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73-535: The actions in a GUI are usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements. Beyond computers, GUIs are used in many handheld mobile devices such as MP3 players, portable media players, gaming devices, smartphones and smaller household, office and industrial controls . The term GUI tends not to be applied to other lower- display resolution types of interfaces , such as video games (where head-up displays ( HUDs ) are preferred), or not including flat screens like volumetric displays because

146-420: A windowing system in a graphical user interface . Most window managers are designed to help provide a desktop environment . They work in conjunction with the underlying graphical system that provides required functionality—support for graphics hardware, pointing devices, and a keyboard—and are often written and created using a widget toolkit . Few window managers are designed with a clear distinction between

219-474: A GUI and some level of a CLI, although the GUIs usually receive more attention. GUI wrappers find a way around the command-line interface versions (CLI) of (typically) Linux and Unix-like software applications and their text-based UIs or typed command labels. While command-line or text-based applications allow users to run a program non-interactively, GUI wrappers atop them avoid the steep learning curve of

292-612: A GUI was the 1979 PERQ workstation , manufactured by Three Rivers Computer Corporation. Its design was heavily influenced by the work at Xerox PARC. In 1981, Xerox eventually commercialized the ideas from the Alto in the form of a new and enhanced system – the Xerox 8010 Information System – more commonly known as the Xerox Star . These early systems spurred many other GUI efforts, including Lisp machines by Symbolics and other manufacturers,

365-410: A combination of technologies and devices to provide a platform that users can interact with, for the tasks of gathering and producing information. A series of elements conforming a visual language have evolved to represent information stored in computers. This makes it easier for people with few computer skills to work with and use computer software. The most common combination of such elements in GUIs

438-404: A great deal of variety in interface look and feel, and for the presence of advanced 2D and 3D visual effects. All window managers that have overlapping windows and are not compositing window managers are stacking window managers , although it is possible that not all use the same methods. Stacking window managers allow windows to overlap by drawing background windows first, which is referred to as

511-507: A grid of items with rows of text extending sideways from the icon. Multi-row and multi-column layouts commonly found on the web are "shelf" and "waterfall". The former is found on image search engines , where images appear with a fixed height but variable length, and is typically implemented with the CSS property and parameter display: inline-block; . A waterfall layout found on Imgur and TweetDeck with fixed width but variable height per item

584-403: A major success in the marketplace at launch and shortly became the most popular desktop operating system. In 2007, with the iPhone and later in 2010 with the introduction of the iPad , Apple popularized the post-WIMP style of interaction for multi-touch screens, and those devices were considered to be milestones in the development of mobile devices . The GUIs familiar to most people as of

657-474: A retail store, airline self-ticket and check-in, information kiosks in a public space, like a train station or a museum, and monitors or control screens in an embedded industrial application which employ a real-time operating system (RTOS). Cell phones and handheld game systems also employ application specific touchscreen GUIs. Newer automobiles use GUIs in their navigation systems and multimedia centers, or navigation multimedia center combinations. A GUI uses

730-413: A short sequence of words and symbols. Custom functions may be used to facilitate access to frequent actions. Command-line interfaces are more lightweight , as they only recall information necessary for a task; for example, no preview thumbnails or graphical rendering of web pages. This allows greater efficiency and productivity once many commands are learned. But reaching this level takes some time because

803-428: A system or moved about to different places during redesigns. Also, icons and dialog boxes are usually harder for users to script. WIMPs extensively use modes , as the meaning of all keys and clicks on specific positions on the screen are redefined all the time. Command-line interfaces use modes only in limited forms, such as for current directory and environment variables . Most modern operating systems provide both

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876-570: A taskbar and file manager, along with many functions of a window manager; aspects of Windows can be modified through the provided configuration utilities, modifying the Windows Registry or with 3rd party tools, such as WindowBlinds or Resource Hacker . A complete X Windows Server, allowing the use of window managers ported from the unixoid world can also be provided for Microsoft Windows through Cygwin/X even in multiwindow mode (and by other X Window System implementations). Thereby, it

949-530: A television commercial which introduced the Apple Macintosh during the telecast of Super Bowl XVIII by CBS , with allusions to George Orwell 's noted novel Nineteen Eighty-Four . The goal of the commercial was to make people think about computers, identifying the user-friendly interface as a personal computer which departed from prior business-oriented systems, and becoming a signature representation of Apple products. In 1985, Commodore released

