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83-509: The Great Smog of London , or Great Smog of 1952 , was a severe air pollution event that affected London , England , in December ;1952. A period of unusually cold weather, combined with an anticyclone and windless conditions, collected airborne pollutants—mostly arising from the use of coal —to form a thick layer of smog over the city. It lasted from Friday 5 December to Tuesday 9 December 1952, then dispersed quickly when

166-501: A compilation of air pollutant emission factors for a wide range of industrial sources. The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and many other countries have published similar compilations, as well as the European Environment Agency . An air pollutant is a material in the air that can have many effects on humans and the ecosystem. The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases, and often takes

249-768: A faster rate of breathing than a child engaged in sedentary activity. The daily exposure must therefore include the amount of time spent in each micro-environmental setting as well as the kind of activities performed there. The air pollutant concentration in each microactivity/microenvironmental setting is summed to indicate the exposure. For some pollutants such as black carbon , traffic related exposures may dominate total exposure despite short exposure times since high concentrations coincide with proximity to major roads or participation in (motorized) traffic. A large portion of total daily exposure occurs as short peaks of high concentrations, but it remains unclear how to define peaks and determine their frequency and health impact. In 2021,

332-553: A fraction of the deaths could be from influenza. E. T. Wilkins, who, as Officer in Charge of Atmospheric Pollution at the government's Department of Scientific and Industrial Research was effectively the UK's top pollution expert at the time, plotted a chart of elevated death rates for the period from December 1952 to March 1953 and found that there had been an additional 8,000 deaths beyond those initially counted, making 12,000 in total. Most of

415-657: A health environment is not maintained. Even at levels lower than those considered safe by United States regulators, exposure to three components of air pollution, fine particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide and ozone, correlates with cardiac and respiratory illness. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics. The most common sources of air pollution include particulates and ozone (often from burning fossil fuels), nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. Children aged less than five years who live in developing countries are

498-562: A legal definition of air pollution, 31 percent lack outdoor air quality standards, 49 percent restrict their definition to outdoor pollution only, and just 31 percent have laws for tackling pollution originating from outside their borders. National air quality laws have often been highly effective, notably the 1956 Clean Air Act in Britain and the US Clean Air Act , introduced in 1963. Some of these efforts have been successful at

581-482: A link between air pollution levels and longevity. The WHO estimates that in 2016, ~58% of outdoor air pollution-related premature deaths were due to ischaemic heart disease and stroke. The mechanisms linking air pollution to increased cardiovascular mortality are uncertain, but probably include pulmonary and systemic inflammation. India and China have the highest death rate due to air pollution. India also has more deaths from asthma than any other nation according to

664-415: A mixture of natural and human sources. There are also sources from processes other than combustion : Air pollutant emission factors are reported representative values that aim to link the quantity of a pollutant released into the ambient air to an activity connected with that pollutant's release. The weight of the pollutant divided by a unit weight, volume, distance, or time of the activity generating

747-529: A reduction in air pollution. Financial incentives were offered to householders to replace open coal fires with alternatives (such as gas fires), or to burn coke instead, which produces minimal smoke. Central heating (using gas, electricity, oil, or permitted solid fuel) was rare in most dwellings at that time, not finding favour until the late 1960s onwards. Despite improvements, insufficient progress had been made to prevent one further smog event approximately ten years later, in early December 1962. The Great Smog

830-426: A spectrum of clinical disorders that include emphysema , bronchiectasis , and chronic bronchitis . COPD risk factors are both genetic and environmental. Elevated particle pollution contributes to the exacerbation of this disease and likely its pathogenesis. The risk of lung disease from air pollution is greatest for infants and young children, whose normal breathing is faster than that of older children and adults;

913-566: A total of 460,000 deaths in the US were attributed to coal PM 2.5 . The largest cause of air pollution is fossil fuel combustion  – mostly the production and use of cars , electricity production, and heating. There are estimated 4.5 million annual premature deaths worldwide due to pollutants released by high-emission power stations and vehicle exhausts. Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion-derived particulate matter air pollution. In several human experimental studies, using

