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68-787: The Great Serpent Mound is a 1,348-feet-long (411 m), three-feet-high prehistoric effigy mound located in Peebles , Ohio . It was built on what is known as the Serpent Mound crater plateau, running along the Ohio Brush Creek in Adams County, Ohio . The mound is the largest serpent effigy known in the world. The first published surveys of the mound were by Ephraim G. Squier and Edwin Hamilton Davis , featured in their historic volume, Ancient Monuments of

136-431: A National Historic Site , including East Sugar Island. From 1995 to 2009, Hiawatha First Nation operated the park privately, offering camping facilities, beach access on Rice Lake , a cultural center, and interpretive walks among the historic serpent and nearby mounds. The park was closed to the public in 2009, due to the decline in the tourism and deteriorating infrastructure. Archaeological field work revealed that

204-764: A 4.4-hectare area, as well as a 49-hectare area on East Sugar Island. The designated site comprises six distinct areas of archaeological interest, including the Serpent Mounds site, the Alderville site, the Island Centre site, the East Sugar Island site, the Corral site and an unnamed Site. The largest mound, known as "the serpent" for its winding outline, is 194 ft (59.1 m) long, 25 ft (7.6 m) wide, 5 to 6 ft (1.5 to 1.8 m) high, and

272-463: A freeze frame view of a bird flying - wings outstretched, wings partially folded, and wings outstretched again. Hochunk ancestors naturally buried their dead next to lakes and rivers, and on hillsides. These locations would later become valued as some of the best places to live by settlers. This is one factor that contributed to high rates of mound destruction. Many mounds were destroyed by people grading earth surrounding their houses or what would become

340-587: A late Archaic group, traded for sea shell and copper with other groups. These materials were used for objects that were a sign of prestige within the group and were carried by respected healers and hunters. The objects were buried with their owners. Following the ancient Paleo-Indians, the Woodland Period (800 BCE–1200 CE) of the Post-Archaic Period is known for its rich ritual and artistic life and well-developed villages. The Woodland Period

408-423: A linear mound to make a bird mound required only the addition of a head and a tail. From there many different animal forms emerged. These often expressed a kind of abstract elongation. In addition to the obvious elongation of tails and the abstracted nature of many of the shapes, colored silts and sand were often used to decorate the mounds. The land was often scraped or raked to move earth from surface soils towards

476-520: A lot of information. In the center of the structure, strata have been uplifted several hundred feet, resembling the central uplifts of the Copernicus lunar crater . In 2003, geologists from Ohio State University and the University of Glasgow (Scotland) corroborated the meteorite impact origin of the structure at The Serpent Mound. They had previously studied core samples collected at the site in

544-405: A new mound and in doing so, artful colored sand and silt patterning was sometimes employed as adornment. In terms of positioning, some mounds may have had celestial alignments although with certainty bird mounds were placed in such a way as to suggest that they were flying up or down a hillside, and animal mounds were often placed so as to suggest animals walking along natural landform as well such as

612-651: A reminder of his moral authority. Today, New Age pilgrims find power and enlightenment, traditional views revere unrevealed distant purpose and perspective, and others seek meaning in geometric relationships between mounds and astronomical concurrences.” (P. 118) Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley fascinated many across the country, including Frederic Ward Putnam of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard University . Putnam spent much of his career lecturing and publishing on

680-560: A response questioning the attribution of construction to the Adena culture. Lepper et al. pointed out that the dates obtained by Herrmann and Romain are of poor quality. The material the team dated is not charcoal, but “organic sediment” (Herrman et al 2014:119). Moreover, the samples were obtained from soil cores and not an exposed stratigraphic profile, so the resulting dates are known to be problematic. Henriksen et al (2019) have demonstrated that such dates can be as much as 3,000 years older than

748-411: A ridge or hillside. It is possible that predominant wind patterns may have been taken into consideration when choosing locations and orientations for bird mounds. In addition bird mounds sometimes appear in different conformations where the wings of the bird may be folded or unfolded to different degrees, suggesting various postures in flying. There are some instances where these different poses may suggest

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816-493: Is based on its size and historical relevance. Made up of three parts, Serpent Mound extends over 1,376 feet (419 m) in length, varying from 9" to more than 3' (30–100 cm) in height. The mound stands with a width varying between 20 and 25 feet based on the section. Serpent Mound conforms to the surrounding land, as it was built on a bluff above the Ohio Brush Creek . The mound winds back and forth for more than eight hundred feet, with its tail coiling in seven areas throughout

