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103-722: Originally the Massachusetts Green Party, it was formed in 1996 and recognized in 2000. It merged with the Rainbow Coalition Party in 2002 and rebranded as the Green-Rainbow Party. The GRP has supported Green Party presidential candidates such as Ralph Nader , David Cobb , Cynthia McKinney , Jill Stein and Howie Hawkins . It has also run candidates and pushed for political support at the state and municipal level. As of 2021, there were 9 Green-Rainbow Party elected office holders and

206-707: A buck sergeant during the Gulf War . He was also stationed in Korea and Germany. Purcell sought election to the Holyoke City Council in 2002, 2007, 2011 and 2013. Beyond Stein's run for governor, three additional candidates ran for office as Green-Rainbow candidates: two for the state legislature and one for state auditor. In the state's 4th Berkshire District, Lee Scott Laugenour announced that he would challenge incumbent State Representative William "Smitty" Pignatelli . The state's 3rd Berkshire District saw

309-411: A glory at the bow's centre. Fog bows should not be confused with ice halos , which are very common around the world and visible much more often than rainbows (of any order), yet are unrelated to rainbows. A sleetbow forms in the same way as a typical rainbow, with the exception that it occurs when light passes through falling sleet (ice pellets) instead of liquid water. As light passes through

412-404: A body of water before reaching the raindrops, if the water body is large, quiet over its entire surface, and close to the rain curtain. The reflection rainbow appears above the horizon. It intersects the normal rainbow at the horizon, and its arc reaches higher in the sky, with its centre as high above the horizon as the normal rainbow's centre is below it. Reflection bows are usually brightest when

515-434: A double rainbow, a second arc is seen outside the primary arc, and has the order of its colours reversed, with red on the inner side of the arc. This is caused by the light being reflected twice on the inside of the droplet before leaving it. Rainbows can be observed whenever there are water drops in the air and sunlight shining from behind the observer at a low altitude angle . Because of this, rainbows are usually seen in

618-463: A liquid with no dispersion would be white, but brighter than a normal rainbow.) The light at the back of the raindrop does not undergo total internal reflection , and most of the light emerges from the back. However, light coming out the back of the raindrop does not create a rainbow between the observer and the Sun because spectra emitted from the back of the raindrop do not have a maximum of intensity, as

721-616: A number of other appointed office holder in Massachusetts. As of October 15, 2018, the official party's membership ranks stood at 4,314 members. Like most North American Green parties, the basis of the Green-Rainbow Party's platform stems from the 10 key values . The 10 key values are: grassroots democracy, ecological wisdom, social justice and equal opportunity, nonviolence, decentralization, community-based economics, feminism, respect for diversity, personal and global responsibility, and future focus and sustainability. For some years,

824-406: A partial rainbow, the circular rainbow can have a secondary bow or supernumerary bows as well. It is possible to produce the full circle when standing on the ground, for example by spraying a water mist from a garden hose while facing away from the sun. A circular rainbow should not be confused with the glory , which is much smaller in diameter and is created by different optical processes. In

927-467: A race between Green-Rainbow Party candidate Mark Miller and incumbent candidate Christopher N. Speranzo. Nat Fortune rounded out the ticket, running for Massachusetts Auditor . On election day Mark Miller received 30 percent of the vote in a four-way race, losing by 192 votes, the best result for any Green running for state legislature in the United States in 2010. Miller received 1,748 votes, and

1030-405: A rainbow (2.36°). Further red of the first supplementary rainbow overlaps the violet of the primary rainbow, so rather than the final colour being a variant of spectral violet, it is actually a purple. The number of colour bands of a rainbow may therefore be different from the number of bands in a spectrum, especially if the droplets are particularly large or small. Therefore, the number of colours of

1133-408: A rainbow is different from a spectrum, and the colours are less saturated. There is spectral smearing in a rainbow since, for any particular wavelength, there is a distribution of exit angles, rather than a single unvarying angle. In addition, a rainbow is a blurred version of the bow obtained from a point source, because the disk diameter of the sun (0.533°) cannot be neglected compared to the width of

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1236-479: A rainbow is variable. If, however, the word rainbow is used inaccurately to mean spectrum , it is the number of main colours in the spectrum. Moreover, rainbows have bands beyond red and violet in the respective near infrared and ultraviolet regions, however, these bands are not visible to humans. Only near frequencies of these regions to the visible spectrum are included in rainbows, since water and air become increasingly opaque to these frequencies, scattering

1339-534: A rainbow, but unlike the latter, their origin lies in light refraction through hexagonal ice crystals rather than liquid water droplets. This means that they are not rainbows, but members of the large family of halos . Political action committees In the United States, a political action committee ( PAC ) is a tax-exempt 527 organization that pools campaign contributions from members and donates those funds to campaigns for or against candidates, ballot initiatives , or legislation . The legal term PAC

1442-488: A series of overlapping frames. From above the Earth such as in an aeroplane, it is sometimes possible to see a rainbow as a full circle . This phenomenon can be confused with the glory phenomenon, but a glory is usually much smaller, covering only 5–20°. The sky inside a primary rainbow is brighter than the sky outside of the bow. This is because each raindrop is a sphere and it scatters light over an entire circular disc in

