri and San Francisco, California, over a combination of known trails and unexplored terrain. A primary objective was to pass through the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada Mountains during winter to document the amount of snow and

9672-818: The feasibility of winter rail passage along the route. His photographer ( daguerreotypist ) was Solomon Nunes Carvalho . Frémont followed the Santa Fe Trail , passing Bent's Fort before heading west and entering the San Luis Valley of Colorado in December. The party then followed the North Branch of the Old Spanish Trail , crossing the Continental Divide at Cochetopa Pass and continuing west into central Utah. But following

9796-746: The following day in the Klamath Lake massacre , although the people living there might not have been involved in the first action. The village was at the junction of the Williamson River and Klamath Lake. On May 12, 1846, the Frémont group completely destroyed it, killing at least fourteen people. Frémont believed that the British were responsible for arming and encouraging the Native Americans to attack his party. Afterward, Carson

9920-586: The immediate goal to locate the source of the Arkansas River , on the east side of the Rocky Mountains. Frémont and his party struck west by way of Bent's Fort, The Great Salt Lake, and the "Hastings Cut-Off". When Frémont reached the Ogden River, which he renamed the Humboldt , he divided his party in two to double his geographic information. Upon reaching the Arkansas River, Frémont suddenly made

10044-704: The information necessary to inform U.S. policymakers and influence operations during the Cuban Missile Crisis . Their analysis garnered worldwide attention when the Kennedy Administration declassified and made public a portion of the images depicting the Soviet missiles on Cuban soil; Adlai Stevenson presented the images to the United Nations Security Council on October 25, 1962. The Defense Mapping Agency

10168-423: The journey. Already a foot of snow was on the ground at Bent's Fort, and the winter in the mountains promised to be especially snowy. Part of Frémont's purpose was to demonstrate that a 38th parallel railroad would be practical year-round. At Bent's Fort, he engaged "Uncle Dick" Wootton as guide, and at what is now Pueblo, Colorado , he hired the eccentric Old Bill Williams and moved on. Had Frémont continued up

10292-478: The land had previously been owned by former California governor Juan Bautista Alvarado and his wife Martina Caston de Alvarado. Frémont had hoped that Las Mariposas was near San Francisco or Monterey, but was disappointed to learn that it was further inland, near Yosemite , on the Miwok Indians' hunting and gathering grounds. After his court martial in 1848, Frémont moved to Las Mariposas and became

10416-590: The lands between the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. Frémont became a first rate topographer , trained in astronomy, and geology, describing fauna, flora, soil, and water resources. Gaining valuable western frontier experience Frémont met Henry Sibley , Joseph Renville , J.B. Faribault , Étienne Provost , and the Sioux nation. Frémont's exploration work with Nicollet brought him in contact with Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri, powerful chairman of

10540-480: The longer Senate term while Frémont won the shorter Senate term. In Washington, Frémont, whose California ranch had been purchased from a Mexican land grantee, supported an unsuccessful law that would have rubber-stamped Mexican land grants, and another law that prevented foreign workers from owning gold claims (Fremont's ranch was in gold country), derisively called "Frémont's Gold Bill". Frémont voted against harsh penalties for those who assisted runaway slaves and he

10664-632: The military services. DMAHC was formed in 1972 when the Navy's Hydrographic Office split its two components: The charting component was attached to DMAHC, and the survey component moved to the Naval Oceanographic Office, Bay St. Louis, Mississippi , on the grounds of what is now the Stennis Space Center . DMAHC was responsible for creating terrestrial maps of coastal areas worldwide and hydrographic charts for DoD. DMAHC

10788-455: The mounted attackers, later stated, "It was a perfect butchery." Fremont and his men eventually made their way to camp at Klamath Lake , killing Native Americans on sight as they went. On May 8, Frémont was overtaken by Lieutenant Archibald Gillespie from Washington, who gave him copies of dispatches he had previously given to Larkin. Gillespie told Frémont secret instructions from Benton and Buchanan justifying aggressive action and that

10912-506: The muddy slopes during the rainy night, his men regrouped in the foothills (behind what is today Rancho Del Ciervo) the next morning, and captured the Presidio of Santa Barbara and the town without bloodshed. A few days later, Frémont led his men southeast towards Los Angeles. Fremont accepted Andres Pico's surrender upon signing the Treaty of Cahuenga on January 13, 1847, which terminated

11036-511: The natural reluctance of cultures to merge and the fear that their respective missions—mapping in support of defense activities versus intelligence production, principally in support of national policymakers—would be subordinated, each to the other. With the enactment of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2004 on November 24, 2003, NIMA was renamed NGA to better reflect its primary mission in

