96-643: The Great Laxey Mine was a silver, lead ore and zinc mine located in Laxey , in the parish of Lonan , Isle of Man . The mine reached a depth in excess of 2,200 ft (670 m) and consisted primarily of three shafts: the Welsh Shaft, the Dumbell's Shaft and the Engine Shaft; each of these shafts was connected by a series of levels. The Isle of Man contains a large variety of minerals. Copper ore
192-414: A covered sump (a hole made in the floor of a level in the direction of a lower level, being used for ventilation) the depth of which was approximately 27 ft (8.2 m). In this case however, the sump did not go through to the lower level, but was filled with water to approximately 10 ft (3.0 m) of the covering. To the search party it was obvious that the scaffold had collapsed resulting in
288-433: A density of 11.34 g/cm , which is greater than that of common metals such as iron (7.87 g/cm ), copper (8.93 g/cm ), and zinc (7.14 g/cm ). This density is the origin of the idiom to go over like a lead balloon . Some rarer metals are denser: tungsten and gold are both at 19.3 g/cm , and osmium —the densest metal known—has a density of 22.59 g/cm , almost twice that of lead. Lead
384-408: A dramatic increase in the price of the mine company shares: shares trading for £34 in the late 1820s were trading for between £1,500 and £2,000 by 1833. In late 1833 the mine sustained significant damage when the river overflowed its banks and flooded the shaft, and the mine was not operational again until the end of February 1834. In part payment for their labour, the owners allowed the miners to keep
480-492: A few radioactive isotopes. One of them is lead-210; although it has a half-life of only 22.2 years, small quantities occur in nature because lead-210 is produced by a long decay series that starts with uranium-238 (that has been present for billions of years on Earth). Lead-211, −212, and −214 are present in the decay chains of uranium-235, thorium-232, and uranium-238, respectively, so traces of all three of these lead isotopes are found naturally. Minute traces of lead-209 arise from
576-548: A higher standard of ore than Foxdale , this being evident in the appearance of the respective specimens and bearing testimony to Laxey being considered as one of the richest ore mines in the British Isles. Visitors to Laxey Wheel today can view displays about the mine and can venture a short distance into the adit. Bibliography Lead ore Lead (pronounced "led") is a chemical element ; it has symbol Pb (from Latin plumbum ) and atomic number 82. It
672-558: A neutron and become thallium-204; this undergoes beta decay to give stable lead-204; on capturing another neutron, it becomes lead-205, which has a half-life of around 17 million years. Further captures result in lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208. On capturing another neutron, lead-208 becomes lead-209, which quickly decays into bismuth-209. On capturing another neutron, bismuth-209 becomes bismuth-210, and this beta decays to polonium-210, which alpha decays to lead-206. The cycle hence ends at lead-206, lead-207, lead-208, and bismuth-209. In
768-466: A polyhedral vertex and contributes two electrons to each covalent bond along an edge from their sp hybrid orbitals, the other two being an external lone pair . They may be made in liquid ammonia via the reduction of lead by sodium . Lead can form multiply-bonded chains , a property it shares with its lighter homologs in the carbon group. Its capacity to do so is much less because the Pb–Pb bond energy
864-406: A possible heavy rock fall from the vicinity of the shaft choking up the shaft below the adit , heavy timber was placed across the pit, and deflected a further fall as a result of the fire. Water continued to be poured down the mouth of the shaft, being effective in putting out the fire, enabling men to directly extinguish the smoldering timbers and make secure the sides of the shaft. As opposed to
960-406: A result of the flooding, and the men had been detailed to clear away debris, examine the level and prepare it for carrying out further repairs. There was speculation that the men had been testing the covering of the sump when it collapsed. It was determined that the accident occurred shortly after 11:30hrs, this been ascertained by the fact that a watch on one of the miners had stopped at that time and
1056-437: A significant partial positive charge on lead. The result is a stronger contraction of the lead 6s orbital than is the case for the 6p orbital, making it rather inert in ionic compounds. The inert pair effect is less applicable to compounds in which lead forms covalent bonds with elements of similar electronegativity, such as carbon in organolead compounds. In these, the 6s and 6p orbitals remain similarly sized and sp hybridization
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#17327913791891152-438: A single decay chain). In total, 43 lead isotopes have been synthesized, with mass numbers 178–220. Lead-205 is the most stable radioisotope, with a half-life of around 1.70 × 10 years. The second-most stable is lead-202, which has a half-life of about 52,500 years, longer than any of the natural trace radioisotopes. Bulk lead exposed to moist air forms a protective layer of varying composition. Lead(II) carbonate