1022-413: A transformation (translation and rotation), but it is sometimes positioned and directed simply with its endpoint positions. This is because it may be more intuitive to define the location of the light source and then define the light's target, rather than rotating it around the coordinate axes to point it at a known position. Other widgets may be unique for a particular tool, such as edge controls to change

1095-420: A variety of tiling window managers for X are available, such as i3 , awesome , and dwm . Dynamic window managers can dynamically switch between tiling or floating window layout. A variety of dynamic window managers for X are available. An active window is the currently focused window in the current window manager. Different window managers indicate the currently-active window in different ways and allow

1168-448: A window by dragging it with the mouse. In early systems, redrawing the window while dragging was not feasible due to computational limitations. Instead, a rectangular outline of the window was drawn while dragging. The complete window contents were redrawn once the user released the mouse button. Because of the difficulty of visualizing and manipulating various aspects of computer graphics, including geometry creation and editing, animation,

1241-446: Is a mostly solved and standardized UI. However, the user interfaces for 3D computer graphics are usually either challenging to learn and use and not sufficiently powerful for complex tasks and/or difficult to learn and use, so direct manipulation and user interfaces will vary wildly from application to application. Window manager A window manager is system software that controls the placement and appearance of windows within

1314-672: Is a related technology that promises to deliver the representation benefits of 3D environments without their usability drawbacks of orientation problems and hidden objects. In 2006, Hillcrest Labs introduced the first ZUI for television. Other innovations include the menus on the PlayStation 2 , the menus on the Xbox , Sun's Project Looking Glass , Metisse , which was similar to Project Looking Glass, BumpTop , where users can manipulate documents and windows with realistic movement and physics as if they were physical documents, Croquet OS , which

1387-412: Is active—for example, the active window's button may appear “pushed in”. It is also usually possible to switch the active window by clicking on the appropriate button. In Microsoft Windows, this area of the screen is called the taskbar ; in Apple Macintosh systems this area of the screen is called the dock. The active window may not always lie in front of all other windows on the screen. The active window

1460-461: Is an approach to interfaces which involves continuous representation of objects of interest together with rapid, reversible, and incremental actions and feedback. As opposed to other interaction styles, for example, the command language , the intention of direct manipulation is to allow a user to manipulate objects presented to them, using actions that correspond at least loosely to manipulation of physical objects . An example of direct manipulation

1533-452: Is built for collaboration, and compositing window managers such as Enlightenment and Compiz . Augmented reality and virtual reality also make use of 3D GUI elements. 3D GUIs have appeared in science fiction literature and films , even before certain technologies were feasible or in common use. Direct manipulation interface In computer science , human–computer interaction , and interaction design , direct manipulation

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1606-478: Is easily possible to e.g. have X Window System client programs running either in the same Cygwin environment on the same machine, or on a Linux, BSD Unix etc. system via the network, and only their GUI being displayed and usable on top of the Microsoft Windows environment. Note that Microsoft and X Window System use different terms to describe similar concepts. For example, there is rarely any mention of

1679-417: Is especially common with applications designed for Unix-like operating systems. The latter used to be implemented first because it allowed the developers to focus exclusively on their product's functionality without bothering about interface details such as designing icons and placing buttons. Designing programs this way also allows users to run the program in a shell script . Many environments and games use

1752-667: Is represented by rotating a cube with faces representing each user's workspace, and window management is represented via a Rolodex -style flipping mechanism in Windows Vista (see Windows Flip 3D ). In both cases, the operating system transforms windows on-the-fly while continuing to update the content of those windows. The GUI is usually WIMP-based, although occasionally other metaphors surface, such as those used in Microsoft Bob , 3dwm, File System Navigator, File System Visualizer , 3D Mailbox, and GopherVR . Zooming (ZUI)

1825-403: Is resizing a graphical shape , such as a rectangle, by dragging its corners or edges with a mouse . Having real-world metaphors for objects and actions can make it easier for a user to learn and use an interface (some might say that the interface is more natural or intuitive), and rapid, incremental feedback allows a user to make fewer errors and complete tasks in less time, because they can see

