109-519: The Greek alphabet has been used to write the Greek language since the late 9th or early 8th century BC. It was derived from the earlier Phoenician alphabet , and is the earliest known alphabetic script to have developed distinct letters for vowels as well as consonants . In Archaic and early Classical times, the Greek alphabet existed in many local variants , but, by the end of the 4th century BC,
218-577: A basis for coinages: anthropology , photography , telephony , isomer , biomechanics , cinematography , etc. Together with Latin words , they form the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary ; for example, all words ending in -logy ('discourse'). There are many English words of Greek origin . Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient language most closely related to it may be ancient Macedonian , which, by most accounts,
327-619: A colour-coded map in a seminal 19th-century work on the topic, Studien zur Geschichte des griechischen Alphabets by Adolf Kirchhoff (1867). The "green" (or southern) type is the most archaic and closest to the Phoenician. The "red" (or western) type is the one that was later transmitted to the West and became the ancestor of the Latin alphabet , and bears some crucial features characteristic of that later development. The "blue" (or eastern) type
436-610: A distinction between uppercase and lowercase. This distinction is an innovation of the modern era, drawing on different lines of development of the letter shapes in earlier handwriting. The oldest forms of the letters in antiquity are majuscule forms. Besides the upright, straight inscriptional forms (capitals) found in stone carvings or incised pottery, more fluent writing styles adapted for handwriting on soft materials were also developed during antiquity. Such handwriting has been preserved especially from papyrus manuscripts in Egypt since
545-558: A fairly stable set of consonantal contrasts . The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see Koine Greek phonology for details): In all its stages, the morphology of Greek shows an extensive set of productive derivational affixes , a limited but productive system of compounding and a rich inflectional system. Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in
654-508: A faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use of ink and quill . The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with an uppercase ( majuscule ) and lowercase ( minuscule ) form. The letter sigma has an additional lowercase form (ς) used in the final position of a word: In addition to the letters, the Greek alphabet features a number of diacritical signs : three different accent marks ( acute , grave , and circumflex ), originally denoting different shapes of pitch accent on
763-540: A foreign language. It is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, " Homeric Greek is probably closer to Demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English ". Greek is spoken today by at least 13 million people, principally in Greece and Cyprus along with a sizable Greek-speaking minority in Albania near
872-601: A reconstructed pronunciation of both Greek and Latin that was similar to Erasmus's scheme, and it became adopted in schools. Soon after the Cheke and Smith reforms, English underwent the Great Vowel Shift , which changed the phonetic values assigned to the English "long vowels", in particular. The same changes affected the English pronunciation of Greek, which thus became further removed from both Ancient Greek and from
981-453: A seventh vowel letter for the long /ɔː/ (Ω, omega ) was introduced. Greek also introduced three new consonant letters for its aspirated plosive sounds and consonant clusters: Φ ( phi ) for /pʰ/ , Χ ( chi ) for /kʰ/ and Ψ ( psi ) for /ps/ . In western Greek variants, Χ was instead used for /ks/ and Ψ for /kʰ/ . The origin of these letters is a matter of some debate. Three of the original Phoenician letters dropped out of use before
1090-447: A single uppercase form of each letter. It was written without diacritics and with little punctuation . By the 9th century, Byzantine scribes had begun to employ the lowercase form, which they derived from the cursive styles of the uppercase letters. Sound values and conventional transcriptions for some of the letters differ between Ancient and Modern Greek usage because the pronunciation of Greek has changed significantly between
1199-428: A time, a writing style with alternating right-to-left and left-to-right lines (called boustrophedon , literally "ox-turning", after the manner of an ox ploughing a field) was common, until in the classical period the left-to-right writing direction became the norm. Individual letter shapes were mirrored depending on the writing direction of the current line. There were initially numerous local (epichoric) variants of