1248-452: A structure, with every alternate layer of oxygen atoms absent. Negative oxidation states can occur as Zintl phases , as either free lead anions, as in Ba 2 Pb, with lead formally being lead(−IV), or in oxygen-sensitive ring-shaped or polyhedral cluster ions such as the trigonal bipyramidal Pb 5 ion, where two lead atoms are lead(−I) and three are lead(0). In such anions, each atom is at
1344-477: A watch on another miner a few minutes later. There was no evidence of a rock fall in the vicinity ruling out that as a contributory factor. An Inquest into the deaths of the miners opened on Tuesday 13 December, presided over by the High Bailiff of Castletown , James Gell , who was deputising for Samuel Harris . The funerals of the victims also took place on Tuesday 13 December, at Lonan Churchyard, with
1440-660: Is 6 feet (1.8 m) wide and revolves approximately three times per minute. The wheel was built in 1854 to pump water from the Glen Mooar part of the Great Laxey Mines industrial complex. It was named Lady Isabella after the wife of Lieutenant Governor Charles Hope , who was the island's governor at that time. The wheel is currently maintained by Manx National Heritage as part of the Great Laxey Wheel & Mines Trail. The wheel features today on
1536-590: Is 6 times higher, copper 10 times, and mild steel 15 times higher); it can be strengthened by adding small amounts of copper or antimony . The melting point of lead—at 327.5 °C (621.5 °F) —is very low compared to most metals. Its boiling point of 1749 °C (3180 °F) is the lowest among the carbon-group elements. The electrical resistivity of lead at 20 °C is 192 nanoohm -meters, almost an order of magnitude higher than those of other industrial metals (copper at 15.43 nΩ·m ; gold 20.51 nΩ·m ; and aluminium at 24.15 nΩ·m ). Lead
1632-420: Is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable , and also has a relatively low melting point . When freshly cut, lead is a shiny gray with a hint of blue. It tarnishes to a dull gray color when exposed to air. Lead has the highest atomic number of any stable element and three of its isotopes are endpoints of major nuclear decay chains of heavier elements. Lead
1728-520: Is a neurotoxin that accumulates in soft tissues and bones. It damages the nervous system and interferes with the function of biological enzymes , causing neurological disorders ranging from behavioral problems to brain damage, and also affects general health, cardiovascular, and renal systems. Lead's toxicity was first documented by ancient Greek and Roman writers, who noted some of the symptoms of lead poisoning , but became widely recognized in Europe in
1824-401: Is a superconductor at temperatures lower than 7.19 K ; this is the highest critical temperature of all type-I superconductors and the third highest of the elemental superconductors. Natural lead consists of four stable isotopes with mass numbers of 204, 206, 207, and 208, and traces of six short-lived radioisotopes with mass numbers 209–214 inclusive. The high number of isotopes
1920-420: Is a common constituent; the sulfate or chloride may also be present in urban or maritime settings. This layer makes bulk lead effectively chemically inert in the air. Finely powdered lead, as with many metals, is pyrophoric , and burns with a bluish-white flame. Fluorine reacts with lead at room temperature, forming lead(II) fluoride . The reaction with chlorine is similar but requires heating, as
2016-780: Is a mixed sulfide derived from galena; anglesite , PbSO 4 , is a product of galena oxidation; and cerussite or white lead ore, PbCO 3 , is a decomposition product of galena. Arsenic , tin , antimony , silver , gold , copper , bismuth are common impurities in lead minerals. World lead resources exceed two billion tons. Significant deposits are located in Australia, China, Ireland, Mexico, Peru, Portugal, Russia, United States. Global reserves—resources that are economically feasible to extract—totaled 88 million tons in 2016, of which Australia had 35 million, China 17 million, Russia 6.4 million. Typical background concentrations of lead do not exceed 0.1 μg/m in
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#17327913791892112-420: Is a relatively unreactive post-transition metal . Its weak metallic character is illustrated by its amphoteric nature; lead and lead oxides react with acids and bases , and it tends to form covalent bonds . Compounds of lead are usually found in the +2 oxidation state rather than the +4 state common with lighter members of the carbon group . Exceptions are mostly limited to organolead compounds . Like
2208-426: Is a strong oxidizing agent, capable of oxidizing hydrochloric acid to chlorine gas. This is because the expected PbCl 4 that would be produced is unstable and spontaneously decomposes to PbCl 2 and Cl 2 . Analogously to lead monoxide , lead dioxide is capable of forming plumbate anions. Lead disulfide and lead diselenide are only stable at high pressures. Lead tetrafluoride , a yellow crystalline powder,
2304-404: Is a very soft metal with a Mohs hardness of 1.5; it can be scratched with a fingernail. It is quite malleable and somewhat ductile. The bulk modulus of lead—a measure of its ease of compressibility—is 45.8 GPa . In comparison, that of aluminium is 75.2 GPa; copper 137.8 GPa; and mild steel 160–169 GPa. Lead's tensile strength , at 12–17 MPa, is low (that of aluminium
