105-730: The Act to Encourage the Gradual Civilization of Indian Tribes in this Province, and to Amend the Laws Relating to Indians (commonly known as the Gradual Civilization Act ) was a bill passed by the 5th Parliament of the Province of Canada in 1857. The act established a voluntary process through which any recognized male Indian (indigenous person) could apply to become " enfranchised ", wherein they would lose their legal "Indian status" and become
210-465: A Committee composed of their tribe's Superintendent (an Indian Department official), a missionary, and another appointed non-Indian. The commissioners were instructed to approve applicants that were literate in English or French, "sufficiently" educated, "of good moral character", and debt-free. With this approval, an Indian would be officially enfranchised by the federal government. Section 4 outlined
315-546: A brief skirmish at Lexington, followed by the full-scale Battles of Lexington and Concord. British troops suffered around 300 casualties before withdrawing to Boston , which was then besieged by the militia. In May 1775, 4,500 British reinforcements arrived under Generals William Howe , John Burgoyne , and Sir Henry Clinton . On June 17, they seized the Charlestown Peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill ,
420-577: A constitutional right - Indian tribes were treated as sovereign nations whose land could only be acquired through formal treaty agreements. However, the Gradual Civilization Act allowed the provision of reserve lands to enfranchised Indians by the Indian Department, without the consent of the relevant council. This superseded the constitutional principle of tribal self-governance that had existed since 1763. The act furthered
525-802: A customs vessel in the June 1772 Gaspee Affair , then came to a head in 1773. A banking crisis led to the near-collapse of the East India Company , which dominated the British economy; to support it, Parliament passed the Tea Act , giving it a trading monopoly in the Thirteen Colonies . Since most American tea was smuggled by the Dutch, the act was opposed by those who managed the illegal trade, while being seen as yet another attempt to impose
630-546: A frontal assault in which they suffered over 1,000 casualties. Dismayed at the costly attack which had gained them little, Gage appealed to London for a larger army, but instead was replaced as commander by Howe. On June 14, 1775, Congress took control of Patriot forces outside Boston, and Congressional leader John Adams nominated Washington as commander-in-chief of the newly formed Continental Army . On June 16, Hancock officially proclaimed him "General and Commander in Chief of
735-458: A last name (to be approved by the commissioners) by which he would become legally known. The Superintendent General of Indian affairs would then allocate him up to 50 acres (20ha) of land from his band's reserve , as well as a lump sum payment "equal to the principal of his share of the annuities and other yearly revenues" received by the band. This land and money would become the man's individual property. However, he would no longer be considered
840-492: A legislative precedent was set as the government instituted a legal definition of 'Indian status' for the first time. By 1857, Canadian politicians and Indian Department officials were "becoming impatient" with the progress of the Indians living on reserves, with the colonial government facing increasing pressure from Britain to reduce the costs associated with Indian administration. Two influential commissions into Indian policy,
945-455: A logistically challenging and dangerous operation. Meanwhile, the Hessians were involved in numerous clashes with small bands of Patriots and were often aroused by false alarms at night in the weeks before the actual Battle of Trenton . By Christmas they were tired, while a heavy snowstorm led their commander, Colonel Johann Rall , to assume no significant attack would occur. At daybreak on
1050-454: A member of the band, and therefore forfeited any claim to its lands or revenues in the future. Several of the act's sections established the rights of Indian women as different from men in regard to the process of enfranchisement. Women were not allowed to voluntarily apply. Instead, if a woman's husband became enfranchised, she would be automatically enfranchised alongside him. Her band membership could then only be regained through remarriage to
1155-515: A modified process available for Indian men (aged 21 to 40) who were illiterate but could speak English or French. If a Committee deemed such a man to be "of sober and industrious habits", "sufficiently intelligent", and free of debt, he would be placed on a three-year probation. If he "conducted himself to [the Committee's] satisfaction" during this probation, he could then be officially enfranchised. An enfranchised Indian would be required to choose
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#17327658323031260-545: A natural patriarchy", with women being treated as "dependents" by the colonial government. Prior to the act, the tribal councils and colonial government had a "progressive and cooperative" diplomatic relationship. The councils worked with Indian Department officials and missionaries to improve the quality of life and "self-sufficiency" of Indian reserves, collaborating on the construction of infrastructure such as schools and roads. However, band councils had maintained full legal control over their reserves' land and inhabitants, under
1365-829: A process through which the government could purchase Indian land through treaty agreements . The Royal Proclamation cemented a "nation-to-nation" diplomatic relationship between Britain and its Indian allies, based on protection and conciliation. The tribes maintained their allegiance throughout the American Revolutionary War , leading to the loss of their traditional lands upon Britain's defeat in 1781; in response, Britain provided land within its remaining North American territories (the British Canadas ) for its Indian allies to resettle. From 1815 onwards, imperial Britain's political stance towards American Indians expanded beyond protection and began to incorporate