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#17327835102851308-505: A velar consonant, is generally pronounced [n] . The digraph γμ is pronounced [ɡm] , and ζ is pronounced [dz] , but both pronunciations are questionable in the light of modern scholarly research. More generally, no attempt is made to reproduce the unwritten allophones thought to have existed by modern scholarly research. One particularly famed piece of schoolyard Greek in France is the line, supposedly by Xenophon , "they did not take
1417-547: A vowel, [z] . ευ and ηυ are not distinguished from οι but are both pronounced [ɔʏ] , following the German eu, äu . Similarly, ει and αι are often not distinguished, both pronounced [aɪ] , like the similar German ei, ai , and ει is sometimes pronounced [ɛɪ] . No attempt is usually made to reproduce the accentuation contrast between acute and circumflex accents. While the deviations are often acknowledged as compromises in teaching, awareness of other German-based idiosyncrasies
1526-861: A ñ o é as in French é t é Similar to ay as in English overl ay , but without pronouncing y. ai as in English f ai ry ê as in French t ê te [ c ] before [ e ] , [ i ] q as in French q ui ô as in French t ô t r as in Spanish ca r o [ ç ] before [ e ] , [ i ] h as in English h ue Among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants ( /b, d, g/ ) and aspirated plosives ( /pʰ, tʰ, kʰ/ ) in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding fricative sounds in Modern Greek. The correspondences are as follows: Among
1635-652: Is also ⟨ ηι, ωι ⟩ , and ⟨ ου ⟩ , pronounced /u/ . The Ancient Greek diphthongs ⟨ αυ ⟩ , ⟨ ευ ⟩ and ⟨ ηυ ⟩ are pronounced [av] , [ev] and [iv] in Modern Greek. In some environments, they are devoiced to [af] , [ef] and [if] . The Modern Greek consonant combinations ⟨ μπ ⟩ and ⟨ ντ ⟩ stand for [b] and [d] (or [mb] and [nd] ); ⟨ τζ ⟩ stands for [d͡z] and ⟨ τσ ⟩ stands for [t͡s] . In addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek,
1744-605: Is also derived from waw ( [REDACTED] ). The classical twenty-four-letter alphabet that is now used to represent the Greek language was originally the local alphabet of Ionia . By the late fifth century BC, it was commonly used by many Athenians. In c. 403 BC, at the suggestion of the archon Eucleides , the Athenian Assembly formally abandoned the Old Attic alphabet and adopted the Ionian alphabet as part of
1853-804: Is also found in Bulgaria near the Greek-Bulgarian border. Greek is also spoken worldwide by the sizable Greek diaspora which has notable communities in the United States , Australia , Canada , South Africa , Chile , Brazil , Argentina , Russia , Ukraine , the United Kingdom , and throughout the European Union , especially in Germany . Historically, significant Greek-speaking communities and regions were found throughout
1962-542: Is always taught in the Erasmian pronunciation. However, Italian speakers find it hard to reproduce the pitch-based Ancient Greek accent accurately so the circumflex and acute accents are not distinguished. Poetry is read using metric conventions that stress the long syllables. The distinctions between the single and doubled consonants that are present in Italian are recognised. The following diphthongs are pronounced like
2071-773: Is an Indo-European language, constituting an independent Hellenic branch within the Indo-European language family. It is native to Greece , Cyprus , Italy (in Calabria and Salento ), southern Albania , and other regions of the Balkans , Caucasus , the Black Sea coast, Asia Minor , and the Eastern Mediterranean . It has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning at least 3,400 years of written records. Its writing system
2180-479: Is an Indo-European language, but also includes a number of borrowings from the languages of the populations that inhabited Greece before the arrival of Proto-Greeks, some documented in Mycenaean texts ; they include a large number of Greek toponyms . The form and meaning of many words have changed. Loanwords (words of foreign origin) have entered the language, mainly from Latin, Venetian , and Turkish . During
2289-476: Is based on Erasmian pronunciation, but it is modified to match the phonetics and even, in the case of αυ and ευ , the orthography of French. Vowel length distinction, geminate consonants and pitch accent are discarded completely, which matches the current phonology of Standard French. The reference Greek-French dictionary, Dictionnaire Grec-Français by A. Bailly et al., does not even bother to indicate vowel length in long syllables. Except for vowel length,