1545-450: A statewide level. In an April 3, 2006 poll by Suffolk University and WHDH , O'Keefe polled at 21% and Stein at 8%. The Ross / Van Horne team, likely to face three other opponents in the election, polled at 2%, before having officially announced. When Van Horne withdrew from the race in early September, she was replaced by Martina Robinson , a 30-year-old disability and equal marriage rights activist. Ross and Robinson only garnered 2% of

1648-431: A third classification, independent expenditure-only committees, which are colloquially known as "super PACs". Most of the 4,600 active, registered PACs, named "connected PACs", sometimes also called "corporate PACs", are established by businesses, non-profits, labor unions, trade groups, or health organizations. These PACs receive and raise money from a "restricted class", generally consisting of managers and shareholders in

1751-868: A third of the vote in a three-way race) and lost by 31 votes. (Snyder-Grant was later elected to the same position in 2020, but by that time was no longer a member of the GRP.) GRP member Edward 'Tar' Larner was re-elected to the Concord Housing Authority and GRP member Matthew Moncreaff was elected to the town of Princeton Select Board. In July 2019, the Green-Rainbow Party hosted the Green Party Annual National Meeting at Salem State University in Salem, Massachusetts. In November 2020, Green-Rainbow Party member and party co-chair Charlene DiCalogero ran for State Representative from

1854-461: A twinned rainbow. A numerical ray tracing study showed that a twinned rainbow on a photo could be explained by a mixture of 0.40 and 0.45 mm droplets. That small difference in droplet size resulted in a small difference in flattening of the droplet shape, and a large difference in flattening of the rainbow top. Meanwhile, the even rarer case of a rainbow split into three branches was observed and photographed in nature. In theory, every rainbow

1957-838: A way dominant parties can capture seats from other parties. A leadership PAC sponsored by an elected official cannot use funds to support that official's own campaign. However, it may fund travel, administrative expenses, consultants, polling, and other non-campaign expenses. In the 2018 election cycle, leadership PACs donated more than $ 67 million to federal candidates. Super PACs, officially known as "independent expenditure-only political action committees," are unlike traditional PACs in that they may raise unlimited amounts from individuals, corporations, unions, and other groups to spend on, for example, ads overtly advocating for or against political candidates. However, they are not allowed to either coordinate with or contribute directly to candidate campaigns or political parties. Super PACs are subject to

2060-410: Is a circle, but from the ground, usually only its upper half can be seen. Since the rainbow's centre is diametrically opposed to the Sun's position in the sky, more of the circle comes into view as the sun approaches the horizon, meaning that the largest section of the circle normally seen is about 50% during sunset or sunrise. Viewing the rainbow's lower half requires the presence of water droplets below

2163-455: Is a turning point – light hitting the outermost ring of the drop gets returned at less than 42°, as does the light hitting the drop nearer to its centre. There is a circular band of light that all gets returned right around 42°. If the Sun were a laser emitting parallel, monochromatic rays, then the luminance (brightness) of the bow would tend toward infinity at this angle if interference effects are ignored (see Caustic (optics) ) . But since

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2266-507: Is an optical phenomenon caused by refraction , internal reflection and dispersion of light in water droplets resulting in a continuous spectrum of light appearing in the sky. The rainbow takes the form of a multicoloured circular arc . Rainbows caused by sunlight always appear in the section of sky directly opposite the Sun. Rainbows can be caused by many forms of airborne water. These include not only rain, but also mist, spray, and airborne dew . Rainbows can be full circles. However,

2369-428: Is differentiated in colour, creating a miniature rainbow. Supernumerary rainbows are clearest when raindrops are small and of uniform size. The very existence of supernumerary rainbows was historically a first indication of the wave nature of light, and the first explanation was provided by Thomas Young in 1804. When a rainbow appears above a body of water, two complementary mirror bows may be seen below and above

2472-425: Is often visible. It appears about 10° outside of the primary rainbow, with inverse order of colours. The rainbow effect is also commonly seen near waterfalls or fountains. In addition, the effect can be artificially created by dispersing water droplets into the air during a sunny day. Rarely, a moonbow , lunar rainbow or nighttime rainbow, can be seen on strongly moonlit nights. As human visual perception for colour

2575-470: Is poor in low light, moonbows are often perceived to be white. It is difficult to photograph the complete semicircle of a rainbow in one frame, as this would require an angle of view of 84°. For a 35 mm camera, a wide-angle lens with a focal length of 19 mm or less would be required. Now that software for stitching several images into a panorama is available, images of the entire arc and even secondary arcs can be created fairly easily from

2678-451: Is present, however, but the human eye is not normally sensitive enough to see the colours. Long exposure photographs will sometimes show the colour in this type of rainbow. Fogbows form in the same way as rainbows, but they are formed by much smaller cloud and fog droplets that diffract light extensively. They are almost white with faint reds on the outside and blues inside; often one or more broad supernumerary bands can be discerned inside