884-475: Is well known as a period in which cultures built earthworks and mounds . They are believed to have been related to religious practices, as some mounds were used for burials. Along with hunting and gathering, cultures of this period began to cultivate crops such as maize , squash , and beans . The Adena and Hopewell cultures flourished during the Early and Middle Woodland periods, and the addition of crops enabled

952-603: The Alligator Effigy Mound in Granville , was carbon dated to the Fort Ancient period. Having been built around 1070 CE, many archaeologists believe that the mound's creation could have been influenced by two different astronomical events. The primary theory is that the light from a supernova may have prompted its construction. Although numerous supernovas may have occurred over the centuries that span

1020-640: The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act . Serpent Mounds Park Serpent Mounds Park is a historical place located near Keene, Ontario, Canada . Serpent Mounds operated as a provincial park, established in 1955 through a lease with the Hiawatha First Nation , of the Michi Saagiig (Mississauga Anishinaabeg). In 1982, while operating as a provincial park the mounds were designated

1088-426: The structural timeline of an earthen mound such as Serpent Mound, however, and bioturbation can shift carbon left by a later culture on the surface to areas deep within the structure, making the earthwork appear younger. This factor may be significant to the dating of the original construction of the mound. When the team conducted carbon dating studies on the charcoal pieces, two yielded a date of ca. 1070 CE, with

1156-512: The "discovery" of effigy mounds, and other mounds all over the country, wild theories began to be developed as to how and by whom they were built. The first theories were the most accurate; people in the late 17th century assumed that the mounds had been built by the Native American people who still lived in the vicinity. These logical assumptions lost popularity as more fantastic theories were developed. The most popular of these theories in

1224-505: The 1970s, providing them with a background of information pertaining to the site. Further analyses of the rock core samples indicated that the impact occurred during the Permian Period, about 248 to 286 million years ago. This has led archaeologists to believe that the topographic expression of this impact or the impact crater , has been completely erased by erosion . In 1987, Clark and Marjorie Hardman published their finding that

1292-587: The 19th century was that an extinct race of Mound Builder people had built the mounds and then vanished. These theories were generally made to support nationalist sentiment and a romantic European connection to the New World. This theory was laid to rest by archaeologists at the Smithsonian Institution in the 1880s. The Ho-Chunk suggest that effigy mounds were used as places of refuge as well as burial. Some archaeologists today believe that

1360-424: The 2014 research and refined the radiocarbon dates. Monaghan and Hermann determined that the mound was built around 2,100–2,300 years ago (300-100 BCE) during the Adena period and that it was subsequently rebuilt (or repaired) about 900 years ago (1100 CE) during the Fort Ancient period. They provided a reconciliation of the radiocarbon dating differences among samples. In 2018, archaeologist Brad Lepper published

1428-524: The Adena culture. It is a Middle Woodland Hopewell burial mound in a zigzag shape that may or may not have been intended to depict a serpent (Oberholtzer 2013:163). Several groups of Paleo-Indians (13000 BCE–7000 BCE) occupied the subject land in Ohio prior to the development of the Adena and Hopewell cultures. Evidence shows that numerous groups of Paleo-Indians occupied the land in Ohio and ranged throughout

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1496-596: The Adena peoples around 300 BCE (2300 years ago) and refers to radiocarbon data that was published later in an October 2014 article in The Journal of Archaeological Science . These scholars also conclude that the mound was renovated around 1400 CE by Fort Ancient peoples. In 2019, Monaghan and Hermann published additional research in an article in The Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology that supports their earlier conclusions. They corroborated

1564-604: The Fort Ancient Culture were not the direct descendants of the Hopewellian Culture . Despite what many believe, the tribes of the Fort Ancient Culture were not responsible for the creation of The Great Serpent Mound, although they contributed to its physical appearance through maintenance of it around 200 CE. The name of the culture originates from the Fort Ancient archeological site. However,

1632-645: The Fort Ancient Site is now thought to have been built by Ohio Hopewellian people, but having been occupied later by the succeeding Fort Ancient culture. The site is located on a hill above the Little Miami River , close to Lebanon, Ohio . Despite its name, most archaeologists do not believe that Fort Ancient was used primarily as a fortress by either the Ohio Hopewell culture or the Fort Ancient Culture. Archaeologists believe that it