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#17327835102852398-477: Is commonly held to have originated some time in the late ninth or early eighth century BC, conventionally around the year 800 BC. The period between the use of the two writing systems, Linear B and the Greek alphabet, during which no Greek texts are attested, is known as the Greek Dark Ages . The Greeks adopted the alphabet from the earlier Phoenician alphabet , one of the closely related scripts used for
2507-595: Is erroneously pronounced [ɛj] or [ej] , regardless of whether the ει derives from a genuine diphthong or a ε̄ . The pseudo-diphthong ου has a value of [u] , which is historically attested in Ancient Greek. Short-element ι diphthongs αι , οι and υι are pronounced rather accurately as [aj] , [ɔj] , [yj] , but at least some websites recommend the less accurate pronunciation [ɥi] for υι . Short-element υ diphthongs αυ and ευ are pronounced like similar-looking French pseudo-diphthongs au and eu : [o] ~ [ɔ] and [ø] ~ [œ] , respectively. The ι
2616-410: Is heavily skewed towards the phonological system of German or the other host language. Thus, German-speakers do not use a fricative [θ] for θ but give it the same pronunciation as τ, [t] , but φ and χ are realised as the fricatives [f] and [x] ~ [ç] . ζ is usually pronounced as an affricate, but a voiceless one, like German z [ts] . However, σ is often voiced, according like s in German before
2725-425: Is less widespread. German-speakers typically try to reproduce vowel-length distinctions in stressed syllables, but they often fail to do so in non-stressed syllables, and they are also prone to use a reduction of e-sounds to [ə] . The distinctive length of double vs. single consonants is usually not observed, and German patterns of vowel length interrelating with the closedness and the openness of syllables may affect
2834-476: Is not pronounced in long-element ι diphthongs, which reflects the pronunciation of Biblical and later Greek (see iota subscript ). As for long-element υ diphthongs, common Greek methods or grammars in France appear to ignore them in their descriptions of the pronunciation of Ancient Greek. The values for consonants are generally correct. However, the lack of similar sounds in Modern French means that
2943-465: Is now generally in use in British schools. The reforms in the pronunciation of Ancient Greek in schools have not affected the pronunciation of individual Greek-derived words in English itself, and there is now considerable variation in the English pronunciation (and indeed spelling) of the names of Ancient Greek historical or mythological personages or places (see English words of Greek origin ). In
3052-519: Is protected and promoted officially as a regional and minority language in Armenia, Hungary , Romania, and Ukraine. It is recognized as a minority language and protected in Turkey by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne . The phonology , morphology , syntax , and vocabulary of the language show both conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the language from the ancient to
3161-1010: Is sometimes called aljamiado , as when Romance languages are written in the Arabic alphabet. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Greek: Transcription of the example text into Latin alphabet : Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: Proto-Greek Mycenaean Ancient Koine Medieval Modern Pronunciation of Ancient Greek in teaching Ancient Greek has been pronounced in various ways by those studying Ancient Greek literature in various times and places. This article covers those pronunciations;
3270-475: Is spoken by at least 13.5 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey , and the many other countries of the Greek diaspora . Greek roots have been widely used for centuries and continue to be widely used to coin new words in other languages; Greek and Latin are the predominant sources of international scientific vocabulary . Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around
3379-469: Is still conventionally used for writing Ancient Greek, while in some book printing and generally in the usage of conservative writers it can still also be found in use for Modern Greek. Although it is not a diacritic, the comma has a similar function as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι ( ó,ti , "whatever") from ότι ( óti , "that"). There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in
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3488-708: Is still used internationally for the writing of Ancient Greek . In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (•), known as the ano teleia ( άνω τελεία ). In Greek the comma also functions as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ό,τι ( ó,ti , 'whatever') from ότι ( óti , 'that'). Ancient Greek texts often used scriptio continua ('continuous writing'), which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries. Boustrophedon , or bi-directional text,