2781-402: Is seen on the same side of the sky as the primary rainbow, about 10° outside it at an apparent angle of 50–53°. As a result of the "inside" of the secondary bow being "up" to the observer, the colours appear reversed compared to those of the primary bow. The secondary rainbow is fainter than the primary because more light escapes from two reflections compared to one and because the rainbow itself

2884-413: Is spread over a greater area of the sky. Each rainbow reflects white light inside its coloured bands, but that is "down" for the primary and "up" for the secondary. The dark area of unlit sky lying between the primary and secondary bows is called Alexander's band , after Alexander of Aphrodisias , who first described it. Unlike a double rainbow that consists of two separate and concentric rainbow arcs,

2987-411: Is their location in the direction of the sun (about 40° and 45° from the sun, respectively), causing them to become drowned in its glare. For these reasons, naturally occurring rainbows of an order higher than 2 are rarely visible to the naked eye. Nevertheless, sightings of the third-order bow in nature have been reported, and in 2011 it was photographed definitively for the first time. Shortly after,

3090-534: Is to have over 1% of voters registered in their party, a threshold that Green-Rainbow has not met either. In 2002, the party was renamed when it merged with the Rainbow Coalition Party , which was founded by former State Representative Mel King . King endorsed Stein's 2002 candidacy for governor, saying "Jill Stein is the only candidate who will speak truth to power. She's the only one that makes issues of racism and social justice integral parts of her campaign". In 2004, with David Cobb as its presidential candidate,

3193-456: Is used when both the primary and secondary rainbows are visible. In theory, all rainbows are double rainbows, but since the secondary bow is always fainter than the primary, it may be too weak to spot in practice. Secondary rainbows are caused by a double reflection of sunlight inside the water droplets. Technically the secondary bow is centred on the sun itself, but since its angular size is more than 90° (about 127° for violet to 130° for red), it

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3296-455: The 2018 election , the top ten PACs donated a total of $ 29,349,895 (directly, and via their affiliates and subsidiaries) to federal candidates: In the 2020 election , the top ten PACs donated a total of $ 28,276,448 (directly, and via their affiliates and subsidiaries) to federal candidates: In the 2022 election , the top ten PACs donated a total of $ 28,051,395 (directly, and via their affiliates and subsidiaries) to federal candidates: In

3399-766: The Federal Election Campaign Act as amended by the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (also known as the McCain–Feingold Act). At the state level, an organization becomes a PAC according to the state's election laws . Contributions to PACs from corporate or labor union treasuries are illegal, though these entities may sponsor a PAC and provide financial support for its administration and fundraising. Union-affiliated PACs may solicit contributions only from union members. Independent PACs may solicit contributions from

3502-1027: The Green Party of the United States , on the statewide presidential ballot. The highest vote total came in 2000, when Ralph Nader received over 173,000 votes. The lowest vote total came in 2008, when Cynthia McKinney was the nominee. Her campaign received only 6,550 votes. Nader, who was also on the ballot as an independent candidate, received more than 28,000 votes. The Green-Rainbow Party (GRP) currently has four regular meeting local chapters: Greater Boston, SouthCoast, Central Massachusetts, and Pioneer Valley. The Party also has an elected State Committee ('State Com') that meets in person four time per year (and at other times by phone conference), and Administrative Committee ('Ad Com') that convenes at least twice per month and working committees such as Membership Diversity and Volunteer Recruitment (MDVR), Candidate Development and Legal (CDLC), and Communications (Com Com) all which normally convene by phone conference. The body with

3605-688: The Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court 's decision to allow same-sex marriages within Massachusetts. The Green-Rainbow party supports having an economic bill of rights including a right to food, water, health care, housing and education. It supports a far bolder and faster transition from fossil fuels to safe, clean renewable energy than the Democratic and Republican parties. It sees climate change as an existential emergency. It supports racial justice and justice for documented and undocumented immigrants including an end to

3708-406: The second-order or secondary rainbow. More internal reflections cause bows of higher orders—theoretically unto infinity. As more and more light is lost with each internal reflection, however, each subsequent bow becomes progressively dimmer and therefore increasingly difficult to spot. An additional challenge in observing the third-order (or tertiary ) and fourth-order ( quaternary ) rainbows

3811-548: The (much more common) supernumerary bows and reflection rainbows. Like most atmospheric optical phenomena, rainbows can be caused by light from the Sun, but also from the Moon. In case of the latter, the rainbow is referred to as a lunar rainbow or moonbow . They are much dimmer and rarer than solar rainbows, requiring the Moon to be near-full in order for them to be seen. For the same reason, moonbows are often perceived as white and may be thought of as monochrome. The full spectrum

3914-459: The 12th Worcester District in a three-way race and received 4.5% of the vote (1,100 votes.) The GRP engaged in campaign work supporting the Green Party's nominees for President and Vice-President, Howie Hawkins and Angela Walker . Since 1996, the Green Party has run a candidate for President of the United States. In 2000, the Green Party of Massachusetts placed Ralph Nader , the nominee of