1700-551: The Middle Ohio Valley” (Woodward & McDonald, 2001): “Serpent Mound has given rise to a rich, diverse, and dynamic body of folk and scientific lore — there is no shortage of thoughts about how the effigy came to exist or, perhaps more importantly, why. At one time this earthen serpent was considered by some people with Christian affinity to be a mark of God that indicated the location of the Garden of Eden and served as

1768-527: The Mississippi Valley (1848), that was commissioned by the Smithsonian Institution . The United States Department of Interior designated the mound as a National Historic Landmark in 1966. The mound is maintained through the Ohio History Connection , a nonprofit organization dedicated to preserving historical sites throughout Ohio. Effigy mounds have been constructed independently by several cultures. The significance of Serpent Mound

1836-720: The Mississippi to Lake Michigan, and along the Wisconsin–Illinois boundary." The mounds of the Mississippi river regions in Wisconsin and Iowa most commonly feature imagery of the bear and the bird, while the mounds of the Lake Michigan and Winnebago areas most commonly feature water spirits, such as turtle and panther mounds. The Effigy Mound Builders buried one, two, or three people in a single mound. These burials were most often done singly – one atop

1904-621: The Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society (a predecessor of the present Ohio Historical Society ). The Ohio Historical Society designated the Arc of Appalachia Preserves system, a project of Highlands Sanctuary , Inc., as the managing agency of Serpent Mound from 2010 until March 2021. In March 2021, The Ohio History Connection took back active management of the site. Following an instance of vandalism in 2015, more security cameras and protective gates were added to ensure

1972-586: The Ohio mounds, specifically the Serpent Mound. When he visited the Midwest in 1885, he found that plowing and development were destroying many of the mounds, removing significant history of these cultures and their burial sites. In 1886, with help from a group of wealthy women in Boston , such as the patroness of The Glass Flowers , Mary Lee Ware , Putnam raised funds to purchase 60 acres (240,000 m) at

2040-554: The United States, to camp, hunt, fish, collect fresh water mussels, and to harvest manoomin back to 58 BC. The nine earthen mounds located on Roach's Point were disclosed as places to bury the dead and revere the ancestors providing an exceptionally complete record of life for a period of 350 years ending about C.E.. 300; the burial mound shaped like a serpent is the only one of its kind in Canada. Serpent Mounds incorporates

2108-794: The Wisconsin Historical Society in the upper midwest. Native North American effigy mounds have been compared to the large-scale geoglyphs such as the Nazca Lines of Peru . Effigy mounds are limited to the Northern and Eastern United States, and most likely the French were the first Europeans to see them in their expeditions southward from Canada after 1673. Early surveyors and settlers noticed and mapped many effigy mounds, but farming and other development erased numerous sites despite efforts to preserve them. After

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2176-675: The actual age of a mound. Moreover, the Adena culture is not known to have built effigy mounds or to have used serpent symbolism in their art, whereas the Fort Ancient culture built the Ohio Alligator Mound and frequently depicted serpents in their art. These assessments conclude that the best available data indicate that Serpent Mound was built by the Fort Ancient culture. The Serpent Mound at Rice Lake in Peterborough County , Ontario , Canada , has been dated to more than 2,000 years old. It has also been linked to

2244-408: The area, discovering a unique astrobleme on which the mound is based. He found that the mound is at the convergence of three distinctly different soil types. Cowan's information, in conjunction with Putnam's archaeological discoveries, has been the basis for all modern investigations of The Serpent Mound. In 1967, The Ohio Historical Society opened The Serpent Mound Museum that was built very close to

2312-600: The conical mound dated to the Early Woodland and Fort Ancient periods, suggestive of ritual reuse of the circum mound area and ash bed. In 1901, the Ohio Historical Society hired engineer, Clinton Cowan, to survey newly acquired lands. Cowan created a 56-inch by 72-inch (1,800 mm) map that depicted the outline of The Serpent Mound in relation to nearby landmarks, such as hills and rivers. Along with this, Cowan made specific geographical surveys of