1898-402: Is simply the window to which keys typed on the keyboard are sent; it may be visually obscured by other windows. This is especially true in window managers which do not require a click to change active windows: FVWM , for example, makes active the window under the mouse cursor but does not change its Z-order (the order in which windows appear, measured from background to foreground). Instead, it

1971-403: Is still an active area of invention and innovation. The process of generating CG images is not considered to be intuitive or easy in comparison to the difficulty of what the user wants to do, especially for complex and less common tasks. The user interface for word processing, for example, is commonly used. It is easy to learn for new users and is sufficient for most word processing purposes, so it

2044-439: Is the windows, icons, text fields, canvases, menus, pointer ( WIMP ) paradigm, especially in personal computers . The WIMP style of interaction uses a virtual input device to represent the position of a pointing device's interface , most often a mouse , and presents information organized in windows and represented with icons . Available commands are compiled together in menus, and actions are performed making gestures with

2117-554: Is usually implemented by specifying column-width: . Smaller app mobile devices such as personal digital assistants (PDAs) and smartphones typically use the WIMP elements with different unifying metaphors, due to constraints in space and available input devices. Applications for which WIMP is not well suited may use newer interaction techniques , collectively termed post-WIMP UIs. As of 2011, some touchscreen-based operating systems such as Apple's iOS ( iPhone ) and Android use

2190-450: The Amiga 1000 , along with Workbench and Kickstart 1.0 (which contained Intuition ). This interface ran as a separate task, meaning it was very responsive and, unlike other GUIs of the time, it didn't freeze up when a program was busy. Additionally, it was the first GUI to introduce something resembling Virtual Desktops . Windows 95 , accompanied by an extensive marketing campaign, was

2263-810: The Apple Lisa (which presented the concept of menu bar and window controls ) in 1983, the Apple Macintosh 128K in 1984, and the Atari ST with Digital Research 's GEM , and Commodore Amiga in 1985. Visi On was released in 1983 for the IBM PC compatible computers, but was never popular due to its high hardware demands. Nevertheless, it was a crucial influence on the contemporary development of Microsoft Windows . Apple, Digital Research, IBM and Microsoft used many of Xerox's ideas to develop products, and IBM's Common User Access specifications formed

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2336-501: The cursor (or rather pointer ) control: mouse , pointing stick , touchpad , trackball , joystick , virtual keyboards , and head-up displays (translucent information devices at the eye level). There are also actions performed by programs that affect the GUI. For example, there are components like inotify or D-Bus to facilitate communication between computer programs. Ivan Sutherland developed Sketchpad in 1963, widely held as

2409-559: The painter's algorithm . Changes sometimes require that all windows be re-stacked or repainted, which usually involves redrawing every window. However, to bring a background window to the front usually only requires that one window be redrawn, since background windows may have bits of other windows painted over them, effectively erasing the areas that are covered. Tiling window managers paint all windows on-screen by placing them side by side or above and below each other, so that no window ever covers another. Microsoft Windows 1.0 used tiling, and

2482-406: The window decorations from KWin can be used with the desktop and dock components of GNOME. X window managers also have the ability to re-parent applications, meaning that, while initially all applications are adopted by the root window (essentially the whole screen), an application started within the root window can be adopted by (i.e., put inside of) another window. Window managers under

2555-665: The windowing system and the window manager. Every graphical user interface based on a windows metaphor has some form of window management. In practice, the elements of this functionality vary greatly. Elements usually associated with window managers allow the user to open, close, minimize, maximize, move, resize, and keep track of running windows, including window decorators . Many window managers also come with various utilities and features such as task bars , program launchers, docks to facilitate halving or quartering windows on screen, workspaces for grouping windows, desktop icons , wallpaper, an ability to keep select windows in foreground,

2628-627: The 1970s, Engelbart's ideas were further refined and extended to graphics by researchers at Xerox PARC and specifically Alan Kay , who went beyond text-based hyperlinks and used a GUI as the main interface for the Smalltalk programming language , which ran on the Xerox Alto computer , released in 1973. Most modern general-purpose GUIs are derived from this system. The Xerox PARC GUI consisted of graphical elements such as windows , menus , radio buttons , and check boxes . The concept of icons

2701-536: The Presentation Manager of OS/2 1.x for the object-oriented Workplace Shell that made its debut in OS/2 2.0. On systems using the X window system , there is a clear distinction between the window manager and the windowing system . Strictly speaking, an X window manager does not directly interact with video hardware, mice, or keyboards – that is the responsibility of the display server . Users of