2400-445: Is common for the carbon group. The divalent state is rare for carbon and silicon , minor for germanium, important (but not prevailing) for tin, and is the more important of the two oxidation states for lead. This is attributable to relativistic effects , specifically the inert pair effect , which manifests itself when there is a large difference in electronegativity between lead and oxide , halide , or nitride anions, leading to
2496-408: Is consistent with lead's atomic number being even. Lead has a magic number of protons (82), for which the nuclear shell model accurately predicts an especially stable nucleus. Lead-208 has 126 neutrons, another magic number, which may explain why lead-208 is extraordinarily stable. With its high atomic number, lead is the heaviest element whose natural isotopes are regarded as stable; lead-208
2592-414: Is exploited in the synthesis of other lead compounds. Few inorganic lead(IV) compounds are known. They are only formed in highly oxidizing solutions and do not normally exist under standard conditions. Lead(II) oxide gives a mixed oxide on further oxidation, Pb 3 O 4 . It is described as lead(II,IV) oxide , or structurally 2PbO·PbO 2 , and is the best-known mixed valence lead compound. Lead dioxide
2688-502: Is more prevalent than most other elements with atomic numbers greater than 40. Primordial lead—which comprises the isotopes lead-204, lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208—was mostly created as a result of repetitive neutron capture processes occurring in stars. The two main modes of capture are the s- and r-processes . In the s-process (s is for "slow"), captures are separated by years or decades, allowing less stable nuclei to undergo beta decay . A stable thallium-203 nucleus can capture
2784-650: Is not stable, as both the lead(III) ion and the larger complexes containing it are radicals . The same applies for lead(I), which can be found in such radical species. Numerous mixed lead(II,IV) oxides are known. When PbO 2 is heated in air, it becomes Pb 12 O 19 at 293 °C, Pb 12 O 17 at 351 °C, Pb 3 O 4 at 374 °C, and finally PbO at 605 °C. A further sesquioxide , Pb 2 O 3 , can be obtained at high pressure, along with several non-stoichiometric phases. Many of them show defective fluorite structures in which some oxygen atoms are replaced by vacancies: PbO can be considered as having such
2880-741: Is over three and a half times lower than that of the C–C bond . With itself, lead can build metal–metal bonds of an order up to three. With carbon, lead forms organolead compounds similar to, but generally less stable than, typical organic compounds (due to the Pb–C bond being rather weak). This makes the organometallic chemistry of lead far less wide-ranging than that of tin. Lead predominantly forms organolead(IV) compounds, even when starting with inorganic lead(II) reactants; very few organolead(II) compounds are known. The most well-characterized exceptions are Pb[CH(SiMe 3 ) 2 ] 2 and plumbocene . The lead analog of
2976-415: Is stable, but less so than the difluoride . Lead tetrachloride (a yellow oil) decomposes at room temperature, lead tetrabromide is less stable still, and the existence of lead tetraiodide is questionable. Some lead compounds exist in formal oxidation states other than +4 or +2. Lead(III) may be obtained, as an intermediate between lead(II) and lead(IV), in larger organolead complexes; this oxidation state
Laxey Mine - Misplaced Pages Continue
3072-413: Is still energetically favorable. Lead, like carbon, is predominantly tetravalent in such compounds. There is a relatively large difference in the electronegativity of lead(II) at 1.87 and lead(IV) at 2.33. This difference marks the reversal in the trend of increasing stability of the +4 oxidation state going down the carbon group; tin, by comparison, has values of 1.80 in the +2 oxidation state and 1.96 in
3168-448: Is the heaviest stable nucleus. (This distinction formerly fell to bismuth , with an atomic number of 83, until its only primordial isotope , bismuth-209, was found in 2003 to decay very slowly.) The four stable isotopes of lead could theoretically undergo alpha decay to isotopes of mercury with a release of energy, but this has not been observed for any of them; their predicted half-lives range from 10 to 10 years (at least 10 times
3264-538: Is the origin of the English word " plumbing ". Its ease of working, its low melting point enabling the easy fabrication of completely waterproof welded joints, and its resistance to corrosion ensured its widespread use in other applications, including pharmaceuticals, roofing, currency, warfare. Writers of the time, such as Cato the Elder , Columella , and Pliny the Elder , recommended lead (and lead-coated) vessels for
3360-525: Is the so-called inert pair effect : the 6s electrons of lead become reluctant to participate in bonding, stabilising the +2 oxidation state and making the distance between nearest atoms in crystalline lead unusually long. Lead's lighter carbon group congeners form stable or metastable allotropes with the tetrahedrally coordinated and covalently bonded diamond cubic structure. The energy levels of their outer s- and p-orbitals are close enough to allow mixing into four hybrid sp orbitals. In lead,