11160-690: The navy and was appointed second lieutenant in the U.S. Topographical Corps , surveying a route for the Charleston, Louisville, and Cincinnati railroad. Working in the Carolina mountains, Frémont desired to become an explorer. Between 1837 and 1838, Frémont's desire for exploration increased while in Georgia on reconnaissance to prepare for the removal of Cherokee Indians . When Poinsett became Secretary of War, he arranged for Frémont to assist French explorer and scientist Joseph Nicollet in exploring

11284-734: The party continued across the Great Basin and entered the Owens Valley near present-day Big Pine , California, on the eastern flank of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Frémont journeyed south before crossing the Sierra Nevadas and entering the Kern River drainage, which he and his party then followed west into the San Joaquin Valley . Frémont arrived in San Francisco on April 16, 1854. Having completed

11408-566: The physical sciences, geodesy, computer and telecommunication engineering, and photogrammetry , as well as those in the national security and law enforcement fields. This table lists all Directors of the NIMA and NGA and their term of office. The agency transitioned from NIMA to NGA during Lieutenant General King's directorship. NIMA / NGA has been involved in several controversies. John C. Fr%C3%A9mont Major-General John Charles Frémont (January 21, 1813 – July 13, 1890)

11532-488: The second expedition, due to his proven skills, and he joined Frémont's party on the Arkansas River. Unable to find a new route through Colorado to the South Pass, Frémont took to the regular Oregon Trail, passing the main body of the great migration of 1843. His party stopped to explore the northern part of the Great Salt Lake , then traveling by way of Fort Hall and Fort Boise to Marcus Whitman 's mission on

11656-433: The settlers. Frémont went to Monterey, California , to talk with the American consul, Thomas O. Larkin , and Mexican commandant Jose Castro , under the pretext of gaining fuller supplies. In February 1846, Frémont reunited with 45 men of his expedition party near Mission San José , giving the United States a relatively strong military presence in California. Castro and Mexican officials were suspicious of Frémont and he

11780-459: The start of the American Civil War , Billings acted as Frémont's agent when Frémont took the initiative to purchase arms in England for use by Union troops. On November 13, 1849, General Bennet C. Riley , without Washington approval, called for a state election to ratify the new California State constitution. On December 20 , the California legislature voted to seat two senators to represent

11904-482: The state in the Senate. The front-runner was Frémont, a Free Soil Democrat , known for being a western hero, and regarded by many as an innocent victim of an unjustified court-martial. The other candidates were T. Butler King , a Whig, and William Gwin , a Democrat. Frémont won the first Senate seat, easily having 29 out of 41 votes and Gwin, having Southern backing, was elected to the second Senate seat, having won 24 out of 41 votes. By random draw of straws, Gwin won

12028-676: The summer of 1842 and was to explore the Wind River of the Rocky Mountains , examine the Oregon Trail through the South Pass , and report on the rivers and the fertility of the lands, find optimal sites for forts, and describe the mountains beyond in Wyoming. By chance meeting, Frémont was able to gain the valuable assistance of mountain man and guide Kit Carson . Frémont and his party of 25 men, including Carson, embarked from

12152-738: The summer of 1843. The more ambitious goal this time was to map and describe the second half of the Oregon Trail, find an alternate route to the South Pass, and push westward toward the Pacific Ocean on the Columbia River in Oregon Country. Frémont and his almost 40 well-equipped men left the Missouri River in May after he controversially obtained a 12-pound howitzer cannon in St. Louis. Frémont invited Carson on

12276-562: The symbol of the Republican Party. The Democratic Party nominated James Buchanan . Frémont's wife Jessie, Bigelow, and Issac Sherman ran Frémont's campaign. As the daughter of a senator, Jessie had been raised in Washington, and she understood politics more than Frémont. Many treated Jessie as an equal political professional, while Frémont was treated as an amateur. She received popular attention much more than potential First Ladies, and Republicans celebrated her participation in

12400-648: The trail was made difficult by snow cover. On occasion, they were able to detect evidence of Captain John Gunnison 's expedition, which had followed the North Branch just months before. Weeks of snow and bitter cold took its toll and slowed progress. Nonessential equipment was abandoned and one man died before the struggling party reached the Mormon settlement of Parowan in southwestern Utah on February 8, 1854. After spending two weeks in Parowan to regain strength,