1470-580: A rearguard. Howe met with a delegation from the Second Continental Congress at the September Staten Island Peace Conference , but it failed to conclude peace, largely because the British delegates only had the authority to offer pardons and could not recognize independence. On September 15, Howe seized control of New York City when the British landed at Kip's Bay and unsuccessfully engaged
1575-582: A regular British subject . Applications were open to those fluent in English or French , with approval subject to assessment by a committee of non-Indigenous reviewers. Enfranchised Indians would be granted an allotment of land and the ability to vote. The statute built on a century of Imperial British legislation of American Indian rights, that had begun with the Royal Proclamation of 1763 and its protection of defined Indian lands. Starting in
1680-880: A riot started in Boston when the authorities seized the sloop Liberty on suspicion of smuggling. Tensions escalated further in March 1770 when British troops fired on rock-throwing civilians, killing five in what became known as the Boston Massacre . The Massacre coincided with the partial repeal of the Townshend Acts by the Tory-based North Ministry , which came to power in January 1770 and remained in office until 1781. North insisted on retaining duty on tea to enshrine Parliament's right to tax
1785-648: A second attack captured Fort Mifflin on November 16, while Fort Mercer was abandoned two days later when Cornwallis breached the walls. His supply lines secured, Howe tried to tempt Washington into giving battle, but after inconclusive skirmishing at the Battle of White Marsh from December 5 to 8, he withdrew to Philadelphia for the winter. On December 19, the Americans followed suit and entered winter quarters at Valley Forge ; while Washington's domestic opponents contrasted his lack of battlefield success with Gates' victory at Saratoga, foreign observers such as Frederick
1890-479: A status Indian. An enfranchised woman would not receive any reserve land, and if her husband died she would only receive his land if he had no descendants. While enfranchised women were entitled to their share of band revenues, unlike men they would not receive this in lump sum. A woman's share would be "held in trust" by the Indian Department, which would then pay her yearly interest. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 had established Indian control over their own lands as
1995-480: A struggle with Britain, but also split between American Patriots and American Loyalists. Patriots generally supported independence from Britain and a new national union in Congress, while Loyalists remained faithful to British rule. Estimates of numbers vary, one suggestion being the population as a whole was split evenly between committed Patriots, committed Loyalists, and those who were indifferent. Others calculate
2100-671: A threat to liberty in general. This led to increased sympathy for the Patriot cause locally, in the British Parliament, and in the London press. Throughout the 18th century, the elected lower houses in the colonial legislatures gradually wrested power from their governors. Dominated by smaller landowners and merchants, these assemblies now established ad-hoc provincial legislatures, variously called congresses, conventions, and conferences, effectively replacing royal control. With
2205-401: Is also one of the first times that the colonies were referred to as "United States", rather than the more common United Colonies . On July 2, Congress voted for independence and published the declaration on July 4. At this point, the revolution ceased to be an internal dispute over trade and tax policies and had evolved into a civil war, since each state represented in Congress was engaged in
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#17327658323032310-463: Is desirable to encourage the progress of Civilization among the Indian Tribes in this Province, and the gradual removal of all legal distinctions between them and Her Majesty's other Canadian Subjects, and to facilitate the acquisition of property and of the rights accompanying it, by such Individual Members of the said Tribes as shall be found to desire such encouragement... Sections 1 and 2 of
2415-604: The Indian Act of 1876, which still governs the legal relationship between the Canadian government and First Nations peoples, albeit with numerous amendments. Imperial Britain's first policies concerning American Indian lands and rights emerged in the mid-18th century, in response to the need for military allies against France and its competing colonial interests in North America. The British government recognised
2520-695: The Appalachian Mountains also avoided the cost of an expensive military occupation. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was designed to achieve these aims by refocusing colonial expansion north into Nova Scotia and south into Florida , with the Mississippi River as the dividing line between British and Spanish possessions in America. Settlement was tightly restricted beyond the 1763 limits, and claims west of this line, including by Virginia and Massachusetts , were rescinded despite
2625-478: The Battle of Brandywine on September 11, then allowing him to withdraw in good order. After dispersing an American detachment at Paoli on September 20, Cornwallis occupied Philadelphia on September 26, with the main force of 9,000 under Howe based just to the north at Germantown . Washington attacked them on October 4, but was repulsed. To prevent Howe's forces in Philadelphia being resupplied by sea,
2730-511: The Battle of Sullivan's Island on June 28, 1776, but it failed. A shortage of gunpowder led Congress to authorize a naval expedition against the Bahamas to secure ordnance stored there. On March 3, 1776, an American squadron under the command of Esek Hopkins landed at the east end of Nassau and encountered minimal resistance at Fort Montagu . Hopkins' troops then marched on Fort Nassau . Hopkins had promised governor Montfort Browne and