3456-465: Is thought that this continued until 1934, when all working finally ceased. During the late 1930s, spoil from the workings at the mines at both Foxdale and Laxey was transported to the north of the island, where it was used to level the land during the construction of RAF Jurby and RAF Andreas . Specimens of metals mined at Laxey and at Foxdale are on display in the Manx Museum . Laxey yielded
3552-455: Is to us. Heinz Eschnauer and Markus Stoeppler "Wine—An enological specimen bank", 1992 Laxey Wheel The Laxey Wheel (also known as Lady Isabella ) is built into the hillside above the village of Laxey in the Isle of Man . It is the largest surviving original working waterwheel in the world. Designed by Robert Casement, the wheel has a 72-foot-6-inch (22.1 m) diameter,
3648-446: Is usefully exploited: lead tetraacetate is an important laboratory reagent for oxidation in organic synthesis. Tetraethyllead, once added to automotive gasoline, was produced in larger quantities than any other organometallic compound, and is still widely used in fuel for small aircraft . Other organolead compounds are less chemically stable. For many organic compounds, a lead analog does not exist. Lead's per-particle abundance in
3744-630: The Phoenicians worked deposits in the Iberian peninsula ; by 1600 BC, lead mining existed in Cyprus , Greece , and Sardinia . Rome's territorial expansion in Europe and across the Mediterranean, and its development of mining, led to it becoming the greatest producer of lead during the classical era , with an estimated annual output peaking at 80,000 tonnes. Like their predecessors,
3840-534: The Snaefell Mine , the three shafts of the Laxey Mine and the various connecting levels had excellent ventilation, and this would have aided in some way to the fire claiming no casualties. Another incident occurred on Saturday 10 December 1904, resulting in the deaths of 4 miners. The shift began work at 06:00hrs, with the shift due to end at 14:00hrs, the alarm being raised when 4 men failed to return to
3936-671: The Solar System is 0.121 ppb (parts per billion). This figure is two and a half times higher than that of platinum , eight times more than mercury , and seventeen times more than gold . The amount of lead in the universe is slowly increasing as most heavier atoms (all of which are unstable) gradually decay to lead. The abundance of lead in the Solar System since its formation 4.5 billion years ago has increased by about 0.75%. The solar system abundances table shows that lead, despite its relatively high atomic number,
Laxey Mine - Misplaced Pages Continue
4032-504: The adit level. When the water was reduced below the 145 fathom level a further pump was installed which aided the operation and as the different levels were cleared, miners were able to work them. On Saturday 19 March 1904, a fire broke out in the Welsh Shaft at a position ten fathoms below the surface. The incident was of particular significance as a similar outbreak of fire in the Great Snaefell Mine in 1897 resulted in
4128-588: The copper ore which had been extracted, and by the mid 19th century this was being sold for £23 14s 6d per ton. A mixture of copper and lead was sold for £7 per ton, and this would be used to glaze lower end earthenware . During the height of prosperity of the Great Laxey Mine, the Laxey Wheel was erected. The wheel was named the Lady Isabella, after the wife of Sir Charles Hope , who at
4224-433: The deaths of 19 miners . Prior to the main shift commencing work, a party of men had descended the Welsh Shaft to inspect the joints of the steam pumps which had been put into the mine to assist in purging water, and which were found to be satisfactory. Following this over 100 men entered the mine to begin work. At approximately 07:00hrs the boiler man at the Welsh Shaft picked up the smell of burning wood and promptly raised
4320-804: The fall of Rome and did not reach comparable levels until the Industrial Revolution . Lead played a crucial role in the development of the printing press , as movable type could be relatively easily cast from lead alloys. In 2014, the annual global production of lead was about ten million tonnes, over half of which was from recycling. Lead's high density, low melting point, ductility and relative inertness to oxidation make it useful. These properties, combined with its relative abundance and low cost, resulted in its extensive use in construction , plumbing , batteries , bullets , shots , weights , solders , pewters , fusible alloys , lead paints , leaded gasoline , and radiation shielding . Lead
4416-401: The nucleus , and more shielded by smaller orbitals. The sum of the first four ionization energies of lead exceeds that of tin, contrary to what periodic trends would predict. This is explained by relativistic effects , which become significant in heavier atoms, which contract s and p orbitals such that lead's 6s electrons have larger binding energies than its 5s electrons. A consequence
4512-468: The +4 state. Lead(II) compounds are characteristic of the inorganic chemistry of lead. Even strong oxidizing agents like fluorine and chlorine react with lead to give only PbF 2 and PbCl 2 . Lead(II) ions are usually colorless in solution, and partially hydrolyze to form Pb(OH) and finally [Pb 4 (OH) 4 ] (in which the hydroxyl ions act as bridging ligands ), but are not reducing agents as tin(II) ions are. Techniques for identifying