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996-794: A well-validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus formation. A study concluded that PM 2.5 air pollution induced by the contemporary free trade and consumption by the 19 G20 nations causes two million premature deaths annually, suggesting that the average lifetime consumption of about ~28 people in these countries causes at least one premature death (average age ~67) while developing countries "cannot be expected" to implement or be able to implement countermeasures without external support or internationally coordinated efforts. The US EPA has estimated that limiting ground-level ozone concentration to 65 parts per billion (ppb), would avert 1,700 to 5,100 premature deaths nationwide in 2020 compared with

1079-417: A windless London, causing a temperature inversion with relatively cool, stagnant air trapped under a layer of warmer air. The resultant fog, mixed with smoke from home and industrial chimneys, particulates such as those from motor vehicle exhausts, and other pollutants such as sulphur dioxide, formed a persistent smog, which blanketed the capital the following day. The presence of tarry particles of soot gave

1162-494: A year and fine particulate (PM 2.5 ) pollution around another 2.1 million. The scope of the air pollution crisis is large: In 2018, WHO estimated that "9 out of 10 people breathe air containing high levels of pollutants." Although the health consequences are extensive, the way the problem is handled is considered largely haphazard or neglected. The World Bank has estimated that welfare losses (premature deaths) and productivity losses (lost labour) caused by air pollution cost

1245-510: Is a significant risk factor for a number of pollution-related diseases , including respiratory infections , heart disease , chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), stroke , and lung cancer . Growing evidence suggests that air pollution exposure may be associated with reduced IQ scores, impaired cognition, increased risk for psychiatric disorders such as depression and detrimental perinatal health. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect

1328-851: Is associated with nearly one in three strokes (29%) worldwide (33.7% of strokes in developing countries versus 10.2% in developed countries). In women, air pollution is not associated with hemorrhagic but with ischemic stroke. Air pollution was found to be associated with increased incidence and mortality from coronary stroke. Associations are believed to be causal and effects may be mediated by vasoconstriction, low-grade inflammation and atherosclerosis . Other mechanisms such as autonomic nervous system imbalance have also been suggested. Research has demonstrated increased risk of developing asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) from increased exposure to traffic-related air pollution. Air pollution has been associated with increased hospitalization and mortality from asthma and COPD. COPD comprises

1411-459: Is introduced with the use of air fresheners , incense , and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in cook stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of harmful smoke particulates into the air, inside and out. Indoor pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation. Also the kitchen in a modern produce harmful particles and gases, with equipment like toasters being one of

1494-625: Is nitrogen dioxide and other nitrogen oxides (NOx) emitted by road vehicles. Across the European Union , air pollution is estimated to reduce life expectancy by almost nine months. In a 2015 consultation document the UK government disclosed that nitrogen dioxide is responsible for 23,500 premature UK deaths per annum. There is a positive correlation between pneumonia -related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicle emissions in England. Eliminating energy-related fossil fuel emissions in

1577-442: Is set in the 1952 smog event. It is the background for E.C.R. Lorac ’s 1954 mystery Shroud of Darkness . The D. E. Stevenson novel The Tall Stranger (1957) opens with a dense "fog" that penetrates indoors and endangers hospital patients, in an apparent reference to the 1952 smog event. In C.J. Sansom ’s 2012 alternate reality book Dominion a key plot point develops during the event. Kate Winkler Dawson's book Death in

1660-408: Is strong evidence linking both short- and long-term exposure to air pollution with cardiovascular disease mortality and morbidity, stroke, blood pressure, and ischemic heart diseases (IHD). Air pollution is a leading risk factor for stroke, particularly in developing countries where pollutant levels are highest. A systematic analysis of 17 different risk factors in 188 countries found air pollution

1743-544: Is the central focus of season 1 , episode 4 of Netflix's The Crown . The portrayal of the event was regarded as reasonably accurate by critics, although the political importance and the chaos in the hospitals were thought to have been greatly exaggerated. An episode of The Goon Show entitled 'Forog', broadcast on the BBC Home Service 21 December 1954 was a thinly veiled satire on the killer fog crisis. The script by Eric Sykes and Spike Milligan concerned