2835-710: The British West Indies and Britain and barred New England ships from the Newfoundland cod fisheries . The increase in tension led to a scramble for control of militia stores, which each assembly was legally obliged to maintain for defense. On April 19, a British attempt to secure the Concord arsenal culminated in the Battles of Lexington and Concord , which began the Revolutionary War. After
2940-852: The Burning of Norfolk on January 1, 1776. The siege of Savage's Old Fields began on November 19 in South Carolina between Loyalist and Patriot militias, and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony in the Snow Campaign . Loyalists were recruited in North Carolina to reassert British rule in the South, but they were decisively defeated in the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge . A British expedition sent to reconquer South Carolina launched an attack on Charleston in
3045-637: The Continental Association ; based on a draft prepared by the First Virginia Convention in August, the association instituted economic sanctions and a full boycott of goods against Britain. While denying its authority over internal American affairs, a faction led by James Duane and future Loyalist Joseph Galloway insisted Congress recognize Parliament's right to regulate colonial trade. Expecting concessions by
3150-578: The Delaware River and winning small but significant victories at Trenton and Princeton . In the summer of 1777, as Howe was poised to capture Philadelphia , the Continental Congress fled to Baltimore . In October 1777, a separate northern British force under the command of John Burgoyne was forced to surrender at Saratoga in an American victory that proved crucial in convincing France and Spain that an independent United States
3255-671: The French and Indian War in 1754. When colonial governments failed to restore the relationship with the Iroquois, Britain made diplomacy with American Indians an imperial responsibility in 1755, creating the British Indian Department . The department appointed superintendents responsible for the protection of Indian lands and the regulation of trade between Indians and often exploitative colonials, and provided regular gifts to tribes to gain favour. These policies convinced
Gradual Civilization Act - Misplaced Pages Continue
3360-641: The Iroquois for their support, while US envoys urged them to remain neutral. Aware of Native American leanings toward the British and fearing an Anglo-Indian attack from Canada, Congress authorized a second invasion in April 1775. After the defeat at the Battle of Quebec on December 31, the Americans maintained a loose blockade of the city until they retreated on May 6, 1776. A second defeat at Trois-Rivières on June 8 ended operations in Quebec. British pursuit
3465-950: The Revolutionary War or American War of Independence , was an armed conflict that was part of the broader American Revolution , in which American Patriot forces organized as the Continental Army and commanded by George Washington defeated the British Army . The conflict was fought in North America , the Caribbean , and the Atlantic Ocean . The war ended with the Treaty of Paris (1783) , which resulted in Great Britain ultimately recognizing
3570-729: The Second Continental Congress appointed the Committee of Five : Thomas Jefferson , John Adams , Benjamin Franklin , Roger Sherman , and Robert Livingston . The declaration was written almost exclusively by Jefferson. Identifying inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies as "one people", the declaration simultaneously dissolved political links with Britain, while including a long list of alleged violations of "English rights" committed by George III . This
3675-767: The Sugar Act and Stamp Act , which imposed additional taxes on the colonies to pay for defending the western frontier. In July 1765, the Whigs formed the First Rockingham ministry , which repealed the Stamp Act and reduced tax on foreign molasses to help the New England economy, but re-asserted Parliamentary authority in the Declaratory Act . However, this did little to end the discontent; in 1768,
3780-740: The Treaty of Aranjuez , though Spain did not formally ally with the Americans. Howe's replacement Henry Clinton intended to take the war against the Americans into the Southern Colonies . Despite some initial success, British general Cornwallis was besieged by a Franco-American force in Yorktown in September and October 1781. Cornwallis was forced to surrender in October. The British wars with France and Spain continued for another two years, but fighting largely ceased in North America. In
3885-530: The catechism and the names of the world's seven continents - a "civilization test... invented on the spot". Hill was the only Indian enfranchised under the act before its consolidation into the Indian Act of 1876. The Confederacy Council refused to acknowledge his enfranchisement for three decades, eventually granting him a cash payment in place of the reserve lands promised by the act. The act of 1857 set legal and political precedents for later legislation by
3990-537: The colonial government impeded on the Indian tribal councils ' right to self-governance. In response, councils resisted the enfranchisement of their tribe's members and lobbied for the act to be repealed, although these campaigns were unsuccessful. Ultimately, only one Indian was enfranchised under the act. The act was updated by the 1869 Gradual Enfranchisement Act of the post-Confederation Dominion of Canada . Policies from both of these acts were incorporated into
4095-572: The colonial legislatures agreed on the boundaries but disagreed on where to set them. Many settlers resented the restrictions entirely, and enforcement required permanent garrisons along the frontier, which led to increasingly bitter disputes over who should pay for them. Although directly administered by the Crown , acting through a local governor, the colonies were largely governed by native-born property owners. While external affairs were managed by London, colonial militia were funded locally but with