4608-421: The 8 feet (2.4 m) stroke is converted by a T-rocker into a pumping action. Most of the wheel and rod is made of wood; however key mechanical parts are metal to provide tension and bearing surfaces. The rod has wheels attached at intervals to permit the stroke's motion with minimal friction. The mine employed over 600 miners at its peak, producing lead, copper, silver and zinc until it closed in 1929. In 1965
4704-586: The 85 fathom (155 metre) level. A Directors Report in 1902 stated that until then the company had spent £1.75 million in developing the mine, a total of £535,625 had been paid to shareholders in dividends and a further £138,064 had been paid in royalties to the Crown . The problems draining the mine continued into 1903. A major difficulty was how to position pumps in the correct areas. The shafts were only about 4 ft × 4 ft in places; they were also crooked, being generally at an angle of 15 degrees from
4800-626: The Egyptians had used lead for sinkers in fishing nets , glazes , glasses , enamels , ornaments . Various civilizations of the Fertile Crescent used lead as a writing material , as coins , and as a construction material . Lead was used by the ancient Chinese as a stimulant , as currency , as contraceptive , and in chopsticks . The Indus Valley civilization and the Mesoamericans used it for making amulets ; and
4896-468: The Government's Inspector on Mines, Foster Brown. Half the mine remained flooded, and it was that half which yielded the richer output. It was still uncertain whether the flooded part of the mine could be drained economically, and if it could, would it then be able to be worked without further encroachment. A report by the mining manager at the end of March stated that all workings by then were flooded to
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#17327913791894992-475: The Romans obtained lead mostly as a by-product of silver smelting. Lead mining occurred in central Europe , Britain , Balkans , Greece , Anatolia , Hispania , the latter accounting for 40% of world production. Lead tablets were commonly used as a material for letters. Lead coffins, cast in flat sand forms and with interchangeable motifs to suit the faith of the deceased, were used in ancient Judea . Lead
5088-405: The alarm. Arranged signals were then used to alert those in the mine to evacuate, and in less than 30 minutes all the men were accounted for. The position of the fire was traced to a point 33 fathoms down, a hose was brought and water pumped down to the level. Several men volunteered to descend to the level, where they found hot pieces of rock falling from the roof of the shaft. To avert the risk of
5184-607: The atmosphere; 100 mg/kg in soil; 4 mg/kg in vegetation, 5 μg/L in fresh water and seawater. The modern English word lead is of Germanic origin; it comes from the Middle English leed and Old English lēad (with the macron above the "e" signifying that the vowel sound of that letter is long). The Old English word is derived from the hypothetical reconstructed Proto-Germanic * lauda- ('lead'). According to linguistic theory, this word bore descendants in multiple Germanic languages of exactly
5280-416: The corresponding period of the previous year. The fall in price of lead from the previous year was £1 19s 6d per ton. In 1901 a rich vein of lead was discovered; however during the extraction the workings let loose a large body of water. Further, there was a shortage of the water needed to power the Laxey Wheel , so that it could not combat the flooding. Thus the water rose in the mine, gradually overwhelming
5376-489: The course of the Earth's history, have remained in the crust instead of sinking deeper into the Earth's interior. This accounts for lead's relatively high crustal abundance of 14 ppm; it is the 36th most abundant element in the crust. The main lead-bearing mineral is galena (PbS), which is mostly found with zinc ores. Most other lead minerals are related to galena in some way; boulangerite , Pb 5 Sb 4 S 11 ,
5472-419: The current age of the universe). Three of the stable isotopes are found in three of the four major decay chains : lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208 are the final decay products of uranium-238 , uranium-235 , and thorium-232 , respectively. These decay chains are called the uranium chain , the actinium chain , and the thorium chain . Their isotopic concentrations in a natural rock sample depends greatly on
5568-428: The diiodide . Many lead(II) pseudohalides are known, such as the cyanide, cyanate, and thiocyanate . Lead(II) forms an extensive variety of halide coordination complexes , such as [PbCl 4 ] , [PbCl 6 ] , and the [Pb 2 Cl 9 ] n chain anion. Lead(II) sulfate is insoluble in water, like the sulfates of other heavy divalent cations . Lead(II) nitrate and lead(II) acetate are very soluble, and this
5664-525: The eastern and southern Africans used lead in wire drawing . Because silver was extensively used as a decorative material and an exchange medium, lead deposits came to be worked in Asia Minor from 3000 BC; later, lead deposits were developed in the Aegean and Laurion . These three regions collectively dominated production of mined lead until c. 1200 BC . Beginning c. 2000 BC,