12524-490: The two wrote a second report, scientific in detail, showing the Oregon Trail was not difficult to travel and that the Northwest had fertile land. The Senate and House each ordered the printing of 10,000 copies to be distributed to the press and public, used to promote the cause of national expansion. With the backdrop of an impending war with Mexico, after James K. Polk had been elected president, Benton quickly organized

12648-493: The war in upper California. It was at this time Kearny ordered Frémont to join his military dragoons, but Frémont refused, believing he was under authority of Stockton. On January 16, 1847, Commodore Stockton appointed Frémont military governor of California following the Treaty of Cahuenga , and then left Los Angeles. Frémont functioned for a few weeks without controversy, but he had little money to administer his duties as governor. Previously, unknown to Stockton and Frémont,

12772-716: The work of earlier pathfinders to expand knowledge of the American West. Frémont's talent lay in his scientific documentation, publications, and maps made based on his expeditions, making the American West accessible for many Americans. Beginning in 1842, Frémont led five western expeditions, however, between the third and fourth expeditions, Frémont's career took a fateful turn because of the Mexican–American War . Frémont's initial explorations, his timely scientific reports, co-authored by his wife Jessie, and their romantic writing style, encouraged Americans to travel West. A series of seven maps produced from his findings, published by

12896-575: Was a United States Army officer, explorer, and politician. He was a United States senator from California and was the first Republican nominee for president of the U.S. in 1856 and founder of the California Republican Party when he was nominated. He lost the election to Democrat James Buchanan when the vote was split by Know Nothings . A native of Georgia , he attended the College of Charleston for two years until he

13020-530: Was a success, returning to Washington in October. Frémont and his wife Jessie wrote a Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains (1843), which was printed in newspapers across the country; the public embraced his vision of the west not as a place of danger but wide open and inviting lands to be settled. Frémont's successful first expedition led quickly to a second; it began in

13144-413: Was at this time Frémont began signing letters as "Military Commander of U.S. Forces in California". On June 24, Frémont and his men, upon hearing that Californio (people of Spanish or Mexican descent) Juan N. Padilla had captured, tortured, killed, and mutilated the bodies of two Osos and held others prisoner, rode to Sonoma, arriving on June 25. On June 26, Frémont, his own men, Lieutenant Henry Ford and

13268-588: Was awarded the Patron's Medal by the Royal Geographical Society for his various exploratory efforts. On February 10, 1847, Frémont purchased a 70-square-mile parcel of land in the Sierra foothills through land speculator Thomas Larkin for $ 3,000 ($ 83,177 in 2023). Known as Las Mariposas (Spanish for "The Butterflies"), an allusion to the great number of Monarch butterflies found there,

13392-506: Was created on January 1, 1972, to consolidate all U.S. military mapping activities. DMA's "birth certificate", DoD Directive 5105.40, resulted from a formerly classified Presidential directive, "Organization and Management of the U.S. Foreign Intelligence Community" (November 5, 1971), which directed the consolidation of mapping functions previously dispersed among the military services. DMA became operational on July 1, 1972, pursuant to General Order 3, DMA (June 16, 1972). On October 1, 1996, DMA

13516-408: Was expelled after irregular attendance. He opposed slavery . In the 1840s, he led five expeditions into the western states. During the Mexican–American War , he was a major in the U.S. Army and took control of a portion of California north of San Francisco from the short-lived California Republic in 1846. During this time, he led several massacres against indigenous peoples in California as part of

13640-469: Was expelled for irregular attendance in 1831. Frémont, however, had been grounded in mathematics and natural sciences. Frémont attracted the attention of eminent South Carolina politician Joel R. Poinsett , an Andrew Jackson supporter, who secured Frémont an appointment as a teacher of mathematics aboard the sloop USS Natchez , sailing the South American seas in 1833. Frémont resigned from

13764-694: Was folded into the National Imagery and Mapping Agency – which later became NGA. DMA was first headquartered at the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C., then at Falls Church, Virginia . Its mostly civilian workforce was concentrated at production sites in Bethesda, Maryland , Northern Virginia, and St. Louis, Missouri . DMA was formed from the Mapping, Charting, and Geodesy Division, Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), and from various mapping-related organizations of

13888-415: Was guilty of disobeying orders and misconduct, but he did not believe Frémont was guilty of mutiny. Additionally, Polk wished to placate Thomas Hart Benton , a powerful senator and Frémont's father-in-law, who felt that Frémont was innocent. Frémont, only gaining a partial pardon from Polk, resigned his commission in protest and settled in California. Despite the court-martial, Frémont remained popular among