4200-471: The 1830s, the British had introduced policies promoting the "civilizing" of Indians living in Canada, placing them on protected reserves where they were taught European skills, values, and religion. The aim of the act of 1857 was to enable the "complete assimilation " of the Indians into broader settler society, through enfranchisement. The act's policies of enfranchisement and individual allotment of land by
4305-450: The 1844 Bagot Commission and the 1856 Pennefather Commission, had asserted that individual property ownership and enfranchisement would provide the Indians with the motivation to achieve self-sufficiency and become 'civilised' members of colonial society. Multiple scholars agree that these commissions precipitated a shift in the goal of British Indian policy: from the protection of Indians as a separate people, to their total assimilation into
Gradual Civilization Act - Misplaced Pages Continue
4410-624: The 26th, the American Patriots surprised and overwhelmed Rall and his troops, who lost over 20 killed including Rall, while 900 prisoners, German cannons and supplies were captured. The Battle of Trenton restored the American army's morale, reinvigorated the Patriot cause, and dispelled their fear of what they regarded as Hessian "mercenaries". A British attempt to retake Trenton was repulsed at Assunpink Creek on January 2; during
4515-402: The American cause. The reduced Continental Army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men and was reduced further when enlistments expired at the end of the year. Popular support wavered, and morale declined. On December 20, 1776, the Continental Congress abandoned the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia and moved to Baltimore , where it remained until February 27, 1777. Loyalist activity surged in
4620-526: The Americans at the Battle of Harlem Heights the following day. On October 18, Howe failed to encircle the Americans at the Battle of Pell's Point , and the Americans withdrew. Howe declined to close with Washington's army on October 28 at the Battle of White Plains , and instead attacked a hill that was of no strategic value. Washington's retreat isolated his remaining forces and the British captured Fort Washington on November 16. The British victory there amounted to Washington's most disastrous defeat with
4725-513: The British Parliament imposed the Intolerable Acts in mid-1774. A British attempt to disarm the Americans and the resulting Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775 ignited the war. In June, the Second Continental Congress formalized Patriot militias into the Continental Army and appointed Washington its commander-in-chief. The British Parliament declared the colonies to be in a state of rebellion in August 1775. The stakes of
4830-542: The Canadians. In Virginia, Dunmore's Proclamation on November 7, 1775, promised freedom to any slaves who fled their Patriot masters and agreed to fight for the Crown. British forces were defeated at Great Bridge on December 9 and took refuge on British ships anchored near Norfolk. When the Third Virginia Convention refused to disband its militia or accept martial law, Lord Dunmore ordered
4935-787: The Colonial Secretary Lord Germain , proposing a limited offensive against Philadelphia, while a second force moved down the Hudson from Canada. Burgoyne supplied several alternatives, all of which gave him responsibility for the offensive, with Howe remaining on the defensive. The option selected required him to lead the main force south from Montreal down the Hudson Valley, while a detachment under Barry St. Leger moved east from Lake Ontario. The two would meet at Albany , leaving Howe to decide whether to join them. Reasonable in principle, this did not account for
5040-541: The Culper Spy Ring substantially increased the effective allocation and deployment of Continental regiments in the field. Throughout the war, Washington spent more than 10 percent of his total military funds on military intelligence . Washington split the Continental Army into positions on Manhattan and across the East River in western Long Island. On August 27 at the Battle of Long Island , Howe outflanked Washington and forced him back to Brooklyn Heights , but he did not attempt to encircle Washington's forces. Through
5145-605: The Great were equally impressed with Germantown, which demonstrated resilience and determination. Over the winter, poor conditions, supply problems and low morale resulted in 2,000 deaths, with another 3,000 unfit for duty due to lack of shoes. However, Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben took the opportunity to introduce Prussian Army drill and infantry tactics to "model companies" in each Continental Army regiment, who then instructed their home units. Despite Valley Forge being only twenty miles away, Howe made no effort to attack their camp, an action some critics argue could have ended
5250-466: The Iroquois to re-align with the British and contribute to their war effort in the French and Indian War. Britain's eventual victory resulted in its acquisition of the vast majority of France's North American territory under the Treaty of Paris (1763) . The Royal Proclamation of 1763 formalised the department's protective policies as imperial British law and established the land west of the Appalachian Mountains as an Indian reserve, while also outlining
5355-399: The North administration, Congress authorized the extralegal committees and conventions of the colonial legislatures to enforce the boycott; this succeeded in reducing British imports by 97% from 1774 to 1775. However, on February 9 Parliament declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and instituted a blockade of the colony. In July, the Restraining Acts limited colonial trade with