5760-578: The element its chemical symbol Pb . The word * ɸloud-io- is thought to be the origin of Proto-Germanic * bliwa- (which also means 'lead'), from which stemmed the German Blei . The name of the chemical element is not related to the verb of the same spelling, which is derived from Proto-Germanic * laidijan- ('to lead'). Metallic lead beads dating back to 7000–6500 BC have been found in Asia Minor and may represent
5856-413: The first example of metal smelting . At that time, lead had few (if any) applications due to its softness and dull appearance. The major reason for the spread of lead production was its association with silver, which may be obtained by burning galena (a common lead mineral). The Ancient Egyptians were the first to use lead minerals in cosmetics, an application that spread to Ancient Greece and beyond;
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#17327913791895952-410: The following morning the body had still to be located and this continued throughout Sunday 11 December, and it was not until 01:00hrs on the morning of Monday when the body was recovered. The 190 fathom level had been used as a footway up until the flooding of the mine in 1901, and the object of sending the men to repair it was to use it in the same way. The level had been underwater for several years as
6048-478: The future of the mine. By then, most of those who had worked the mine had left; many miners emigrated to South Africa, Australia or the USA. Continued flooding in the lower reaches of the mine combined with antiquated pumping machinery finally signified the end of mining operations at Laxey, and on the whole island. However some of the spoil residue was brought to the washing floors to extract any remaining worth from it. It
6144-430: The group. Lead dihalides are well-characterized; this includes the diastatide and mixed halides, such as PbFCl. The relative insolubility of the latter forms a useful basis for the gravimetric determination of fluorine. The difluoride was the first solid ionically conducting compound to be discovered (in 1834, by Michael Faraday ). The other dihalides decompose on exposure to ultraviolet or visible light, especially
6240-449: The inert pair effect increases the separation between its s- and p-orbitals, and the gap cannot be overcome by the energy that would be released by extra bonds following hybridization. Rather than having a diamond cubic structure, lead forms metallic bonds in which only the p-electrons are delocalized and shared between the Pb ions. Lead consequently has a face-centered cubic structure like
6336-490: The island, but with almost no result. From 1823 the mine was served by the Great Laxey Mine Railway . By 1833 over 200 men were employed in the mine. Whilst various minerals were extracted from the mine, lead ore was the main component of the workings, and substances regarded as of lesser value were simply thrown away. The mine was rich in silver ore yielding 180 ounces (5.5 kg) to the ton. This saw
6432-447: The late 19th century AD. A lead atom has 82 electrons , arranged in an electron configuration of [ Xe ]4f 5d 6s 6p . The sum of lead's first and second ionization energies —the total energy required to remove the two 6p electrons—is close to that of tin , lead's upper neighbor in the carbon group . This is unusual; ionization energies generally fall going down a group, as an element's outer electrons become more distant from
6528-560: The latter being stable only above around 488 °C. Litharge is the most commonly used inorganic compound of lead. There is no lead(II) hydroxide; increasing the pH of solutions of lead(II) salts leads to hydrolysis and condensation. Lead commonly reacts with heavier chalcogens. Lead sulfide is a semiconductor , a photoconductor , and an extremely sensitive infrared radiation detector . The other two chalcogenides, lead selenide and lead telluride , are likewise photoconducting. They are unusual in that their color becomes lighter going down
6624-441: The latter is not; this allows for lead–lead dating . As uranium decays into lead, their relative amounts change; this is the basis for uranium–lead dating . Lead-207 exhibits nuclear magnetic resonance , a property that has been used to study its compounds in solution and solid state, including in the human body. Apart from the stable isotopes, which make up almost all lead that exists naturally, there are trace quantities of
6720-432: The level subsided. At intervals down the shaft there were fixed pumps placed at various levels so as to limit the suspended pump to a lift of no greater than 360 ft (110 m) at any given time. In addition a fixed electrically powered pump was installed at the 255 fathom level which was capable of forcing the water up to the adit in one lift. Joseph Evans & Sons provided all the appliances needed, including all
6816-461: The lighter members of the group, lead tends to bond with itself ; it can form chains and polyhedral structures. Since lead is easily extracted from its ores , prehistoric people in the Near East were aware of it . Galena is a principal ore of lead which often bears silver. Interest in silver helped initiate widespread extraction and use of lead in ancient Rome . Lead production declined after
6912-407: The men falling into the sump which contained approximately 17 ft (5.2 m) of water. Grappling hooks together with blocks and tackle were requested and at 19:00hrs the first body of a miner was recovered. Two further bodies were recovered at 21:00hrs and at 23:00hrs leaving one miner unaccounted for. The efforts to locate the body of the missing miner continued through the night, but by 04:00hrs