14012-564: Was having an affair with Frémon. Anne and Frémon fled to Williamsburg on July 10, 1811, later settling in Norfolk, Virginia , taking with them household slaves Anne had inherited. The couple later settled in Savannah, Georgia , where she gave birth to their son Frémont out of wedlock. Pryor published a divorce petition in the Virginia Patriot and charged that his wife had "for some time past indulged in criminal intercourse". When

14136-595: Was in favor of abolishing the slave trade in the District of Columbia. Democratic pro-slavery opponents of Frémont, called the Chivs, strongly opposed Frémont's re-election, and endorsed Solomon Heydenfeldt . Rushing back to California hoping to thwart the Chivs, Frémont started his own election newspaper, the San Jose Daily Argus , however, to no avail, he was unable to get enough votes for re-election to

14260-597: Was initially located in Suitland, Maryland , but later relocated to Brookmont (Bethesda), Maryland. DMATC was located in Brookmont (Bethesda), Maryland. It was responsible for creating topographic maps worldwide for DoD. DMATC's location in Bethesda, Maryland is the former site of NGA's headquarters. DMAHC and DMATC eventually merged to form DMAHTC, with offices in Brookmont (Bethesda), Maryland. DMAAC originated with

14384-587: Was later reinforced when Stockton sent troops to drive off Pio Pico and his forces. It was at this time a dispute began between Stockton and Kearny over who had control of the military, but the two managed to work together to stop the Los Angeles uprising . Frémont led his unit over the Santa Ynez Mountains at San Marcos Pass in a rainstorm on the night of December 24, 1846. Despite losing many of his horses, mules and cannons, which slid down

14508-670: Was merged into the new Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) and redesignated as the DMA Topographic Center (DMATC) (see below). After the war, as airplane capacity and range improved, the need for charts grew. The Army Air Corps established its map unit, which was renamed ACP in 1943 and was located in St. Louis, Missouri . ACP was known as the U.S. Air Force Aeronautical Chart and Information Center (ACIC) from 1952 to 1972 (See DMAAC below). Shortly before leaving office in January 1961, President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorized

14632-488: Was nearly killed by a Klamath warrior. As Carson's gun misfired, the warrior drew to shoot a poison arrow; however, Frémont, seeing that Carson was in danger, trampled the warrior with his horse. Carson felt that he owed Frémont his life. A few weeks later, Frémont and his armed militia returned to California. Having reentered Mexican California headed south, Frémont and his army expedition stopped off at Peter Lassen 's Ranch on May 24, 1846. Frémont learned from Lassen that

14756-575: Was not until December 22 that Frémont acknowledged that the party needed to regroup and be resupplied. They began to make their way to Taos in the New Mexico Territory . By the time the last surviving member of the expedition made it to Taos on February 12, 1849, 10 of the party had died and been eaten by the survivors. Except for the efforts of member Alexis Godey, another 15 would have been lost. After recuperating in Taos, Frémont and only

14880-536: Was ordered to leave the country. Frémont and his men withdrew and camped near the summit of what is now named Fremont Peak . Frémont raised the United States Flag in defiance of Mexican authority. After a four-day standoff and Castro having a superior number of Mexican troops, Frémont and his men went north to Oregon, bringing about the Sacramento River massacre along the way. Estimates of

15004-719: Was relieved of his command for insubordination by Lincoln. After a brief service tenure in the Mountain Department in 1862, Frémont resided in New York, retiring from the army in 1864. He was nominated for president in 1864 by the Radical Democracy Party , a breakaway faction of abolitionist Republicans, but he withdrew before the election. After the Civil War, he lost much of his wealth in the unsuccessful Pacific Railroad in 1866, and he lost more in

15128-416: Was secretly told that if war started with Mexico he was to turn his scientific expedition into a military force. President Polk, who had met with Frémont at a cabinet meeting, was set on taking California. Frémont desired to conquer California for its beauty and wealth, and would later explain his very controversial conduct there. On June 1, 1845, Frémont and his armed expedition party left St. Louis having

15252-544: Was the Army Corps of Engineers 's first attempt to centralize mapping production, printing, and distribution. It was located on the grounds of the Army War College in Washington, D.C. Previously, topographic mapping had largely been a function of individual field engineer units using field surveying techniques or copying existing or captured products. In addition, ERP assumed the "supervision and maintenance" of

15376-630: Was typical in presidential campaigns of the 19th century. To win the presidency, the Republicans concentrated on four swing states, Pennsylvania , New Jersey, Indiana , and Illinois . Republican luminaries were sent out decrying the Democratic Party's attachment to slavery and its support of the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. The experienced Democrats, knowing the Republican strategy, also targeted these states, running

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