2774-647: The X Window System have the ability to easily use many different window managers – Metacity , used in GNOME 2 , and KWin , used in KDE Plasma Workspaces , and many others. Since many window managers are modular, people can use others, such as Compiz (a 3D compositing window manager ), which replaces the window manager. Sawfish and awesome on the other hand are extensible window managers offering exacting window control. Components of different window managers can even be mixed and matched; for example,

2847-447: The X window system adopt applications from the root window and re-parent them to apply window decorations (for example, adding a title bar). Re-parenting can also be used to add the contents of one window to another. For example, a flash player application can be re-parented to a browser window, and can appear to the user as supposedly being part of that program. Re-parenting window managers can therefore arrange one or more programs within

2920-403: The ability to "roll up" windows to show only their title bars, to cascade windows, to stack windows into a grid, to group windows of the same program in the task bar in order to save space, and optional multi-row taskbars. In 1973, the Xerox Alto became the first computer shipped with a working WIMP GUI . It used a stacking window manager that allowed overlapping windows. However, this

2993-459: The appropriate key combination typically cycles through all visible windows in some order, though other actions are possible. Many, though not all, window managers provide a region of the screen containing some kind of visual control (often a button) for each window on the screen. Each button typically contains the title of the window and may also contain an icon. This area of the screen generally provides some kind of visual indication of which window

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3066-465: The basis of the GUIs used in Microsoft Windows, IBM OS/2 Presentation Manager , and the Unix Motif toolkit and window manager . These ideas evolved to create the interface found in current versions of Microsoft Windows, and in various desktop environments for Unix-like operating systems , such as macOS and Linux . Thus most current GUIs have largely common idioms. GUIs were a hot topic in

3139-400: The class of GUIs named post-WIMP. These support styles of interaction using more than one finger in contact with a display, which allows actions such as pinching and rotating, which are unsupported by one pointer and mouse. Human interface devices , for the efficient interaction with a GUI include a computer keyboard , especially used together with keyboard shortcuts , pointing devices for

3212-457: The command words may not be easily discoverable or mnemonic . Also, using the command line can become slow and error-prone when users must enter long commands comprising many parameters or several different filenames at once. However, windows, icons, menus, pointer ( WIMP ) interfaces present users with many widgets that represent and can trigger some of the system's available commands. GUIs can be made quite hard when dialogs are buried deep in

3285-413: The command-line, which requires commands to be typed on the keyboard . By starting a GUI wrapper, users can intuitively interact with, start, stop, and change its working parameters, through graphical icons and visual indicators of a desktop environment , for example. Applications may also provide both interfaces, and when they do the GUI is usually a WIMP wrapper around the command-line version. This

3358-582: The cone of a spotlight, points and handles to define the position and tangent vector for a spline control point, circles of variable size to define a blur filter width or paintbrush size, IK targets for hands and feet, or color wheels and swatches for quickly choosing colors. Complex widgets may even incorporate some from scientific visualization to efficiently present relevant data (such as vector fields for particle effects or false color images to display vertex maps). Direct manipulation, as well as user interface design in general, for 3D computer graphics tasks,

3431-533: The default shell in OS/2 , which, in its first version, only used a command line interface (CLI). IBM and Microsoft designed OS/2 as a successor to DOS and Windows for DOS. After the success of Windows 3.10, however, Microsoft abandoned the project in favor of Windows. After that, the Microsoft project for a future OS/2 version 3 became Windows NT , and IBM made a complete redesign of the shell of OS/2, substituting

3504-570: The designer's work to change the interface as user needs evolve. Good GUI design relates to users more, and to system architecture less. Large widgets, such as windows , usually provide a frame or container for the main presentation content such as a web page, email message, or drawing. Smaller ones usually act as a user-input tool. A GUI may be designed for the requirements of a vertical market as application-specific GUIs. Examples include automated teller machines (ATM), point of sale (POS) touchscreens at restaurants, self-service checkouts used in

3577-435: The display represents a desktop, on which documents and folders of documents can be placed. Window managers and other software combine to simulate the desktop environment with varying degrees of realism. Entries may appear in a list to make space for text and details, or in a grid for compactness and larger icons with little space underneath for text. Variations in between exist, such as a list with multiple columns of items and