4017-470: The 19th-order rainbow, a pattern he called a "rose of rainbows". In the laboratory, it is possible to observe higher-order rainbows by using extremely bright and well collimated light produced by lasers . Up to the 200th-order rainbow was reported by Ng et al. in 1998 using a similar method but an argon ion laser beam. Tertiary and quaternary rainbows should not be confused with "triple" and "quadruple" rainbows—terms sometimes erroneously used to refer to

4120-610: The Commonwealth, 3.8% of the vote) and Jamie Guerin of Northampton (candidate for Treasurer and Receiver-General of Massachusetts, 3.5% of the vote) both reached the 3% of the vote threshold to once acquire for the Green-Rainbow Party official state party status. As a result, the Green-Rainbow Party became one of four recognized political parties in Massachusetts. Additionally in the November 2018 elections, Jed Stamas, (Green-Rainbow Party Candidate for State Auditor) received 2.6% of

4223-678: The Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) created rules for disclosure, which made it so all donations received by PACs must go through a central committee maintained by said PAC. Furthermore, it required PACs to file regular reports with the Federal Election Commission(FEC) disclosing anyone who has donated at least $ 200. The Supreme Court has declared unconstitutional limits imposed on PACs by the legislature under First Amendment grounds in many cases, starting with Buckley v. Valeo . Throughout

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4326-489: The Green-Rainbow ticket was unable to meet the required 3% threshold, and subsequently lost recognition in Massachusetts of state party status. Losing state party status has the results that the expenditures on Massachusetts candidates are subject to the state laws regulating political action committees (or PACs). In addition, the party name is no longer printed on voter registration forms as an option to check off, and

4429-411: The Sun's luminance is finite and its rays are not all parallel (it covers about half a degree of the sky) the luminance does not go to infinity. Furthermore, the amount by which light is refracted depends upon its wavelength , and hence its colour. This effect is called dispersion . Blue light (shorter wavelength) is refracted at a greater angle than red light, but due to the reflection of light rays from

4532-429: The Sun, lie on a cone pointing at the sun with the observer at the tip. The base of the cone forms a circle at an angle of 40–42° to the line between the observer's head and their shadow but 50% or more of the circle is below the horizon, unless the observer is sufficiently far above the earth's surface to see it all, for example in an aeroplane (see below). Alternatively, an observer with the right vantage point may see

4635-431: The arc. The light of the second arc is 90% polarised. For colours seen by the human eye, the most commonly cited and remembered sequence is Isaac Newton 's sevenfold red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet, remembered by the mnemonic Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain, or as the name of a fictional person ( Roy G. Biv ). The initialism is sometimes referred to in reverse order, as VIBGYOR. More modernly,

4738-413: The back of the droplet, the blue light emerges from the droplet at a smaller angle to the original incident white light ray than the red light. Due to this angle, blue is seen on the inside of the arc of the primary rainbow, and red on the outside. The result of this is not only to give different colours to different parts of the rainbow, but also to diminish the brightness. (A "rainbow" formed by droplets of

4841-593: The ballot, the results are as follows: All members of the party were able to apply to be delegates to be sent to the national convention. The number of voters that took part in the election slightly increased from the 1,554 that took part in the 2012 primary. On August 6, 2016 at the Green Party Presidential Nominating Convention in Houston, Jill Stein was nominated as the Green Party candidate for President and Ajamu Baraka

4944-529: The case of a corporation or members in the case of a non-profit organization, labor union or other interest group. As of January 2009, there were 1,598 registered corporate PACs, 272 related to labor unions and 995 to trade organizations. Groups with an ideological mission, single-issue groups, and members of Congress and other political leaders may form "non-connected PACs". These organizations may accept funds from any individual, connected PAC, or organization. As of January 2009, there were 1,594 non-connected PACs,

5047-404: The earlier equation for φ yields 2 φ max ≈ 42° as the radius angle of the rainbow. For red light (wavelength 750nm, n = 1.330 based on the dispersion relation of water ), the radius angle is 42.5°; for blue light (wavelength 350nm, n = 1.343 ), the radius angle is 40.6°. A secondary rainbow, at a greater angle than the primary rainbow, is often visible. The term double rainbow

5150-620: The fastest-growing category. Elected officials and political parties cannot give more than the federal limit directly to candidates. However, they can set up a leadership PAC that makes independent expenditures . Provided the expenditure is not coordinated with the other candidate, this type of spending is not limited. Under the FEC (Federal Election Commission) rules, leadership PACs are non-connected PACs, and can accept donations from individuals and other PACs. Since current officeholders have an easier time attracting contributions, Leadership PACs are

5253-418: The fourth-order rainbow was photographed as well, and in 2014 the first ever pictures of the fifth-order (or quinary ) rainbow were published. The quinary rainbow lies partially in the gap between the primary and secondary rainbows and is far fainter than even the secondary. In a laboratory setting, it is possible to create bows of much higher orders. Felix Billet (1808–1882) depicted angular positions up to