2380-456: The conical mound was reconstructed and currently stands just north of the parking lot at The Serpent Mound State Memorial. In 2011, archaeologists took the opportunity to excavate the property prior to installation of utility lines at The Serpent Mound State Memorial. The excavations focused on three sides of the conical mound that had been excavated previously by Putnam in 1890. In addition to these concentrations of artifacts, an ashy soil horizon

2448-536: The construction and early occupation of the serpent mounds area occurred about 2000 years ago during the prehistoric Middle Woodland Period . The first prehistoric peoples to occupy the site were classified by archaeologists as the Point Peninsula complex , based on their artifacts . The people gathered in areas of what are now the jurisdictions of central and southeastern Ontario and southwestern Quebec in Canada, and northern parts of New York state in

2516-610: The east and is 120-feet (37 m)-long. This oval feature may represent an egg, with an apparent depiction of the snake consuming it, however, many anthropologists believe that the oval is a representation of the Sun, or the body of a frog. Other scholars think it is the remnant of a platform mound. The western side of the effigy features a triangular mound approximately 31.6 feet (9.6 m) at its base and long axis, reminiscent of other existing serpent effigies in Canada and Scotland . Throughout

2584-417: The effigy mounds. Some have speculated that due to the lack of burial goods, that the effigy mound builders were egalitarian peoples. Hundreds of effigy mounds have been lost due to plowing, farming, and other development. Many of the remaining effigy mound sites are parts of national, state, county, or municipal parks. After many archeological excavations in the 1950s and 1960s, archeologists began discussing

2652-474: The foundations of houses. In some cases linear mounds were used as foundational fill for new house construction. Looting of mounds by settlers was common and this also contributed to the destruction and defacement of many. According to the National Park Service , the area in which effigy mounds are found "extends from Dubuque, Iowa, north into southeast Minnesota, across southern Wisconsin from

2720-468: The late prehistoric period (900 CE–1650 CE), the villages of such cultures as the Adena and the Fort Ancient peoples were much larger. These villages were often built on higher ground near a river, commonly surrounded by a wooden stockade. After a long hiatus, some cultures had begun to build earthworks and effigy mounds, but not so frequently as during the Woodland period. The Adena culture consisted of

2788-484: The midwest. Many archaeologists believe that these structures served as territorial markers for the Adena people. Often the mounds were accompanied by small circular earthen enclosures that many archaeologists believe were once used for rituals. The Miamisburg Mound in Montgomery County, Ohio , is home to the largest Adena burial mound in the state. Mounds such as this hosted multiple burials, characterized by

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2856-556: The modern-day regions of southern Ohio , northern Kentucky , southeastern Indiana , and western West Virginia . The Fort Ancient tribes are often referred to as a "sister culture" of the Mississippian culture , although they can be distinguished from that culture through the time period in which they thrived and their many cultural differences. Along with their relation to the Mississippian culture, evidence suggests that

2924-436: The mound shapes by archaeologists who were simply looking for words that would help them classify the mounds. These shapes were most likely chosen for their particular religious or spiritual significance. The earliest mounds are 'conical'; they are essentially bumps of earth - the simplest and arguably the most intuitive kind of burial. Successive conicals likely evolved into linear mounds. Bird mounds likely came next as modifying

2992-402: The mound. The mound features a triple-coiled tail at the end of the structure, often viewed as a benchmark of the mound. Yellowish clay and ash make up the main constituents of the mound, with a layer of rocks and soil reinforcing the outer layer. The generally accepted interpretation of the structure is that of an open-mouth head of a serpent nearly engulfs a hollow oval feature that faces

3060-402: The mounds to their original state. One of the conical mounds that was excavated by Putnam in 1890 yielded several artifacts of a principal burial during the period of the Adena people. Along with these findings, Putnam found and excavated nine intrusive burials in the mound through his discovery of an ash bed containing many prehistoric artifacts, north of the conical mound. After the excavation,

3128-779: The mounds were built by particular clans or groups to honor their representative animal. Some believe that the animal shape is the clan or extended family of the person or person's buried in the mound. Others believe that the mounds were burial sites for everyday people, while still others believe that the depicted animal might be somehow responsible for transitioning the deceased into the next world. The mounds may also indicate hunting and gathering territories of different groups. Other evidence suggests that effigy mounds were used for all manner of rites and ceremonies, from birth ceremonies to funeral rites. Common shapes for effigy mounds include birds, bear, deer, bison, lynx, panther, turtles, and water spirits. These are somewhat arbitrary names given to