3597-599: Is the Greek alphabet , which has been used for approximately 2,800 years; previously, Greek was recorded in writing systems such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary . The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin , Cyrillic , Coptic , Gothic , and many other writing systems. The Greek language holds a very important place in the history of the Western world. Beginning with
3706-405: Is the one from which the later standard Greek alphabet emerged. Athens used a local form of the "light blue" alphabet type until the end of the fifth century BC, which lacked the letters Ξ and Ψ as well as the vowel symbols Η and Ω. In the Old Attic alphabet, ΧΣ stood for /ks/ and ΦΣ for /ps/ . Ε was used for all three sounds /e, eː, ɛː/ (correspondinɡ to classical Ε, ΕΙ, Η ), and Ο
3815-495: The Eastern Mediterranean , in what are today Southern Italy , Turkey , Cyprus , Syria , Lebanon , Israel , Palestine , Egypt , and Libya ; in the area of the Black Sea , in what are today Turkey, Bulgaria , Romania , Ukraine , Russia , Georgia , Armenia , and Azerbaijan ; and, to a lesser extent, in the Western Mediterranean in and around colonies such as Massalia , Monoikos , and Mainake . It
3924-705: The Hellenistic period . Ancient handwriting developed two distinct styles: uncial writing, with carefully drawn, rounded block letters of about equal size, used as a book hand for carefully produced literary and religious manuscripts, and cursive writing, used for everyday purposes. The cursive forms approached the style of lowercase letter forms, with ascenders and descenders, as well as many connecting lines and ligatures between letters. Greek language Greek ( Modern Greek : Ελληνικά , romanized : Elliniká , [eliniˈka] ; Ancient Greek : Ἑλληνική , romanized : Hellēnikḗ )
4033-516: The Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ), but little definitive evidence has been found. In addition, Albanian has also been considered somewhat related to Greek and Armenian, and it has been proposed that they all form a higher-order subgroup along with other extinct languages of the ancient Balkans; this higher-order subgroup is usually termed Palaeo-Balkan , and Greek has a central position in it. Linear B , attested as early as
4142-543: The Ionic -based Euclidean alphabet , with 24 letters, ordered from alpha to omega , had become standard throughout the Greek-speaking world and is the version that is still used for Greek writing today. The uppercase and lowercase forms of the 24 letters are: The Greek alphabet is the ancestor of several scripts, such as the Latin , Gothic , Coptic , and Cyrillic scripts. Throughout antiquity, Greek had only
4251-470: The Library of Congress , and others. During the Mycenaean period , from around the sixteenth century to the twelfth century BC, a script called Linear B was used to write the earliest attested form of the Greek language, known as Mycenaean Greek . This writing system, unrelated to the Greek alphabet, last appeared in the thirteenth century BC. Inscription written in the Greek alphabet begin to emerge from
4360-596: The West Semitic languages , calling it Greek : Φοινικήια γράμματα 'Phoenician letters'. However, the Phoenician alphabet was limited to consonants. When it was adopted for writing Greek, certain consonants were adapted in order to express vowels. The use of both vowels and consonants makes Greek the first alphabet in the narrow sense, as distinguished from the abjads used in Semitic languages , which have letters only for consonants. Greek initially took over all of
4469-492: The nominal and verbal systems. The major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the dative case (its functions being largely taken over by the genitive ). The verbal system has lost the infinitive , the synthetically -formed future, and perfect tenses and the optative mood . Many have been replaced by periphrastic ( analytical ) forms. Pronouns show distinctions in person (1st, 2nd, and 3rd), number (singular, dual , and plural in
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4578-494: The rough breathing ( ἁ ), marking an /h/ sound at the beginning of a word, or the smooth breathing ( ἀ ), marking its absence. The letter rho (ρ), although not a vowel, also carries rough breathing in a word-initial position. If a rho was geminated within a word, the first ρ always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing (ῤῥ) leading to the transliteration rrh. The vowel letters ⟨ α, η, ω ⟩ carry an additional diacritic in certain words,