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1826-558: The Greater London area, including Fulham , Battersea , Bankside , Greenwich , West Ham and Kingston upon Thames , all of which added to the pollution. According to the UK's Met Office , the following pollutants were emitted each day during the smoggy period: 1,000 tonnes of smoke particles, 140 tonnes of hydrochloric acid , 14 tonnes of fluorine compounds and 370 tonnes of sulphur dioxide which may have been converted to 800 tonnes of sulphuric acid. The relatively large size of

1909-733: The Lord President of the Council . Once the full four-tier organisation of the committee of the council, the Advisory Council, the Imperial Trust and the department was established. In 1928 the committee of council was reconstituted with an entirely ministerial membership; otherwise, the organisation survived with only small changes until the 1950s. The department was responsible for the organisation, development and encouragement of scientific and industrial research and

1992-1119: The National Physical Laboratory from the Royal Society in 1918, the Geological Survey and Geological Museum from the Board of Education in 1919, the Road Experimental Station from the Ministry of Transport in 1933, the Laboratory of the Government Chemist (previously the Government Chemist's Department) in 1959, and the Tropical Products Institute from the Colonial Office in the same year. Some research organisations founded by

2075-733: The Torry Research Station and the Water Pollution Research Laboratory. The British Museum Laboratory, established by the department in 1919, was transferred to the museum in 1930. Three food research establishments, the Pest Infestation Laboratory , Low Temperature Research Station and Ditton Laboratory , passed to the Agricultural Research Council in 1959. From 1941 to 1945 the department

2158-454: The world economy $ 5 trillion per year. The costs of air pollution are generally an externality to the contemporary economic system and most human activity, although they are sometimes recovered through monitoring, legislation, and regulation . Many different technologies and strategies are available for reducing air pollution. Although a majority of countries have air pollution laws , according to UNEP , 43 percent of countries lack

2241-544: The 75 ppb standard. The agency projected the more protective standard would also prevent an additional 26,000 cases of aggravated asthma, and more than a million cases of missed work or school. Following this assessment, the EPA acted to protect public health by lowering the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for ground-level ozone to 70 ppb. A 2008 economic study of

2324-603: The Air (2017) interweaves the story of the Great Smog of London with that of serial killer John Christie . Air pollution Air pollution is the contamination of air due to the presence of substances called pollutants in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials. It is also the contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment either by chemical, physical, or biological agents that alters

2407-989: The American Lung Association; the US Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) 2012; and the US Environmental Protection Agency 2012a. Indoor contaminants that can cause pollution include asbestos, biologic agents, building materials, radon, tobacco smoke, and wood stoves, gas ranges, or other heating systems. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen , is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside houses. Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (H-CHO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional air pollution

2490-526: The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Act 1956, which abolished the advisory council and the Imperial Trust and vested executive power in a new Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. The council, set up on 7 November 1956, was appointed by and responsible to the Lord President of the Council and was required to comply with any directions it might receive from a committee of

2573-450: The Great Smog led Londoners to burn much more coal than usual to keep themselves warm. While better-quality "hard" coals (such as anthracite ) tended to be exported to pay off World War II debts, post-war domestic coal tended to be of a relatively low-grade, sulphurous variety called " nutty slack " (similar to lignite ) which increased the amount of sulphur dioxide in the smoke. There were also numerous coal-fired electric power stations in

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2656-536: The Privy Council for scientific and industrial research. In 1959 these functions of the lord president were transferred to the newly created Minister for Science. The department was abolished by the Science and Technology Act 1965 , which dispersed its functions over a number of government departments and other bodies. Those primarily concerned were the new Ministry of Technology , which became responsible for

2739-582: The USA under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under numerous directives (including the Air "Framework" Directive, 96/62/EC, on ambient air quality assessment and management, Directive 98/24/EC, on risks related to chemical agents at work, and Directive 2004/107/EC covering heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air). The risk of air pollution is determined by the pollutant's hazard and

2822-567: The United States would prevent 46,900–59,400 premature deaths each year and provide $ 537–$ 678 billion in benefits from avoided PM 2.5 -related illness and death. A study published in 2023 in Science focused on sulfur dioxide emissions by coal power plants (coal PM 2.5 ) and concluded that "exposure to coal PM 2.5 was associated with 2.1 times greater mortality risk than exposure to PM 2.5 from all sources." From 1999 to 2020,