3196-533: The old ways of the Adena people. In some regions, including Southwestern Ohio, the Adena way of life persisted well into the first century CE through the efforts of these people. The Fort Ancient Culture refers to the Native American Cultures who predominantly inhabited land near the Ohio River valley in a culture that flourished from 1000 CE to 1750 CE. These civilizations flourished in

3264-534: The other in successive years. The effigy mound builders did not include with their dead the wealth of material the Ohio Hopewellians did. This almost complete lack of artifacts accompanying the dead clearly indicates a culture distinct from the Hopewellian, even though mounds with Hopewell-type grave goods have been excavated in the same area, and apparently were constructed at roughly the same time as

3332-732: The oval-to-head area of the serpent is aligned to the summer solstice sunset. A depiction of the serpent mound appeared in The Century periodical in April 1890, drawn by William Jacob Baer . According to archaeologist Brad Lepper, Serpent Mound may be a depiction of a Dhegihan Siouan origin story of the Great Serpent "Toothy Mouth”, lord of the Beneath World, who impregnated the First Woman. According to “Indian Mounds of

3400-466: The population of the Woodland people to expand dramatically. Several groups of the Woodland people lived in larger villages, surrounded by defensive walls or ditches. Ceremonial and artistic endeavors waned during the Late Woodland period, as did trading with other groups. Many of the earthworks and effigy mounds were built early in this period. Later, the cultures did not build new mounds. During

3468-495: The possible construction dates of the effigy, the one that created the Crab Nebula occurred in the year 1054 CE. The light of the supernova would have been visible for two weeks after it first reached earth and it was visible in broad daylight. As a secondary theory, some archaeologists suggest and the appearance of Halley's Comet in 1066 CE could have been the influence and that the tail of Halley's Comet could have influenced

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3536-608: The pre-contact Native Americans who lived throughout the midwest in the areas that would become the states of Kentucky, Indiana, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and most predominantly, Ohio. The majority of these peoples inhabited the Scioto River and Hocking valleys in southern Ohio, as well as the Kanawha Valley near present-day Charleston, West Virginia . This period is often referred to as The Early Woodland Period, ranging between 800 BCE and 1 CE. The name “Adena” refers to

3604-566: The protection of the site and surrounding area. During excavation of The Serpent Mound archaeologists uncovered pipes, points, and earspools from the Hopewell culture as well as Gorgets and points from the Adena culture . After raising sufficient funds, Putnam returned to the same site in 1886. He worked for four years to excavate the burial sequence contents of both The Serpent Mound and two nearby conical mounds. After completing his excavation and publishing his work, Putnam worked on restoring

3672-553: The region at different time periods. The Adena Mound site became the "type site" of the regional culture that is used by anthropologists. Like other peoples of the Woodland period, the Adena culture were hunter-gatherers. The women also domesticated and cultivated various crops such as squash, sunflower, sumpweed, goosefoot, knotweed, maygrass, and tobacco. They often lived in small villages with surrounding gardens, but moved frequently to follow various animal herds while planting and feeding on various types of nuts, fruits, and roots along

3740-644: The rituals performed and the funerary objects worn such as bracelets, ear spools, gorgets , and other ornaments. Larger ornaments such as bones and stone tools were often worn around the neck. The deceased individual was either cremated or placed on their back in timber-lined tombs. By 1 CE, the Adena culture began to decline and their civilizations began to evolve into what is known as The Hopewell culture . Numerous Adena groups began to build larger earthworks and effigy mounds and expanded their efforts to acquire exotic raw materials such as copper and mica through trade. Many people of The Hopewell culture continued to follow

3808-411: The shape of the mound; however, the tail of the comet has always appeared as a long, straight line that does not resemble the curves of the Serpent Mound. The mound is located on the site of a classic astrobleme , an ancient meteorite impact structure . When attempting to understand the impact origin of this structure, the pattern of disruption of sedimentary strata has provided archaeologists with

3876-563: The shared culture of the peoples rather than to a singular group or tribe. Researchers adopted the name "Adena" from the Ross County estate of Ohio Governor Thomas Worthington, about one and a half miles northwest of Chillicothe, Ohio . Worthington referred to the community as “Adena”, which Worthington’s diary claims comes from a Hebrew name that “was given to places for the delightfulness of their situations”. An ancient burial mound, standing 26 feet tall, had been located at his estate and