4687-508: The spiritus asper is not pronounced in France; it is pronounced in French-speaking Belgium and possibly Switzerland because of the proximity of Dutch- and German-speaking regions, respectively. Also, θ and χ are pronounced [t] and [k] , and φ is pronounced [f] . Under the influence of French, ρ and ῥ are both pronounced [ʀ] , but French editors generally edit geminate -ῤῥ- as -ρρ- . Also, γ , before
4796-432: The 22 letters of Phoenician. Five were reassigned to denote vowel sounds: the glide consonants /j/ ( yodh ) and /w/ ( waw ) were used for [i] (Ι, iota ) and [u] (Υ, upsilon ); the glottal stop consonant /ʔ/ ( aleph ) was used for [a] (Α, alpha ); the pharyngeal /ʕ/ ( ʿayin ) was turned into [o] (Ο, omicron ); and the letter for /h/ ( he ) was turned into [e] (Ε, epsilon ). A doublet of waw
4905-470: The 3rd millennium BC, or possibly earlier. The earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the world's oldest recorded living language . Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now-extinct Anatolian languages . The Greek language is conventionally divided into
5014-524: The 5th century BC and today. Additionally, Modern and Ancient Greek now use different diacritics , with ancient Greek using the polytonic orthography and modern Greek keeping only the stress accent ( acute ) and the diaeresis . Apart from its use in writing the Greek language, in both its ancient and its modern forms, the Greek alphabet today also serves as a source of international technical symbols and labels in many domains of mathematics , science , and other fields. In both Ancient and Modern Greek,
5123-499: The Byzantine period, to distinguish between letters that had become confusable. Thus, the letters ⟨ο⟩ and ⟨ω⟩ , pronounced identically by this time, were called o mikron ("small o") and o mega ("big o"). The letter ⟨ε⟩ was called e psilon ("plain e") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph ⟨αι⟩ , while, similarly, ⟨υ⟩ , which at this time
5232-486: The Greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century BC. It was created by modifying the Phoenician alphabet , with the innovation of adopting certain letters to represent the vowels. The variant of the alphabet in use today is essentially the late Ionic variant, introduced for writing classical Attic in 403 BC. In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed. The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit
5341-465: The Greek alphabet, which differed in the use and non-use of the additional vowel and consonant symbols and several other features. Epichoric alphabets are commonly divided into four major types according to their different treatments of additional consonant letters for the aspirated consonants (/pʰ, kʰ/) and consonant clusters (/ks, ps/) of Greek. These four types are often conventionally labelled as "green", "red", "light blue" and "dark blue" types, based on
5450-425: The Greek language are often emphasized. Although Greek has undergone morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other languages, never since classical antiquity has its cultural, literary, and orthographic tradition been interrupted to the extent that one can speak of a new language emerging. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than
5559-495: The Greek language was the Cypriot syllabary (also a descendant of Linear A via the intermediate Cypro-Minoan syllabary ), which is closely related to Linear B but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to represent phoneme sequences. The Cypriot syllabary is attested in Cyprus from the 11th century BC until its gradual abandonment in the late Classical period, in favor of the standard Greek alphabet. Greek has been written in
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#17327835102855668-453: The Greek that was pronounced in other western countries. A further peculiarity of the English pronunciation of Ancient Greek occurred as a result of the work of Isaac Vossius . He maintained in an anonymously published treatise that the written accents of Greek did not reflect the original pronunciation. Moreover, Henninius (Heinrich Christian Henning) published Dissertatio Paradoxa , which claimed that accentuation in Ancient Greek must follow
5777-629: The Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history but with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression. Greek verbs have synthetic inflectional forms for: Many aspects of the syntax of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow
5886-685: The Greek-Albanian border. A significant percentage of Albania's population has knowledge of the Greek language due in part to the Albanian wave of immigration to Greece in the 1980s and '90s and the Greek community in the country. Prior to the Greco-Turkish War and the resulting population exchange in 1923 a very large population of Greek-speakers also existed in Turkey , though very few remain today. A small Greek-speaking community