2905-463: The WHO halved its recommended guideline limit for tiny particles from burning fossil fuels. The new limit for nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) is 75% lower. Growing evidence that air pollution—even when experienced at very low levels—hurts human health, led the WHO to revise its guideline (from 10 μg/m to 5 μg/m ) for what it considers a safe level of exposure of particulate pollution, bringing most of

2988-402: The WHO reported that outdoor air pollution was estimated to cause 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide in 2019. The global mean loss of life expectancy (LLE; similar to YPLL ) from air pollution in 2015 was 2.9 years, substantially more than, for example, 0.3 years from all forms of direct violence. Communities with persons that live beyond 85 years have low ambient air pollution, suggesting

3071-754: The World Health Organization estimated that every year air pollution causes the premature death of 7 million people worldwide, 1 in 8 deaths worldwide. A study published in 2019 indicated that in 2015 the number may be closer to 8.8 million, with 5.5 million of these premature deaths due to air pollution from anthropogenic sources. A 2022 review concluded that in 2019 air pollution was responsible for approximately 9 million premature deaths. It concluded that since 2015 little real progress against pollution has been made. Causes of deaths include strokes, heart disease, COPD , lung cancer, and lung infections. Children are particularly at risk. In 2021,

3154-778: The World Health Organization, these may be defined as asbestosis, lung cancer, and peritoneal mesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos). Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates. Pets produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms on walls and generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce pollen , dust, and mold. Indoors,

3237-571: The World Health Organization. In 2019, 1.6 million deaths in India were caused by air pollution. In 2013, air pollution was estimated to kill 500,000 people in China each year. In 2012, 2.48% of China's total air pollution emissions were caused by exports due to US demand, causing an additional 27,963 deaths across 30 provinces. Annual premature European deaths caused by air pollution are estimated at 430,000 to 800,000. An important cause of these deaths

3320-445: The air when primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone is a prominent example of a secondary pollutant. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants. Pollutants emitted into the atmosphere by human activity include: Secondary pollutants include: There are many other chemicals classed as hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in

3403-704: The amount of exposure to that pollutant. Air pollution exposure can be measured for a person, a group, such as a neighborhood or a country's children, or an entire population. For example, one would want to determine a geographic area's exposure to a dangerous air pollution, taking into account the various microenvironments and age groups. This can be calculated as an inhalation exposure. This would account for daily exposure in various settings, e.g. different indoor micro-environments and outdoor locations. The exposure needs to include different ages and other demographic groups, especially infants, children, pregnant women, and other sensitive subpopulations. For each specific time that

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3486-504: The application of discoveries made in fundamental research and no organisation concerned with the application of science to industry. The impetus to the establishment of the department was provided by the needs of the war effort. The initiative was taken by the President of the Board of Education who, in May 1915, presented to Parliament a white paper urging that a permanent organisation for

3569-429: The application of scientific knowledge to industry and for the majority of the department's research establishments; the Department of Education and Science, which took over responsibility for overseas scientific liaison and the general advancement of scientific knowledge; and the new Science Research Council , which was now to deal with grants for university research and awards for postgraduate students. Administered by

3652-411: The body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system . Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics . Air pollution is the largest environmental risk factor for disease and premature death and the fourth largest risk factor overall for human health. Air pollution causes

3735-628: The connection between smoke, sulphur dioxide, and rising deaths), fog, white mist, or grimy smog covered "many parts of the British Isles", while "In London and the Thames Valley, fog or smog covered upwards of 1000 square miles". However, it was in London that the smog's effects were the greatest. There was no panic, as London was infamous for its fog. However, this one was denser and longer-lasting than any previous "pea-souper". Visibility

3818-438: The deaths were caused by respiratory tract infections, from hypoxia and as a result of mechanical obstruction of the air passages by pus arising from lung infections caused by the smog. The lung infections were mainly bronchopneumonia or acute purulent bronchitis superimposed upon chronic bronchitis. Research published in 2004 suggests that the number of fatalities was about 12,000, around three to four times greater than