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#17327658323035460-450: The Parliament of Canada. 5th Parliament of the Province of Canada The 5th Parliament of the Province of Canada was summoned in August 1854, following the general election for the Legislative Assembly in July 1854. The number of seats in the Assembly had been increased by the 4th Parliament of the Province of Canada to 130, 65 for each section. Sessions were held in Quebec City until 1856 and then in Toronto . The Parliament
5565-411: The Patriot victory at Concord, moderates in Congress led by John Dickinson drafted the Olive Branch Petition , offering to accept royal authority in return for George III mediating in the dispute. However, since the petition was immediately followed by the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms , Colonial Secretary Lord Dartmouth viewed the offer as insincere and refused to present
5670-434: The Patriots erected Fort Mifflin and nearby Fort Mercer on the east and west banks of the Delaware respectively, and placed obstacles in the river south of the city. This was supported by a small flotilla of Continental Navy ships on the Delaware, supplemented by the Pennsylvania State Navy , commanded by John Hazelwood . An attempt by the Royal Navy to take the forts in the October 20 to 22 Battle of Red Bank failed;
5775-503: The Six Nations and various other councils launched petitions calling for the act to be repealed, and declared that they would not sell any more Indian land through treaty agreements. In 1860, the Confederacy Council sent a representative to appeal to the Prince of Wales, Edward VII , who was on a tour of British Canada. The Council argued that it was a "loyal ally and... peer of the British Crown", and any laws detracting from their legal autonomy broke this "sacred alliance". Ultimately, none of
5880-477: The Thirteen Colonies—the Northern Theater and the Southern Theater —and a smaller but strategically important third one west of the Appalachian Mountains . On April 14, 1775, Sir Thomas Gage , Commander-in-Chief, North America and Governor of Massachusetts , received orders to take action against the Patriots. He decided to destroy militia ordnance stored at Concord, Massachusetts , and capture John Hancock and Samuel Adams , who were considered
5985-470: The Treaty of Paris, ratified on September 3, 1783, Great Britain acknowledged the sovereignty and independence of the United States, bringing the American Revolutionary War to an end. The Treaties of Versailles resolved Great Britain's conflicts with France and Spain and forced Great Britain to cede Tobago , Senegal , and small territories in India to France, and Menorca , West Florida and East Florida to Spain. The French and Indian War, part of
6090-400: The Whigs, Parliament initially rejected the imposition of coercive measures by 170 votes, fearing an aggressive policy would drive the Americans towards independence. However, by the end of 1774 the collapse of British authority meant both Lord North and George III were convinced war was inevitable. After Boston, Gage halted operations and awaited reinforcements; the Irish Parliament approved
6195-450: The act provided a legal definition of an 'Indian', and declared that this status would be removed upon enfranchisement. Qualification as a 'status Indian' required that a person had Indian ancestry or was married to someone with such ancestry, held membership in a recognised Indian band , and lived on the lands of that band. An 'enfranchised Indian' would lose this status and the unique legal rights that came with it. The act specifically cited
6300-634: The area of food. This slowed Burgoyne's progress and forced him to send out large foraging expeditions; on one of these, more than 700 British troops were captured at the Battle of Bennington on August 16. St Leger moved east and besieged Fort Stanwix ; despite defeating an American relief force at the Battle of Oriskany on August 6, he was abandoned by his Indian allies and withdrew to Quebec on August 22. Now isolated and outnumbered by Gates, Burgoyne continued onto Albany rather than retreating to Fort Ticonderoga, reaching Saratoga on September 13. He asked Clinton for support while constructing defenses around
6405-475: The army of the United Colonies." He assumed command on July 3, preferring to fortify Dorchester Heights outside Boston rather than assaulting it. In early March 1776, Colonel Henry Knox arrived with heavy artillery acquired in the Capture of Fort Ticonderoga . Under cover of darkness, on March 5, Washington placed these on Dorchester Heights, from where they could fire on the town and British ships in Boston Harbor. Fearing another Bunker Hill, Howe evacuated
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#17327658323036510-504: The base for American naval operations. After regrouping at Halifax in Nova Scotia, Howe set sail for New York in June 1776 and began landing troops on Staten Island near the entrance to New York Harbor on July 2. The Americans rejected Howe's informal attempt to negotiate peace on July 30; Washington knew that an attack on the city was imminent and realized that he needed advance information to deal with disciplined British regular troops. On August 12, 1776, Patriot Thomas Knowlton
6615-562: The camp to a "squalid hell" and supplies were dangerously low. Burgoyne capitulated on October 17; around 6,222 soldiers, including German forces commanded by General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel , surrendered their arms before being taken to Boston, where they were to be transported to England. After securing additional supplies, Howe made another attempt on Philadelphia by landing his troops in Chesapeake Bay on August 24. He now compounded failure to support Burgoyne by missing repeated opportunities to destroy his opponent, defeating Washington at
6720-487: The campaigns to repeal the act were successful. The strong resistance of tribal governments led to very few Indians pursuing the voluntary enfranchisement offered by the act. In the Grand River Reserve of the Six Nations Confederacy, three Mohawk men applied within the first year of the act's passing. A committee consisting of an Indian Department superintendent, a missionary, and a local businessman approved only one of these applicants, Elias Hill, after he successfully recited