5995-674: The Latin script. The form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity. In this system, ⟨ κ ⟩ is replaced with ⟨c⟩ , the diphthongs ⟨ αι ⟩ and ⟨ οι ⟩ are rendered as ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ (or ⟨æ,œ⟩ ); and ⟨ ει ⟩ and ⟨ ου ⟩ are simplified to ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ . Smooth breathing marks are usually ignored and rough breathing marks are usually rendered as
6104-503: The United States and other countries. Thus, by the mid-19th century, the pronunciation of Ancient Greek in British schools was quite different from Modern Greek, from the reconstructed pronunciation of Ancient Greek and from the pronunciation used in other countries. The Classical Association, therefore, promulgated a new pronunciation as described by W. Sidney Allen in 1987, based on the reconstructed ancient pronunciation, which
6213-554: The United States, an 1898 description by Peck gives a pronunciation system said to be prevalent at the time. It is similar to the reconstructed system advocated in England and Wales by Arnold and Conway, but with some differences in the pronunciation of the vowels. Assuming a typical American accent as an interpretation of Peck's English-language examples, the vowels α, ι, and ο/ω are pronounced as IPA /a/, /ɪ/, and /o/ (father, king, note), and for these three letters length influences only
6322-404: The acute during the late 20th century, and it has only been retained in typography . After the writing reform of 1982, most diacritics are no longer used. Since then, Greek has been written mostly in the simplified monotonic orthography (or monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis. The traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system),
6431-479: The alphabet took its classical shape: the letter Ϻ ( san ), which had been in competition with Σ ( sigma ) denoting the same phoneme /s/; the letter Ϙ ( qoppa ), which was redundant with Κ ( kappa ) for /k/, and Ϝ ( digamma ), whose sound value /w/ dropped out of the spoken language before or during the classical period. Greek was originally written predominantly from right to left, just like Phoenician, but scribes could freely alternate between directions. For
6540-402: The ancient language; singular and plural alone in later stages), and gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and decline for case (from six cases in the earliest forms attested to four in the modern language). Nouns, articles, and adjectives show all the distinctions except for a person. Both attributive and predicative adjectives agree with the noun. The inflectional categories of
6649-574: The city, for hope said bad things" ( οὐκ ἔλαβον πόλιν· άλλα γὰρ ἐλπὶς ἔφη κακά , ouk élabon pólin; álla gàr elpìs éphē kaká ). Read in the French manner, it macaronically becomes "Où qu'est la bonne Pauline? A la gare. Elle pisse et fait caca." ("Where is Pauline the maid? At the station. She's pissing and taking a shit.") In English literature , the untranslated line makes an appearance in James Joyce 's Finnegans Wake . Ancient Greek in Italy
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#17327835102856758-400: The combinations ⟨ γχ ⟩ and ⟨ γξ ⟩ . In the polytonic orthography traditionally used for ancient Greek and katharevousa , the stressed vowel of each word carries one of three accent marks: either the acute accent ( ά ), the grave accent ( ὰ ), or the circumflex accent ( α̃ or α̑ ). These signs were originally designed to mark different forms of
6867-563: The conventional letter correspondences of Ancient Greek-based transcription systems, and to what degree they attempt either an exact letter-by-letter transliteration or rather a phonetically based transcription. Standardized formal transcription systems have been defined by the International Organization for Standardization (as ISO 843 ), by the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names , by
6976-636: The democratic reforms after the overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants . Because of Eucleides's role in suggesting the idea to adopt the Ionian alphabet, the standard twenty-four-letter Greek alphabet is sometimes known as the "Eucleidean alphabet". Roughly thirty years later, the Eucleidean alphabet was adopted in Boeotia and it may have been adopted a few years previously in Macedonia . By the end of
7085-404: The early 19th century that was used for literary and official purposes in the newly formed Greek state. In 1976, Dimotiki was declared the official language of Greece, after having incorporated features of Katharevousa and thus giving birth to Standard Modern Greek , used today for all official purposes and in education . The historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of