3901-1059: The department had functions defined in terms of a field of science or technology such as the Chemical Research Laboratory, the National Engineering Laboratory and the Hydraulics Research Station . Others were defined in terms of a practical objective, such as the Building Research Station, the Fire Research Station, the Forest Products Research Laboratory, the Fuel Research Station, the Radio Research Station ,

3984-401: The dissemination of its results. It worked by encouraging and supporting scientific research in universities, technical colleges and other institutions, establishing and developing its own research organisations for investigation and research relative to the advancement of trade and industry, and taking steps to further the practical application of the results of research. It could make grants for

4067-427: The elderly; those who work outside or spend a lot of time outside; and those who have heart or lung disease comorbidities . Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (United Kingdom) Before the twentieth century, the government was little concerned with scientific enquiry. By 1914 there were a number of small governmental bodies with a specialised scientific interest, but little organised effort towards

4150-663: The extensive use of asbestos in industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in many localities. Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in structures. Those with asbestosis have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) and are at an increased risk regarding several different types of lung cancer . As clear explanations are not always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish between several forms of relevant diseases. According to

4233-425: The flue gases so they did not rise, but instead slumped to ground level, causing a local nuisance. Additionally, there was pollution and smoke from vehicle exhaust, particularly from steam locomotives and diesel -fuelled buses which had replaced the recently abandoned electric tram system . Other industrial and commercial sources also contributed to the air pollution. On 4 December 1952, an anticyclone settled over

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4316-575: The fog had killed 4,000 people. Many of the victims were very young or elderly, or had pre-existing respiratory or cardiovascular problems. In February 1953, Marcus Lipton suggested in the House of Commons that the fog had caused 6,000 deaths and that 25,000 more people had claimed sickness benefits in London during that period. Mortality remained elevated for months after the fog. A preliminary report, never finalised, blamed those deaths on an influenza epidemic. Emerging evidence revealed that only

4399-470: The form of an aerosol (solid particles or liquid droplets dispersed and carried by a gas). A pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made. Pollutants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are usually produced by processes such as ash from a volcanic eruption. Other examples include carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhausts or sulfur dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in

4482-520: The health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3,800 people die prematurely (approximately 14 years earlier than normal) each year because air pollution levels violate federal standards. The number of annual premature deaths is considerably higher than the fatalities related to auto collisions in

4565-638: The international level, such as the Montreal Protocol , which reduced the release of harmful ozone depleting chemicals, and the 1985 Helsinki Protocol , which reduced sulfur emissions , while others, such as international action on climate change , have been less successful. There are many different sources of air pollution. Some air pollutants (such as nitrogen oxides) originate mainly from human activities, while some (notably radon gas) come mostly from natural sources. However, many air pollutants (including dust and sulfur dioxide) come from

4648-1014: The lack of air circulation allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature. Air pollution has both acute and chronic effects on human health, affecting a number of different systems and organs but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Afflictions include minor to chronic upper respiratory irritation such as difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing, asthma and heart disease , lung cancer , stroke , acute respiratory infections in children and chronic bronchitis in adults, aggravating pre-existing heart and lung disease, or asthmatic attacks. Short and long term exposures have been linked with premature mortality and reduced life expectancy and can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency department visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. Diseases that develop from persistent exposure to air pollution are environmental health diseases, which develop when

4731-422: The most vulnerable population to death attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution. Under the Clean Air Act , U.S. EPA sets limits on certain air pollutants, including setting limits on how much can be in the air anywhere in the United States. Mixed exposure to both carbon black and ozone could result in significantly greater health affects. Estimates of deaths toll due to air pollution vary. In 2014

4814-498: The natural environment (for example, climate change , ozone depletion or habitat degradation ) or built environment (for example, acid rain ). Air pollution can be caused by both human activities and natural phenomena. Air quality is closely related to the Earth's climate and ecosystems globally. Many of the contributors of air pollution are also sources of greenhouse emission i.e., burning of fossil fuel . Air pollution

4897-453: The natural features of the atmosphere. There are many different types of air pollutants, such as gases (including ammonia , carbon monoxide , sulfur dioxide , nitrous oxides , methane and chlorofluorocarbons ), particulates (both organic and inorganic) and biological molecules . Air pollution can cause diseases, allergies, and even death to humans; it can also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and crops, and may damage