3650-418: The early 1980s. The Apple Lisa was released in 1983, and various windowing systems existed for DOS operating systems (including PC GEM and PC/GEOS ). Individual applications for many platforms presented their own GUI variants. Despite the GUIs advantages, many reviewers questioned the value of the entire concept, citing hardware limits, and problems in finding compatible software. In 1984, Apple released

3723-611: The first graphical computer-aided design program. It used a light pen to create and manipulate objects in engineering drawings in realtime with coordinated graphics. In the late 1960s, researchers at the Stanford Research Institute , led by Douglas Engelbart , developed the On-Line System (NLS), which used text-based hyperlinks manipulated with a then-new device: the mouse . (A 1968 demonstration of NLS became known as " The Mother of All Demos ".) In

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3796-497: The kernel's graphical subsystems and is largely non-replaceable, although third-party utilities can be used to simulate a tiling window manager on top of such systems. Since Windows 8 , the Direct3D -based Desktop Window Manager can no longer be disabled. It can only be restarted with the hotkey combination Ctrl+Shift+Win+B. Windows Explorer (explorer.exe) is used by default as the shell in modern Windows systems to provide

3869-413: The kind of data they hold. The widgets of a well-designed interface are selected to support the actions necessary to achieve the goals of users. A model–view–controller allows flexible structures in which the interface is independent of and indirectly linked to application functions, so the GUI can be customized easily. This allows users to select or design a different skin or theme at will, and eases

3942-474: The layout of objects and cameras, light placement, and other effects, direct manipulation is a significant part of 3D computer graphics. There is standard direct manipulation widgets as well as many unique widgets that are developed either as a better solution to an old problem or as a solution for a new and/or unique problem. The widgets attempt to allow the user to modify an object in any possible direction while also providing easy guides or constraints to allow

4015-435: The methods of 3D graphics to project 3D GUI objects onto the screen. The use of 3D graphics has become increasingly common in mainstream operating systems (ex. Windows Aero , and Aqua (MacOS)) to create attractive interfaces, termed eye candy (which includes, for example, the use of drop shadows underneath windows and the cursor ), or for functional purposes only possible using three dimensions. For example, user switching

4088-403: The mid-late 2010s are Microsoft Windows , macOS , and the X Window System interfaces for desktop and laptop computers, and Android , Apple's iOS , Symbian , BlackBerry OS , Windows Phone / Windows 10 Mobile , Tizen , WebOS , and Firefox OS for handheld ( smartphone ) devices. Since the commands available in command line interfaces can be many, complex operations can be performed using

4161-565: The need for stacking. The classic Mac OS was one of the earliest commercially successful examples of a GUI that used a sort of stacking window management via QuickDraw . Its successor, macOS , uses a somewhat more advanced window manager that has supported compositing since Mac OS X 10.0 , and was updated in Mac OS X 10.2 to support hardware accelerated compositing via the Quartz Compositor . GEM 1.1 , from Digital Research ,

4234-403: The pointing device. A window manager facilitates the interactions between windows, applications , and the windowing system . The windowing system handles hardware devices such as pointing devices, graphics hardware, and positioning of the pointer. In personal computers , all these elements are modeled through a desktop metaphor to produce a simulation called a desktop environment in which

4307-437: The results of an action before completing the action, thus evaluating the output and compensating for mistakes. The term was introduced by Ben Shneiderman in 1982 within the context of office applications and the desktop metaphor . Individuals in academia and computer scientists doing research on future user interfaces often put as much or even more stress on tactile control and feedback, or sonic control and feedback than on

4380-402: The same window, and can easily combine tiling and stacking in various ways. Microsoft Windows has provided an integrated stacking window manager since Windows 2.0 ; Windows Vista introduced the compositing Desktop Window Manager (dwm.exe) as an optional hardware-accelerated alternative. In Windows, since GDI is part of the kernel, the role of the window manager is tightly coupled with

4453-504: The screen that required refresh. Additionally, Intuition supported compositing. Applications could first request a region of memory outside the current display region for use as bitmap. The Amiga windowing system would then use a series of bit blits using the system's hardware blitter to build a composite of these applications' bitmaps, along with buttons and sliders, in display memory, without requiring these applications to redraw any of their bitmaps. In 1988, Presentation Manager became