6825-418: The city on March 17 without further loss and sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia , while Washington moved south to New York City. Beginning in August 1775, American privateers raided towns in Nova Scotia, including Saint John , Charlottetown , and Yarmouth . In 1776, John Paul Jones and Jonathan Eddy attacked Canso and Fort Cumberland respectively. British officials in Quebec began negotiating with
6930-430: The civilian inhabitants that their lives and property would not be in any danger if they offered no resistance; they complied. Hopkins captured large stores of powder and other munitions that was so great he had to impress an extra ship in the harbor to transport the supplies back home, when he departed on March 17. A month later, after a brief skirmish with HMS Glasgow , they returned to New London, Connecticut ,
7035-405: The colonial assemblies; combined with the lack of activity by Gage, opposition to the use of foreign troops allowed the Patriots to take control of the legislatures. Support for independence was boosted by Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense , which was published on January 10, 1776, and argued for American self-government and was widely reprinted. To draft the Declaration of Independence ,
7140-411: The colonial government the ability to interfere with Indian governance over their lands, with its provision for individual allotment of reserve lands to enfranchised Indians. The Gradual Enfranchisement Act expanded on this precedent, giving the Canadian government the power to veto any and all legal decisions made by tribal councils. The later Indian Act passed complete control of Indian governance over to
7245-410: The colonies; the amount was minor, but ignored the fact it was that very principle Americans found objectionable. In April 1772, colonialists staged the first American tax revolt in Weare , New Hampshire against the British royal authority later referred to as the Pine Tree Riot . This occurrence would later inspire the design of the Pine Tree Flag . Tensions escalated following the destruction of
7350-498: The committee shared information and built alliances through secret correspondence, as well as employing secret agents in Europe to gather intelligence, conduct undercover operations, analyze foreign publications, and initiate Patriot propaganda campaigns. Paine served as secretary, while Benjamin Franklin and Silas Deane , sent to France to recruit military engineers, were instrumental in securing French aid in Paris. The Revolutionary War included two principal campaign theaters within
7455-424: The ending of the French threat in 1763, the legislatures expected less taxation, not more. At the same time, the huge debt incurred by the Seven Years' War and demands from British taxpayers for cuts in government expenditure meant Parliament expected the colonies to fund their own defense. The new taxes levied on subjects in the colonies proved highly burdensome in colonies such as North Carolina , particularly for
7560-716: The exception of Georgia , twelve colonies sent representatives to the First Continental Congress to agree on a unified response to the crisis. Many of the delegates feared that an all-out boycott would result in war and sent a Petition to the King calling for the repeal of the Intolerable Acts. However, after some debate, on September 17, 1774, Congress endorsed the Massachusetts Suffolk Resolves and on October 20 passed
7665-519: The exception of a minor skirmishing between the two armies which continued until March, Howe made no attempt to attack the Americans. The 1776 campaign demonstrated that regaining New England would be a prolonged affair, which led to a change in British strategy to isolating the north by taking control of the Hudson River , allowing them to focus on the south where Loyalist support was believed to be substantial. In December 1776, Howe wrote to
7770-481: The exemption for Indians from debt repayments to non-Indians, enacted by the 1850 Act for the protection of the Indians in Upper Canada , as no longer applying after enfranchisement. Section 3 of the act outlined the conditions that needed to be met by Indians applying for enfranchisement, as well as how their applications would be assessed. Only men over the age of 21 could apply - they would then be examined by
7875-606: The expansion of this process in the Gradual Enfranchisement Act of 1869 and the Indian Act of 1876. Department officials and missionaries blamed the failure of the act (with only one successful enfranchisement) on the resistance of tribal councils, and mounted a political campaign against Indian self-governance in the 1860s. They argued that tribal authorities were "the major block on the road to civilization". The Gradual Civilization Act had already granted
7980-562: The face of enemy fire. The successes led to predictions that the British could win within a year. The British established winter quarters in the New York City area and anticipated renewed campaigning the following spring. On the night of December 25–26, 1776, Washington crossed the Delaware River , leading a column of Continental Army troops from today's Bucks County, Pennsylvania , to today's Mercer County, New Jersey , in
8085-604: The fact that each colony argued that their boundaries extended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean . The vast exchange of territory ultimately destabilized existing alliances and trade networks between settlers and Indians in the west, while it proved impossible to prevent encroachment beyond the Proclamation Line. With the exception of Virginia and others deprived of rights to western lands,
8190-889: The first auditor general and the Audit Board, a new government department, which reviewed the public accounts. The Speaker of this parliament was Louis-Victor Sicotte . American Revolutionary War American and allied victory Great Britain cedes generally, all mainland territories east of the Mississippi River , south of the Great Lakes , and north of the Floridas to the United States . [REDACTED] Great Britain Combatants The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as