4980-531: The official government total at the time, but very close to the figure Wilkins had originally estimated. In the long term, individuals who were foetuses or infants at the time of the smog ended up having lower intelligence and worse respiratory health than their peers. Environmental legislation since 1952, such as the City of London (Various Powers) Act 1954 and the Clean Air Acts of 1956 and 1968 , led to

5063-742: The pollutant is how these factors are commonly stated (e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted per tonne of coal burned). These criteria make estimating emissions from diverse sources of pollution easier. Most of the time, these components are just averages of all available data of acceptable quality, and they are thought to be typical of long-term averages. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants identified pesticides and other persistent organic pollutants of concern. These include dioxins and furans which are unintentionally created by combustion of organics, like open burning of plastics, and are endocrine disruptors and mutagens . The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published

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5146-468: The premature deaths of around 7 million people worldwide each year, or a global mean loss of life expectancy (LLE) of 2.9 years, and there has been no significant change in the number of deaths caused by all forms of pollution since at least 2015. Outdoor air pollution attributable to fossil fuel use alone causes ~3.61 million deaths annually, making it one of the top contributors to human death . Anthropogenic ozone causes around 470,000 premature deaths

5229-555: The progress of the approved programme. A Scottish branch office of the department was opened in Edinburgh in September 1947, a Welsh office at Cardiff in 1953, and a Northern branch office at Newcastle upon Tyne in 1963. Late in 1954, the Lord President appointed a small committee under the chairmanship of Sir Henry Jephcott to enquire into the organisation and functioning of the department. Its recommendations were given effect in

5312-474: The promotion of scientific and industrial research should be set up. By order in council of 28 July 1915 authority for such an organisation was vested in a committee of the Privy Council consisting at first of six ministers and three other privy councillors in their personal capacities. This new Committee for Scientific and Industrial Research was to be assisted by an Advisory Council, which in turn

5395-432: The purposes of any of these functions. The department was not responsible for research undertaken primarily to meet the requirements of national defence, nor did it cover all government activity in research for civil purposes. Large areas of research were the responsibility of other bodies – aviation, atomic energy, agriculture, health and medicine, meteorology – though it might undertake specific investigations on behalf of

5478-468: The responsible departments. The department encouraged and supported scientific research in universities and other institutions by means of grants for special research projects, research fellowships, studentships, grants to research associations and research contracts. The department absorbed or created a number of research organisations, which included large laboratories for special fields of work. Existing institutions for which it assumed responsibility were

5561-511: The same area, which average fewer than 2,000 per year. A 2021 study found that outdoor air pollution is associated with substantially increased mortality "even at low pollution levels below the current European and North American standards and WHO guideline values" shortly before the WHO adjusted its guidelines. According to the Global Burden of Disease Study , air pollution is responsible for 19% of all cardiovascular deaths. There

5644-427: The seats. Outdoor sports events were also cancelled. In the inner London suburbs and away from town centres, there was no disturbance by moving traffic to thin out dense fog in the back streets. As a result, visibility could be down to a metre or so in the daytime. Walking out of doors became a matter of shuffling to feel for potential obstacles such as kerbs. This was made even worse at night since each back street lamp

5727-486: The smog its greenish-yellow colour, hence the nickname "pea-souper". The absence of significant wind prevented its dispersal and allowed an unprecedented accumulation of pollutants. Although the event is now widely described as the "London" smog, air pollution, in fact, extended far beyond the capital. According to E.T. Wilkins (of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research , whose measurements would make clear

5810-482: The statues of London's monuments, who could get up and move about the city undisturbed only at times when it was enveloped in a characteristic smog. Government-sponsored scientific research sought to dispense with the choking fog, to the annoyance of the statues. The Great Smog is the setting of the Doctor Who audio play The Creeping Death and the novel Amorality Tale . The Boris Starling novel Visibility

5893-462: The subgroup is in the setting and engaged in particular activities, the exposure to an air pollutant must integrate the concentrations of the air pollutant with regard to the time spent in each setting and the respective inhalation rates for each subgroup, playing, cooking, reading, working, spending time in traffic, etc. A little child's inhaling rate, for example, will be lower than that of an adult. A young person engaging in strenuous exercise will have