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5356-400: The full circle in a fountain or waterfall spray. Conversely, at lower latitudes near midday (specifically, when the sun's elevation exceeds 42 degrees) a rainbow will not be visible against the sky. It is possible to determine the perceived angle which the rainbow subtends as follows. Given a spherical raindrop, and defining the perceived angle of the rainbow as 2 φ , and the angle of

5459-585: The general public and must pay their own costs from those funds. Federal multi-candidate PACs may contribute to candidates as follows: In its 2010 case Citizens United v. FEC , the Supreme Court of the United States overturned sections of the Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (also known as the McCain–Feingold Act) that had prohibited corporate and union political independent expenditures in political campaigns. Citizens United declared it

5562-557: The highest amount of power in the Green-Rainbow Party is its State Convention (consisting of all GRP members) which convenes once per year. In 2020 and 2021, due to the coronavirus pandemic, State Committee meetings and the annual state convention were held by remote video conference. Co-Chairpersons: Lois Gagnon and Michael Pascucci Secretary: Maureen Doyle Party Treasurer: Brian Cady Membership Director: Communications Director: Eileen Wheeler Sheehan Fundraising Director: Appointed Office Holders Rainbow A rainbow

5665-399: The horizon (1, 2) with their reflected counterparts below it (3, 4), and the reflection primary and secondary bows above the horizon (5, 6) with their reflected counterparts below it (7, 8). Occasionally a shower may happen at sunrise or sunset, where the shorter wavelengths like blue and green have been scattered and essentially removed from the spectrum. Further scattering may occur due to

5768-444: The horizon, originating from different light paths. Their names are slightly different. A reflected rainbow may appear in the water surface below the horizon. The sunlight is first deflected by the raindrops, and then reflected off the body of water, before reaching the observer. The reflected rainbow is frequently visible, at least partially, even in small puddles. A reflection rainbow may be produced where sunlight reflects off

5871-777: The incarceration epidemic and community control of the police. In 2019, the Green-Rainbow Party State Committee voted to support the elimination of the United States military. Founded in 1996 as the Massachusetts Green Party, the party attained official political party status in 2000 when the Greens ran Ralph Nader and Winona LaDuke for president of the United States . Official political party status in Massachusetts affects how political groups can use finances, and official political parties are guaranteed ballot access . The Nader ticket received 6% of

5974-404: The inner edge. The colours are dim because the bow in each colour is very broad and the colours overlap. Fogbows are commonly seen over water when air in contact with the cooler water is chilled, but they can be found anywhere if the fog is thin enough for the sun to shine through and the sun is fairly bright. They are very large—almost as big as a rainbow and much broader. They sometimes appear with

6077-490: The internal reflection as 2 β , then the angle of incidence of the Sun's rays with respect to the drop's surface normal is 2 β − φ . Since the angle of refraction is β , Snell's law gives us where n = 1.333 is the refractive index of water. Solving for φ , we get The rainbow will occur where the angle φ is maximum with respect to the angle β . Therefore, from calculus , we can set dφ / dβ = 0 , and solve for β , which yields Substituting back into

6180-404: The language that one uses, with people whose language has fewer colour words seeing fewer discrete colour bands. When sunlight encounters a raindrop, part of the light is reflected and the rest enters the raindrop. The light is refracted at the surface of the raindrop. When this light hits the back of the raindrop, some of it is reflected off the back. When the internally reflected light reaches

6283-419: The light. The UV band is sometimes visible to cameras using black and white film. The question of whether everyone sees seven colours in a rainbow is related to the idea of linguistic relativity . Suggestions have been made that there is universality in the way that a rainbow is perceived. However, more recent research suggests that the number of distinct colours observed and what these are called depend on

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6386-405: The most intense light at 42°. This angle is independent of the size of the drop, but does depend on its refractive index . Seawater has a higher refractive index than rain water, so the radius of a "rainbow" in sea spray is smaller than that of a true rainbow. This is visible to the naked eye by a misalignment of these bows. The reason the returning light is most intense at about 42° is that this

6489-581: The number of notes in a musical scale. Newton chose to divide the visible spectrum into seven colours out of a belief derived from the beliefs of the ancient Greek sophists , who thought there was a connection between the colours, the musical notes, the known objects in the Solar System , and the days of the week. Scholars have noted that what Newton regarded at the time as "blue" would today be regarded as cyan , and what Newton called "indigo" would today be considered blue . The colour pattern of

6592-412: The observer normally sees only an arc formed by illuminated droplets above the ground, and centered on a line from the Sun to the observer's eye. In a primary rainbow, the arc shows red on the outer part and violet on the inner side. This rainbow is caused by light being refracted when entering a droplet of water, then reflected inside on the back of the droplet and refracted again when leaving it. In

6695-401: The observer's eye. This light is what constitutes the rainbow for that observer. The whole system composed by the Sun's rays, the observer's head, and the (spherical) water drops has an axial symmetry around the axis through the observer's head and parallel to the Sun's rays. The rainbow is curved because the set of all the raindrops that have the right angle between the observer, the drop, and