7008-417: The mine yielded zinc , silver , copper pyrites and hematite iron in significant quantities. In 1819 both Laxey and Foxdale mines were closed, but within four years both reopened. Laxey owed its fresh start to a Westmorland man who was in turn licensed for the undertaking by George Murray, 6th Duke of Atholl . Both mines soon began to boom, with a result that a search for metals began in every part of
7104-539: The neutrons are arranged in complete shells in the atomic nucleus, and it becomes harder to energetically accommodate more of them. When the neutron flux subsides, these nuclei beta decay into stable isotopes of osmium , iridium , platinum . Lead is classified as a chalcophile under the Goldschmidt classification , meaning it is generally found combined with sulfur. It rarely occurs in its native , metallic form. Many lead minerals are relatively light and, over
7200-418: The preparation of sweeteners and preservatives added to wine and food. The lead conferred an agreeable taste due to the formation of "sugar of lead" ( lead(II) acetate ), whereas copper vessels imparted a bitter flavor through verdigris formation. This metal was by far the most used material in classical antiquity, and it is appropriate to refer to the (Roman) Lead Age. Lead was to the Romans what plastic
7296-414: The presence of the Pb ion in water generally rely on the precipitation of lead(II) chloride using dilute hydrochloric acid. As the chloride salt is sparingly soluble in water, in very dilute solutions the precipitation of lead(II) sulfide is instead achieved by bubbling hydrogen sulfide through the solution. Lead monoxide exists in two polymorphs , litharge α-PbO (red) and massicot β-PbO (yellow),
7392-422: The presence of these three parent uranium and thorium isotopes. For example, the relative abundance of lead-208 can range from 52% in normal samples to 90% in thorium ores; for this reason, the standard atomic weight of lead is given to only one decimal place. As time passes, the ratio of lead-206 and lead-207 to lead-204 increases, since the former two are supplemented by radioactive decay of heavier elements while
7488-427: The pumps, until the workings had filled to a depth of 1,000 ft (300 m). Electric pumps were proposed to remedy the situation, but it was found impracticable to get electrically operated pumps of the required capacity down the shafts. By January 1902, although the main ingress had ended, the water level in the mine was still rising by 6 inches (15 cm) daily. By March 1902 some workers were being paid off, although
7584-432: The r-process (r is for "rapid"), captures happen faster than nuclei can decay. This occurs in environments with a high neutron density, such as a supernova or the merger of two neutron stars . The neutron flux involved may be on the order of 10 neutrons per square centimeter per second. The r-process does not form as much lead as the s-process. It tends to stop once neutron-rich nuclei reach 126 neutrons. At this point,
7680-541: The resulting chloride layer diminishes the reactivity of the elements. Molten lead reacts with the chalcogens to give lead(II) chalcogenides. Lead metal resists sulfuric and phosphoric acid but not hydrochloric or nitric acid ; the outcome depends on insolubility and subsequent passivation of the product salt. Organic acids, such as acetic acid , dissolve lead in the presence of oxygen. Concentrated alkalis dissolve lead and form plumbites . Lead shows two main oxidation states: +4 and +2. The tetravalent state
7776-459: The reverse of the £20 notes issued by the Isle of Man Government . A water-powered wheel was used because the Isle of Man has no supply of coal for a steam-powered pump. Water from the surrounding area – including a number of local springs and streams – is collected in a cistern , which is above the level of the top of the wheel. A closed pipe connects the cistern to the top of the wheel; thus
7872-518: The same meaning. There is no consensus on the origin of the Proto-Germanic * lauda- . One hypothesis suggests it is derived from Proto-Indo-European * lAudh- ('lead'; capitalization of the vowel is equivalent to the macron). Another hypothesis suggests it is borrowed from Proto-Celtic * ɸloud-io- ('lead'). This word is related to the Latin plumbum , which gave
7968-697: The service conducted by the Reverend John Quine, Vicar of Lonan . The Great Laxey Mining Company were represented by the chairman, the Mine Manager and the Mine Secretary. In addition children from Minorca Sunday School, of which John Gawne was a member and the Laxey Brass Band, of which John Quayle was a member, were also in attendance. Following various short-term closures, by May 1929 rumours had begun to circulate about
8064-491: The similarly sized divalent metals calcium and strontium . Pure lead has a bright, shiny gray appearance with a hint of blue. It tarnishes on contact with moist air and takes on a dull appearance, the hue of which depends on the prevailing conditions. Characteristic properties of lead include high density , malleability, ductility, and high resistance to corrosion due to passivation . Lead's close-packed face-centered cubic structure and high atomic weight result in