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4526-554: The stacking capabilities in GEM 2.0, making its window manager a tiling window manager. During the mid-1980s, Amiga OS contained an early example of a compositing window manager called Intuition (one of the low-level libraries of AmigaOS, which was present in Amiga system ROMs ), capable of recognizing which windows or portions of them were covered, and which windows were in the foreground and fully visible, so it could draw only parts of

4599-764: The term window manager by Microsoft because it is integrated and non-replaceable, and distinct from the shell . The Windows Shell is analogous to the desktop environment concept in other graphical user interface systems. Since 2021 ChromeOS is shipped with its own window manager called Ash. Chromium and ash share common codebase . In the past one could run it by using google-chrome --open-ash on any compatible systems. Window managers are often divided into three or more classes, which describe how windows are drawn and updated. Compositing window managers let all windows be created and drawn separately and then put together and displayed in various 2D and 3D environments. The most advanced compositing window managers allow for

4672-505: The term is restricted to the scope of 2D display screens able to describe generic information, in the tradition of the computer science research at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center . Designing the visual composition and temporal behavior of a GUI is an important part of software application programming in the area of human–computer interaction . Its goal is to enhance the efficiency and ease of use for

4745-453: The underlying logical design of a stored program , a design discipline named usability . Methods of user-centered design are used to ensure that the visual language introduced in the design is well-tailored to the tasks. The visible graphical interface features of an application are sometimes referred to as chrome or GUI . Typically, users interact with information by manipulating visual widgets that allow for interactions appropriate to

4818-399: The use of windows or even graphical output. For example, direct manipulation concepts can be applied to interfaces for blind or vision-impaired users, using a combination of tactile and sonic devices and software. Compromises to the degree to which an interface implements direct manipulation are frequently seen. For some examples, most versions of windowing interfaces allow users to reposition

4891-420: The user to easily modify an object in the most common directions, while also attempting to be as intuitive as to the function of the widget as possible. The three most ubiquitous transformation widgets are mostly standardized and are: Depending on the specific standard uses of an object, different kinds of widgets may be used. For example, a light in computer graphics is, like any other object, also defined by

4964-462: The user to switch between windows in different ways. For example, in Microsoft Windows, if both Notepad and Microsoft Paint are open, clicking in the Notepad window will cause that window to become active. In Windows, the active window is indicated by having a different colored title bar. Clicking is not the only way of selecting an active window, however: some window managers (such as FVWM ) make

5037-417: The visual feedback given by most GUIs . As a result, the term has been more widespread in these environments. Direct manipulation is closely associated with interfaces that use windows, icons, menus, and a pointing device ( WIMP GUI) as these almost always incorporate direct manipulation to at least some degree. However, direct manipulation should not be confused with these other terms, as it does not imply

5110-412: The window under the mouse pointer active—simply moving the mouse is sufficient to switch windows; a click is not needed. Window managers often provide a way to select the active window using the keyboard as an alternative to the mouse. One typical key combination is Alt+Tab , used by Windows and KDE (by default, though this is user-configurable); another is apple key -tilde, used by Macintosh. Pressing

5183-409: Was a operating environment that included a stacking window manager, allowing all windows to overlap. It was released in the early 1980s. GEM is famous for having been included as the main GUI used on the Atari ST , which ran Atari TOS , and was also a popular GUI for MS-DOS prior to the widespread use of Microsoft Windows. As a result of a lawsuit by Apple , Digital Research was forced to remove

5256-493: Was later introduced by David Canfield Smith , who had written a thesis on the subject under the guidance of Kay. The PARC GUI employs a pointing device along with a keyboard. These aspects can be emphasized by using the alternative term and acronym for windows, icons, menus, pointing device ( WIMP ). This effort culminated in the 1973 Xerox Alto , the first computer with a GUI, though the system never reached commercial production. The first commercially available computer with

5329-468: Was so far ahead of its time that its design paradigm would not become widely adopted until more than a decade later. While it is unclear if Microsoft Windows contains designs copied from Apple's classic Mac OS , it is clear that neither was the first to produce a GUI using stacking windows. In the early 1980s, the Xerox Star , successor to the Alto, used tiling for most main application windows, and used overlapping only for dialogue boxes, removing most of

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