6798-430: The observer's horizon, as well as sunlight that is able to reach them. These requirements are not usually met when the viewer is at ground level, either because droplets are absent in the required position, or because the sunlight is obstructed by the landscape behind the observer. From a high viewpoint such as a high building or an aircraft, however, the requirements can be met and the full-circle rainbow can be seen. Like

6901-409: The other visible rainbows do, and thus the colours blend together rather than forming a rainbow. A rainbow does not exist at one particular location. Many rainbows exist; however, only one can be seen depending on the particular observer's viewpoint as droplets of light illuminated by the sun. All raindrops refract and reflect the sunlight in the same way, but only the light from some raindrops reaches

7004-577: The party must collect signatures to place presidential candidates on the ballot; state and local candidates always need signatures to be placed on the ballot. Also in 2004, Green-Rainbow Party candidate Jill Stein ran for state representative in the 9th Middlesex District, which included portions of Waltham and Lexington.[21] She received 3,911 votes (21.3%) in a three-way race, ahead of the Republican candidate, but behind Democratic incumbent Thomas M. Stanley. In March 2006, at its nominating convention,

7107-534: The party nominated five candidates for statewide office: Grace Ross for governor, Wendy Van Horne for lieutenant governor, Jill Stein for secretary of the Commonwealth, James O'Keefe for treasurer, and Nathanael Fortune for auditor. In early April, Nathanael Fortune withdrew his candidacy. The races for secretary of the Commonwealth and treasurer were two-way races between the Democrats and Green-Rainbows, with Green-Rainbows polling higher than ever before on

7210-472: The party was involved in co-organizing an annual March to Abolish Poverty. Like many small parties that view the Democratic and Republican parties as creating difficult ballot access laws, the party has also pushed for electoral reforms, particularly ranked choice voting and publicly financed campaigns. The party also champions universal health care and strongly supported marriage equality, long before

7313-457: The past 30 years, campaign donations from PACs have been increasingly growing, with $ 333 million being raised in 1990 to $ 482 million in 2022. Even with the major growth, PAC contributions only made up 23% of the money raised by House candidates and only 10% for senate candidates, despite media coverage which tends to exaggerate contributions. Federal law formally allows for two types of PACs: connected and non-connected. Judicial decisions added

7416-518: The presidential nomination of the Green Party of the United States . Stein received 456,169 nationwide while advocating for a Green New Deal to address climate change and financial crises. In Massachusetts, Stein received 19,672 votes (1%). Because Stein did not receive 3% of the vote statewide, the Green-Rainbow Party lost party status. In November 2014, Green-Rainbow Party Statewide candidates Danny Factor (Secretary of State), Ian Jackson (Treasurer) and MK Merelice (auditor) all received more than 3% of

7519-407: The rain, and the result can be the rare and dramatic monochrome or red rainbow. In addition to the common primary and secondary rainbows, it is also possible for rainbows of higher orders to form. The order of a rainbow is determined by the number of light reflections inside the water droplets that create it: One reflection results in the first-order or primary rainbow; two reflections create

7622-505: The rainbow is often divided into red, orange, yellow, green, cyan, blue and violet. The apparent discreteness of main colours is an artefact of human perception and the exact number of main colours is a somewhat arbitrary choice. Newton, who admitted his eyes were not very critical in distinguishing colours, originally (1672) divided the spectrum into five main colours: red , yellow , green , blue and violet . Later he included orange and indigo , giving seven main colours by analogy to

7725-433: The raindrops. Some rays are in phase , reinforcing each other through constructive interference , creating a bright band; others are out of phase by up to half a wavelength, cancelling each other out through destructive interference , and creating a gap. Given the different angles of refraction for rays of different colours, the patterns of interference are slightly different for rays of different colours, so each bright band

7828-409: The right circumstances, a glory and a (circular) rainbow or fog bow can occur together. Another atmospheric phenomenon that may be mistaken for a "circular rainbow" is the 22° halo , which is caused by ice crystals rather than liquid water droplets, and is located around the Sun (or Moon), not opposite it. In certain circumstances, one or several narrow, faintly coloured bands can be seen bordering

7931-529: The same organizational, reporting, and public disclosure requirements of traditional PACs. A hybrid PAC (sometimes called a Carey Committee) is similar to a super PAC, but can give limited amounts of money directly to campaigns and committees, while still making independent expenditures in unlimited amounts. OpenSecrets maintains a list of the largest PACs by election cycle on its website OpenSecrets.org. Their list can be filtered by receipts or different types of expenses, political party, and type of PAC. In

8034-411: The sky. The radius of the disc depends on the wavelength of light, with red light being scattered over a larger angle than blue light. Over most of the disc, scattered light at all wavelengths overlaps, resulting in white light which brightens the sky. At the edge, the wavelength dependence of the scattering gives rise to the rainbow. The light of a primary rainbow arc is 96% polarised tangential to

8137-608: The sleet, the light is refracted causing the rare phenomena. These have been documented across United States with the earliest publicly documented and photographed sleetbow being seen in Richmond, Virginia on 21 December 2012. Just like regular rainbows, these can also come in various forms, with a monochrome sleetbow being documented on 7 January 2016 in Valparaiso, Indiana. The circumzenithal and circumhorizontal arcs are two related optical phenomena similar in appearance to