8160-588: The simplest organic compound , methane , is plumbane . Plumbane may be obtained in a reaction between metallic lead and atomic hydrogen. Two simple derivatives, tetramethyllead and tetraethyllead , are the best-known organolead compounds. These compounds are relatively stable: tetraethyllead only starts to decompose if heated or if exposed to sunlight or ultraviolet light. With sodium metal, lead readily forms an equimolar alloy that reacts with alkyl halides to form organometallic compounds such as tetraethyllead. The oxidizing nature of many organolead compounds
8256-416: The steam pumping mains, chains, lifting apparatus, steam capstan engines and three Lancashire boilers accompanied by a 100 ft (30 m) stack. To accommodate the machinery new footings for the boilers (the largest on the Isle of Man) had to be constructed, with the machinery being hauled from Douglas to Laxey by a special traction engine which had been brought over for the purpose. The operation
8352-414: The surface. It was understood that the men in question had been working at the 190 fathom level and when it was certain they had failed to return a search party was organised with the search commencing at 15:00hrs. On reaching the 190 fathom level, approximately midway between the Engine Shaft and the Welsh Shaft, the search party saw collapsed timbers which had been used as a scaffold around what had been
8448-571: The time was the Lieutenant Governor of the Isle of Man . During its working life the wheel was capable of pumping 250 gallons (1100 litres) of water a minute from a depth of 200 fathoms (370 metres). By the beginning of the 20th century the yield from the mine had begun to decline dramatically. During the first six months of 1900 only 100 tons of lead was sold, fetching £1,500. The amount of blende stood at 650 tons, generating £4,150; however this compared to 857 tons generating £7,152 for
8544-403: The vertical, and at a total depth of approximately 1,000 ft (300 m) from the surface. Eventually it was decided to use steam pumps, and an order was placed with Joseph Evans & Sons of Wolverhampton . A large pump with a capacity of 400 gallons per minute was fixed on a sliding cradle and lowered, together with its steam and water mains, on link chains so as to follow the water down as
8640-403: The very rare cluster decay of radium-223, one of the daughter products of natural uranium-235, and the decay chain of neptunium-237, traces of which are produced by neutron capture in uranium ores. Lead-213 also occurs in the decay chain of neptunium-237. Lead-210 is particularly useful for helping to identify the ages of samples by measuring its ratio to lead-206 (both isotopes are present in
8736-462: The washing floors kept working and some men were still employed underground. Due to the depressed market, combined with the cost of keeping the mine free of water, the mine was becoming uneconomic. A scheme which drew the attention of the company directors was to acquire the North Laxey & Glencherry mine, at that time also flooded, and work the two mines in unison. This idea had the approval of
8832-427: The water flows up the tower as an inverted syphon . The water falls from the pipe into the buckets (formed from wooden slats on the circumference) and makes the wheel rotate in what is described as the 'reverse' direction: it is a backshot wheel . The crank has a throw of 4 feet (1.2 m) and connects to a counterweight and to a very long rod. This rod runs along the rod viaduct to the pumping shaft 200m away, where
8928-597: Was mined at Bradda Head as far back as the 13th century, Harald , King of Mann (1237–1248) having granted a charter under which the monks of Furness Abbey obtained working rights for this mine. Later in the same century the Earl of Buchan received a licence from King Edward I to dig for lead on the Calf of Man , and when the Isle of Man was granted to Sir John Stanley by King Henry IV in 1406, " mines of lead and iron" were included. In 1700 almost 230 tons of copper ore
9024-549: Was shipped from the Dhyrnane Mine at Maughold whilst also at this time the Rushen and Kirk Arbory mines were producing significant quantities of copper ore. There is no exact date for the start of mining at Laxey . However, by 1782 workings were being opened, with the undertaking chiefly as an enterprise from Cumberland as opposed to the Isle of Man. Laxey was primarily mined for its lead ore . However, in addition
9120-419: Was slow, but by December 1903 the water level had gone down by about 100 ft (30 m) per month, resulting in the 120 fathom level being reached by 17 December. The main problem in purging the shaft was that the pumping machinery had to be specifically designed and constructed because of the mine shaft being so narrow and irregular. By February 1904 the mine had been cleared to 844 ft (257 m) below
9216-534: Was used to make sling bullets from the 5th century BC. In Roman times, lead sling bullets were amply used, and were effective at a distance of between 100 and 150 meters. The Balearic slingers , used as mercenaries in Carthaginian and Roman armies, were famous for their shooting distance and accuracy. Lead was used for making water pipes in the Roman Empire ; the Latin word for the metal, plumbum ,
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