8295-465: The government of the new Dominion of Canada . Milloy claims that the act marked a change in the fundamental political ideology behind the government's legal treatment of Indians: the goal of 'civilization' changed to mean the total absorption of their lands and peoples into colonial society, as opposed to their development as a separate culture. The act established enfranchisement as the process through which this "eradication" could be achieved, leading to
8400-724: The independence and sovereignty of the United States. After the British Empire gained dominance in North America with victory over the French in the Seven Years' War in 1763, tensions and disputes arose between Great Britain and the Thirteen Colonies over a variety of issues, including the Stamp and Townshend Acts . The resulting British military occupation led to the Boston Massacre in 1770. Among further tensions,
8505-475: The logistical difficulties involved and Burgoyne erroneously assumed Howe would remain on the defensive; Germain's failure to make this clear meant he opted to attack Philadelphia instead. Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777, with a mixed force of British regulars, professional German soldiers and Canadian militia, and captured Fort Ticonderoga on July 5. As General Horatio Gates retreated, his troops blocked roads, destroyed bridges, dammed streams, and stripped
8610-462: The loss of 'Indian status' for the man that applied, his wife, and all his future descendants. The act's policies discriminated based on gender, providing Indian women with less rights than Indian men. Women were given no legal autonomy over the society and culture they belonged to - if their husband was enfranchised, a woman was automatically enfranchised and lost her 'Indian status'. Kirkby claims this "reflected Victorian discourses of masculinity as
8715-503: The loss of 3,000 prisoners. The remaining American regiments on Long Island fell back four days later. General Henry Clinton wanted to pursue Washington's disorganized army, but he was first required to commit 6,000 troops to capture Newport, Rhode Island , to secure the Loyalist port. General Charles Cornwallis pursued Washington, but Howe ordered him to halt. The outlook following the defeat at Fort Washington appeared bleak for
8820-473: The night of August 28, Knox bombarded the British. Knowing they were up against overwhelming odds, Washington ordered the assembly of a war council on August 29; all agreed to retreat to Manhattan. Washington quickly had his troops assembled and ferried them across the East River to Manhattan on flat-bottomed freight boats without any losses in men or ordnance, leaving General Thomas Mifflin 's regiments as
8925-440: The night, Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis, then defeated his rearguard in the Battle of Princeton the following day. The two victories helped convince the French that the Americans were worthy military allies. After his success at Princeton, Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey , where he remained until May and received Congressional direction to inoculate all Patriot troops against smallpox . With
9030-601: The objective of 'civilization'. Driven by Protestant sects in the colonies and Britain, a growing ideological movement emphasised the government's responsibility to 'civilise' the Indians, which would entail both their conversion to Christianity and their adoption of European cultural and societal values. This political pressure led to the creation of Indian reserves in Upper and Lower Canada in 1830, where Indians would be trained in farming practices and technical skills, receive an English education, and become Christianised through
9135-491: The petition to the king. Although constitutionally correct, since George could not oppose his own government, it disappointed those Americans who hoped he would mediate in the dispute, while the hostility of his language annoyed even Loyalist members of Congress. Combined with the Proclamation of Rebellion , issued on August 23 in response to the Battle at Bunker Hill , it ended hopes of a peaceful settlement. Backed by
9240-507: The poorer classes, and quickly became a source of much discontent. The 1763 to 1765 Grenville ministry instructed the Royal Navy to cease trading smuggled goods and enforce customs duties levied in American ports. The most important was the 1733 Molasses Act ; routinely ignored before 1763, it had a significant economic impact since 85% of New England rum exports were manufactured from imported molasses. These measures were followed by
9345-506: The principal instigators of the rebellion. The operation was to begin around midnight on April 19, in the hope of completing it before the American Patriots could respond. However, Paul Revere learned of the plan and notified Captain Parker , commander of the Concord militia, who prepared to resist. The first action of the war, commonly referred to as the shot heard round the world , was
9450-644: The principle of taxation by Parliament. In December 1773, a group called the Sons of Liberty disguised as Mohawk natives dumped 342 crates of tea into the Boston Harbor , an event later known as the Boston Tea Party . The British Parliament responded by passing the so-called Intolerable Acts , aimed specifically at Massachusetts, although many colonists and members of the Whig opposition considered them
9555-634: The principles of the Royal Proclamation of 1763. Following the act's enactment, many of the tribal councils announced their disapproval of its policies, recognising that enfranchisement and the individual allotment of reserve land violated their constitutional right to exclusive control over their lands and people. Tribal leaders stated that the act was designed to "break [us] into pieces" and "separate our peoples". Milloy claims that government officials came to be viewed as "aggressive and disruptive agents of assimilation". The Confederacy Council of