8240-437: The sun is low because at that time its light is most strongly reflected from water surfaces. As the sun gets lower the normal and reflection bows are drawn closer together. Due to the combination of requirements, a reflection rainbow is rarely visible. Up to eight separate bows may be distinguished if the reflected and reflection rainbows happen to occur simultaneously: the normal (non-reflection) primary and secondary bows above

8343-416: The surface again, once more some is internally reflected and some is refracted as it exits the drop. (The light that reflects off the drop, exits from the back, or continues to bounce around inside the drop after the second encounter with the surface, is not relevant to the formation of the primary rainbow.) The overall effect is that part of the incoming light is reflected back over the range of 0° to 42°, with

8446-429: The third place challenger who had 611 votes. In June 2017 Green-Rainbow Party member and Smith College Physics Professor Joyce Palmer-Fortune was elected selectperson from the town of Whately. Palmer-Fortune defeated her only opponent by a slim 37 vote margin. Palmer-Fortune previously had held the seat from 2009 until 2015 and had promoted clean, green energy solutions during her tenure. In the spring of 2017, Gus Steeves

8549-434: The twinned rainbow shows the same spectrum as a regular rainbow. The cause of a twinned rainbow is believed to be the combination of different sizes of water drops falling from the sky. Due to air resistance, raindrops flatten as they fall, and flattening is more prominent in larger water drops. When two rain showers with different-sized raindrops combine, they each produce slightly different rainbows which may combine and form

8652-591: The usual spectrum pattern. The effect becomes apparent when water droplets are involved that have a diameter of about 1 mm or less; the smaller the droplets are, the broader the supernumerary bands become, and the less saturated their colours. Due to their origin in small droplets, supernumerary bands tend to be particularly prominent in fogbows . Supernumerary rainbows cannot be explained using classical geometric optics . The alternating faint bands are caused by interference between rays of light following slightly different paths with slightly varying lengths within

8755-529: The very rare twinned rainbow appears as two rainbow arcs that split from a single base. The colours in the second bow, rather than reversing as in a secondary rainbow, appear in the same order as the primary rainbow. A "normal" secondary rainbow may be present as well. Twinned rainbows can look similar to, but should not be confused with supernumerary bands . The two phenomena may be told apart by their difference in colour profile: supernumerary bands consist of subdued pastel hues (mainly pink, purple and green), while

8858-483: The violet edge of a rainbow; i.e., inside the primary bow or, much more rarely, outside the secondary. These extra bands are called supernumerary rainbows or supernumerary bands ; together with the rainbow itself the phenomenon is also known as a stacker rainbow . The supernumerary bows are slightly detached from the main bow, become successively fainter along with their distance from it, and have pastel colours (consisting mainly of pink, purple and green hues) rather than

8961-575: The vote in Massachusetts, where state law requires 3% during state and national elections for establishing and maintaining official party status. In 2002, the party entered the state gubernatorial race for the first time with Jill Stein as the candidate for governor , Anthony Lorenzen for lieutenant governor , and James O'Keefe for treasurer . Stein and Lorenzen received over 3% and O'Keefe received almost 8% resulting in maintaining state party status in Massachusetts for 2002. An alternate method to establish and maintain state party status in Massachusetts

9064-468: The vote in a three-way race. On May 2, 2017, Sharon Moss, Green-Rainbow Party member and former Central Massachusetts Green-Rainbow Chapter Co-Chair was elected as a Town Meeting Member, Precinct 8, in Shrewsbury. This was a competitive race with 8 incumbents and 14 total candidates for 10 seats. On May 8, 2017, Green-Rainbow Party member and former candidate for State Representative Charlene DiCalogero

9167-553: The vote in her candidacy for State Senate in the Middlesex and Worcester District. In municipal elections earlier in 2018, Green-Rainbow Party member David Spanagel was elected Library Trustee in the town of Lancaster, Massachusetts, and Green-Rainbow Party member and incumbent Town Meeting Member Brian Moss was re-elected in Shrewsbury, Massachusetts, Precinct 8. In March 2019, Green-Rainbow Party member Jim Snyder-Grant ran for Acton Board of Selectmen and won over 1,000 votes (nearly

9270-613: The vote in the gubernatorial election. However Stein won 18% in the race for Secretary of State and James O'Keefe won 16% in the race for State Treasurer. As a result, the Green-rainbow Party once again qualified for ballot access. Jill Stein officially announced her entrance into the governor's race on the steps of the Massachusetts State House in Boston on February 8, 2010. As of February 25, she

9373-546: The vote which resulted in the Green-Rainbow Party gaining back official party status. The Green-Rainbow Party ran three candidates for office in the November 2015 election: Darlene Elias for Holyoke City Council, Plinio Degoes for Cambridge City Council, and Sean Connell for Fall River School Committee. None of the candidates won their election, but all made strong showings, considering that they were all first time candidates. The Green-Rainbow Party Massachusetts presidential primary took place on March 1. Five candidates appeared on