3944-611: The site of The Serpent Mound in hopes to ensure its preservation. Along with The Serpent Mound, the purchase also contained three conical mounds, a village site, and a burial place. The Serpent Mound is now listed as a "Great Wonder of the Ancient World" by National Geographic Magazine . The mound was originally purchased on behalf of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum. In 1900, the land and its ownership were granted to

4012-477: The site of the mound. A pathway was constructed around the base of the mound, guiding visitors through and around the site. The museum features exhibits that include explanations of the effigy's form, description of the construction of the mound, and the geographical history of the area. The museum also features an exhibit on the Adena culture that historically, they credited as the creators of the mound. In March 2002, A digital GIS map of Ohio's Great Serpent Mound

4080-723: The territory. They were hunter-gatherers who traveled seasonally for game. The Paleo-Indians hunted large game such as mastodon . Archaeologists have found remains of more than 150 mastodons in Ohio, as well as the remains of other large game. The most complete mastodon skeleton was excavated at the Burning Tree Mastodon site. Clovis point spear heads have been found that indicate interaction with other groups of Paleo-Indians who also hunted large game. The Paleo Crossing site and Nobles Pond site tools, such as spear-throwers , were more sophisticated. Base camps were established for winter lodging. The Glacial Kame culture ,

4148-499: The third piece dating to the Late Archaic period some two thousand years earlier, specifically 2920+/-65 years BP (before the present). The third date, ca. 2900 BP, was recovered from a core sample below the cultural modification level. The first two dates place the Serpent Mound within the realm of the Fort Ancient culture. The third dates the mound back to very early Adena culture or before. Another effigy mound found in Ohio,

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4216-478: The twentieth century, anthropologists and archaeologists had disputed which culture and people had created the Serpent Mound, as may be seen in a overview published by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 2002. The Ancient Earthworks Project published "New Radiocarbon Dates Suggest Serpent Mound is More Than 2,000 Years Old" (July 2014). The article provided evidence supporting attribution of the mound to

4284-526: The way. The Adena people are also known for their production of clay pottery, having been one of the first of cultures to bring it to Ohio. Observed through remains found at the type site, archaeologists characterize the Adena's clay pottery through its large, thick-walled vessels, resembling a modern-day bowl. Archaeologists believe that this clay pottery was used to cook ground seeds into an oatmeal-like substance. The Adena were known for their burial practices. They buried their dead in prominent mounds throughout

4352-567: The wisdom and the ethics behind such excavations. The U.S. National Park Service explains, "when a mound is excavated, its value as a scientific object of study is greatly reduced or destroyed." All effigy mounds are currently protected under state laws that prohibit disturbance to burial sites or, if on federal or tribal land, the Archaeological Resources Protection Act , the Antiquities Act , and

4420-471: Was created by Timothy A. Price and Nichole I. Stump. Effigy mound Effigy mounds were constructed in many Native American cultures. Scholars believe they were primarily for religious purposes, although some also fulfilled a burial mound function. The builders of the effigy mounds are usually referred to as the Mound Builders . Over 3200 animal-shaped effigy mounds have been identified by

4488-421: Was excavated north of the conical mound, where archaeologists were able to uncover many prehistoric artifacts. It is believed that the ashy deposit of charcoal is the remainder of a Fort Ancient Culture ash bed. The wood charcoal from within the remnant bed was carbon dated back to the time of the Fort Ancient Culture, between the years of 1041 CE and 1211 CE. Given the results found through carbon dating, burials in

4556-403: Was known as "The Adena Mound". It was destroyed for agricultural development. Archaeologists attribute the mounds to the Adena culture as a whole, although are unsure of the specific tribes who inhabited the land. The term "culture" encompasses similarities in artifact style, architecture, and other cultural practices, allowing archaeologists to distinguish the Adena culture from other cultures in

4624-559: Was more likely used as a ceremonial location. In 1996, the team of Robert V. Fletcher and Terry L. Cameron (under the supervision of the Ohio Historical Society 's Bradley T. Lepper) reopened a trench created by Frederic Ward Putnam of Harvard more than 100 years before. They found a few pieces of charcoal in what they believed to be an undisturbed portion of the Serpent Mound. Natural changes called bioturbation , including burrows , frost cracks , etc., can reverse

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