9660-469: The recruitment of new regiments, while allowing Catholics to enlist for the first time. Britain also signed a series of treaties with German states to supply additional troops . Within a year, it had an army of over 32,000 men in America, the largest ever sent outside Europe at the time. The employment of German soldiers against people viewed as British citizens was opposed by many in Parliament and by
9765-478: The settler population. This objective was entrenched in law with the passing of the Gradual Civilization Act in 1857, establishing a legal process through which reserve Indians could become enfranchised and receive an individual allotment of land. The act's opening preamble stated its intended purpose as enabling the assimilation of Indian persons through voluntary enfranchisement. Whereas it
9870-475: The split as 40% Patriot, 40% neutral, 20% Loyalist, but with considerable regional variations. At the onset of the war, the Second Continental Congress realized defeating Britain required foreign alliances and intelligence-gathering. The Committee of Secret Correspondence was formed for "the sole purpose of corresponding with our friends in Great Britain and other parts of the world". From 1775 to 1776,
9975-588: The tensions created by colonial encroachment on Indian land when this led to the Mohawk declaring the Covenant Chain , a symbol of the alliance built between the British and the Iroquois Confederacy over the preceding century, broken in 1753. The loss of this strategic ally posed a significant threat to Britain's military position in North America, becoming a major concern with the outbreak of
10080-495: The town. Morale among his troops rapidly declined, and an unsuccessful attempt to break past Gates at the Battle of Freeman Farms on September 19 resulted in 600 British casualties. When Clinton advised he could not reach them, Burgoyne's subordinates advised retreat; a reconnaissance in force on October 7 was repulsed by Gates at the Battle of Bemis Heights , forcing them back into Saratoga with heavy losses. By October 11, all hope of escape had vanished; persistent rain reduced
10185-465: The trend, initiated in Lower Canadian legislature in 1850, of the colonial government deciding who qualified as an Indian. The act's legal definition of a 'status Indian' replaced the traditional "community-based and self-identification approach" of the Indian tribes. The act also introduced a mechanism for the government to reduce the number of Indians with this status: enfranchisement would mean
10290-483: The wake of the American defeat, especially in New York state . In London, news of the victorious Long Island campaign was well received with festivities held in the capital. Public support reached a peak. Strategic deficiencies among Patriot forces were evident: Washington divided a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one, his inexperienced staff misread the military situation, and American troops fled in
10395-690: The war were formalized with passage of the Lee Resolution by the Congress in Philadelphia on July 2, 1776, and the unanimous ratification of the Declaration of Independence two days later, on July 4, 1776. After a successful siege , Washington's forces drove the British Army out of Boston in March 1776, and British commander in chief William Howe responded by launching the New York and New Jersey campaign . Howe captured New York City in November. Washington responded by clandestinely crossing
10500-579: The wider global conflict known as the Seven Years' War , ended with the 1763 Peace of Paris , which expelled France from their possessions in New France . Acquisition of territories in Atlantic Canada and West Florida , inhabited largely by French and Spanish-speaking Catholics , led British authorities to consolidate their hold by populating them with English-speaking settlers. Preventing conflict between settlers and Indian tribes west of
10605-479: The work of missionaries . The Act for the Protection of the Indians in Upper Canada (1839) classified the reserves as Crown lands. In 1850, further protective acts were passed in both Upper and Lower Canada: Indians living on reserves were designated as exempt from taxation, and colonials were prohibited from trespassing on Indian lands or seizing them in the case of unpaid debts. In the act for Lower Canada,
10710-536: Was a viable possibility. France signed a commercial agreement with the rebels, followed by a Treaty of Alliance in February 1778. In 1779, the Sullivan Expedition undertook a scorched earth campaign against the Iroquois who were largely allied with the British. Indian raids on the American frontier, however, continued to be a problem. Also, in 1779, Spain allied with France against Great Britain in
10815-595: Was dissolved in November 1857. In 1854 and 1855, measures were introduced to abolish seigneurial tenure in Canada East and the clergy reserves in Canada West. The Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty was negotiated in 1854. In 1855, a bill was passed to make the Legislative Council an elected body, effective the following year. The Audit Act of 1855 established an auditor of public accounts,
10920-595: Was initially blocked by American naval vessels on Lake Champlain until victory at Valcour Island on October 11 forced the Americans to withdraw to Fort Ticonderoga , while in December an uprising in Nova Scotia sponsored by Massachusetts was defeated at Fort Cumberland . These failures impacted public support for the Patriot cause, and aggressive anti-Loyalist policies in the New England colonies alienated
11025-522: Was ordered to form an elite group for reconnaissance and secret missions. Knowlton's Rangers , which included Nathan Hale , became the Army's first intelligence unit. When Washington was driven off Long Island , he soon realized that he would need to professionalize military intelligence. With aid from Benjamin Tallmadge , Washington launched the six-man Culper spy ring . The efforts of Washington and
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