9476-454: The vote, Matthew Moncreaff, (Green-Rainbow candidate for State Representative, 1st Worcester District) received 22.1% of the vote, Danny Factor (Green-Rainbow Party Candidate for State Representative, 14th Middlesex District) received 10% of the vote, Yasmine Khdeer (Green-Rainbow Party Candidate for State Representative, 2nd Worcester District) received 3% of the vote, and Green-Rainbow Party endorsed unenrolled candidate Terra Friedrichs won 2% of

9579-415: The western sky during the morning and in the eastern sky during the early evening. The most spectacular rainbow displays happen when half the sky is still dark with raining clouds and the observer is at a spot with clear sky in the direction of the Sun. The result is a luminous rainbow that contrasts with the darkened background. During such good visibility conditions, the larger but fainter secondary rainbow

9682-436: Was bested by the Democratic candidate Patricia Farley-Bouvier who received 1,940 votes (33%). Two other candidates, Pam Malmurphy(I) (1,325 votes- 22%) and Mark Jester (R) (899 votes- 15%) also ran. In the race for State Auditior, Nat Fortune received 5 percent of the vote guaranteeing the Green-Rainbow Party official party status in Massachusetts for the subsequent two years. In 2012, Green-Rainbow Party leader Jill Stein won

9785-528: Was created in pursuit of campaign finance reform in the United States . Democracies of other countries use different terms for the units of campaign spending or spending on political competition (see political finance ). At the U.S. federal level, an organization becomes a PAC when it receives or spends more than $ 1,000 for the purpose of influencing a federal election, and registers with the Federal Election Commission (FEC), according to

9888-467: Was elected Library Trustee for the town of Berlin, Massachusetts. DiCalogero received 648 of the 649 votes cast in the election. On May 9, 2017 Green-Rainbow Party member Damon Jespersen (from the village of Byfield, Massachusetts ) was re-elected selectperson from the town of Newbury, Massachusetts in a contested race. This was a competitive race with Jesperson being one of three candidates vying for two seats. Jesperson finished second with 690 votes ahead of

9991-526: Was eliminated in the election runoff, finishing in 16th place. In the fall of 2017, GRP members Darlene Elias and Juan G. Sanchez ran for the City of Holyoke City Council, both finishing second with 42% and 30% of the vote respectively. Also in the fall of 2017, in an election held on November 7. 2017, GRP member Laurance Kimbrough won election to the School Committee in the City of Cambridge. Laurance

10094-527: Was established after the U.S. Congress prohibited unions from giving direct contributions to political candidates. This restriction was initially imposed in 1907 on corporations through the Tillman Act . The Smith–Connally Act extended its coverage to labor unions in 1943. A series of campaign reform laws enacted during the 1970s facilitated the growth of PACs after these laws allowed corporations, trade associations, and labor unions to form PACs. In 1971

10197-447: Was nominated as the Green Party candidate for Vice-President. In the November 8, 2016 general election, presidential candidate Jill Stein received 1.4% of the vote in Massachusetts, Green-Rainbow Party candidate for State Representative Charlene DiCalogero (12th Worcester District) received 20% of the vote in a two-person race, and Green-Rainbow Party candidate for State Representative Danny Factor (14th Middlesex District) received 3.3% of

10300-811: Was polling at 3% in that race. Stein announced on April 3, 2010, that her lieutenant governor running mate would be Richard P. 'Rick' Purcell (born December 21, 1959), an ergonomics specialist from Holyoke . Purcell was born in 1959 in Albuquerque, New Mexico and grew up on the Tohajiilee Indian Reservation in New Mexico. He moved to Holyoke, Massachusetts in 1974 and graduated from Chicopee Comprehensive High School in 1977. He works as an ergonomics specialist with Baystate Medical Center in Springfield, Massachusetts. Purcell served as

10403-535: Was reelected to the Southbridge Town Council. In the summer of 2017, Arlington Massachusetts resident and former Green-Rainbow Party candidate for Treasurer Ian Jackson ran for Massachusetts State Senator in a special election held in July 2017 to fill a vacant seat in the 4th Middlesex District and received 11% of the vote. Green-Rainbow Party member Sean Connell ran for Fall River School Committee and

10506-667: Was the 6th and final candidate elected under the ranked choice voting system used in Cambridge. In December 2017, GRP member and elected Library Trustee of Berlin, Charlene DiCalogero, ran as a candidate for State Senate in the Special Election in the Worcester and Middlesex District that was held on December 5, 2017. She received 201 votes, or 1.3%. In the November 2018 statewide elections, two Green-Rainbow Party Candidates—Juan Sanchez of Holyoke (candidate for Secretary of

10609-537: Was unconstitutional to prohibit corporations and unions from spending from their general treasuries to promote candidates or from contributing to PACs. It left intact these laws' prohibitions on corporations or unions contributing directly to a candidate or candidate committee. The political action committee emerged from the labor movement of 1943. The first PAC was the CIO-PAC , formed in July 1943 under CIO president Philip Murray and headed by Sidney Hillman . It

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