5976-460: The total number of fatalities was considerably greater, with estimates of between 10,000 and 12,000 deaths. London's poor air quality had been a problem since at least the 13th century. The diarist John Evelyn had written about "the inconveniencie of the aer and smoak of London [ sic ]" in Fumifugium , the first book written about air pollution, in 1661. However, the Great Smog

6059-406: The water droplets in the London fog allowed for the production of sulphates without the acidity of the liquid rising high enough to stop the reaction, and for the resultant dilute acid to become concentrated when the fog was burned away by the sun. Research suggests that additional pollution-prevention systems fitted at Battersea worsened the air quality. Flue gas washing reduced the temperature of

6142-438: The weather changed. The smog caused major disruption by reducing visibility and even penetrating indoor areas, far more severely than previous smog events, called " pea-soupers ". Government medical reports in the weeks following the event estimated that up to 4,000 people had died as a direct result of the smog and 100,000 more were made ill by the smog's effects on the human respiratory tract . More recent research suggests that

6225-525: The world—97.3 percent of the global population—into the unsafe zone. A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of their time. Indoor air pollution can pose a significant health risk. According to EPA reports, the concentrations of many air pollutants can be two to five times higher in indoor air than in outdoor air. Indoor air pollutants can be up to 100 times higher in some cases than they are inside. People can spend up to 90% of their time indoors, according to

6308-535: The worst sources. Carbon monoxide poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors or in a confined space, such as a tent. Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from poorly-adjusted pilot lights . Traps are built into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas and hydrogen sulfide , out of interiors. Clothing emits tetrachloroethylene , or other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning. Though its use has now been banned in many countries,

6391-551: Was a director of research responsible to the head of the department. The director was provided with one or more research institutes or laboratories and with an advisory research board. The research boards were appointed by the lord president of the Council until 1956 and thereafter by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research . The boards were responsible for advising the council on the programme of work to be undertaken, and to watch, comment and advise, and to report annually, on

6474-460: Was assisted by certain advisory committees. As a first step, a scheme was devised for encouraging groups of firms to set up co-operative industrial research associations. For this purpose, a lump sum of £1 million, the 'Million Fund', was voted and an Imperial Trust was set up to administer it. Because of the close connection between education and research, the President of the Board of Education

6557-401: Was fitted with an incandescent light bulb , which gave no penetrating light onto the pavement for pedestrians to see their feet or even a lamp post. Fog-penetrating fluorescent lamps did not become widely available until later in the 1950s. "Smog masks" were worn by those who were able to purchase them from chemists. In the weeks that ensued, statistics compiled by medical services found that

6640-541: Was many times worse than anything the city had ever experienced before: it is thought to be the worst air pollution event in the history of the United Kingdom , and the most significant for its effects on environmental research, government regulation, and public awareness of the relationship between air quality and health. It led to several changes in practices and regulations, including the Clean Air Act 1956 . A period of unusually cold weather preceding and during

6723-503: Was nominated as vice-president of the committee of the Privy Council, and the committee's staff and accommodation were at first provided by the board. With the increasing importance of the industrial side of research, these initial arrangements soon became inadequate. Consequently, in December 1916 a separate Department of Scientific and Industrial Research was created, having its own parliamentary vote but responsible to Parliament through

6806-594: Was reduced to a few metres, with one visitor stating that it was "like you were blind", rendering driving difficult or at times impossible. Public transport ceased, apart from the London Underground , and the ambulance service stopped, forcing individuals to transport themselves to hospitals. The smog was so dense that it even seeped indoors, resulting in the cancellation or abandonment of concerts and film screenings, as visibility decreased in large enclosed spaces, and stages and screens became harder to see from

6889-613: Was responsible for atomic energy research, in an organisation known as the Directorate of Tube Alloys . In the 1950s the department embarked on research in the human sciences in relation to the needs of industry, undertaken from 1953 to 1957 in collaboration with the Medical Research Council ; in 1958 the department's research programme was transferred from its Headquarters Office to the new Warren Spring Laboratory . The executive head of each research organisation

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