7194-465: The eighth century BC onward. While early evidence of Greek letters may date no later than 770 BC, the oldest known substantial and legible Greek alphabet texts, such as the Dipylon inscription and Nestor's cup , date from c. 740 /30 BC. It is accepted that the introduction of the alphabet occurred some time prior to these inscriptions. While earlier dates have been proposed, the Greek alphabet
7303-618: The epics of Homer , ancient Greek literature includes many works of lasting importance in the European canon . Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science and philosophy were originally composed. The New Testament of the Christian Bible was also originally written in Greek. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world , the Greek texts and Greek societies of antiquity constitute
7412-452: The following periods: In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia : the coexistence of vernacular and archaizing written forms of the language. What came to be known as the Greek language question was a polarization between two competing varieties of Modern Greek: Dimotiki , the vernacular form of Modern Greek proper, and Katharevousa , meaning 'purified', a compromise between Dimotiki and Ancient Greek developed in
7521-504: The fourth century BC, it had displaced local alphabets across the Greek-speaking world to become the standard form of the Greek alphabet. When the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, they took over not only the letter shapes and sound values but also the names by which the sequence of the alphabet could be recited and memorized. In Phoenician, each letter name was a word that began with the sound represented by that letter; thus ʾaleph ,
7630-602: The fourth sibilant letter, obsolete san ) has been a matter of some debate. Here too, the changes in the pronunciation of the letter names between Ancient and Modern Greek are regular. In the following group of consonant letters, the older forms of the names in Ancient Greek were spelled with -εῖ , indicating an original pronunciation with -ē . In Modern Greek these names are spelled with -ι . The following group of vowel letters were originally called simply by their sound values as long vowels: ē, ō, ū, and ɔ . Their modern names contain adjectival qualifiers that were added during
7739-439: The historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek. Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components. Among them are several digraphs of vowel letters that formerly represented diphthongs but are now monophthongized. In addition to the four mentioned above ( ⟨ ει , οι, υι⟩ , pronounced /i/ and ⟨ αι ⟩ , pronounced /e/ ), there
7848-439: The infinitive entirely (employing a raft of new periphrastic constructions instead) and uses participles more restrictively. The loss of the dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well). Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, but neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO. Modern Greek inherits most of its vocabulary from Ancient Greek, which in turn
7957-467: The late 15th century BC, was the first script used to write Greek. It is basically a syllabary , which was finally deciphered by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick in the 1950s (its precursor, Linear A , has not been deciphered and most likely encodes a non-Greek language). The language of the Linear B texts, Mycenaean Greek , is the earliest known form of Greek. Another similar system used to write
8066-474: The letter ⟨ γ ⟩ , before another velar consonant , stands for the velar nasal [ŋ] ; thus ⟨ γγ ⟩ and ⟨ γκ ⟩ are pronounced like English ⟨ng⟩ like in the word finger (not like in the word thing). In analogy to ⟨ μπ ⟩ and ⟨ ντ ⟩ , ⟨ γκ ⟩ is also used to stand for [g] before vowels [a] , [o] and [u] , and [ɟ] before [e] and [i] . There are also
8175-650: The letter ⟨h⟩ . In modern scholarly transliteration of Ancient Greek, ⟨ κ ⟩ will usually be rendered as ⟨k⟩ , and the vowel combinations ⟨ αι , οι, ει, ου⟩ as ⟨ai, oi, ei, ou⟩ . The letters ⟨ θ ⟩ and ⟨ φ ⟩ are generally rendered as ⟨th⟩ and ⟨ph⟩ ; ⟨ χ ⟩ as either ⟨ch⟩ or ⟨kh⟩ ; and word-initial ⟨ ρ ⟩ as ⟨rh⟩ . Transcription conventions for Modern Greek differ widely, depending on their purpose, on how close they stay to
8284-611: The letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near- phonemic . For a number of letters, sound values differ considerably between Ancient and Modern Greek, because their pronunciation has followed a set of systematic phonological shifts that affected the language in its post-classical stages. [ ʝ ] before [ e ] , [ i ] ; [ ŋ ] ~ [ ɲ ] Similar to y as in English y ellow; ng as in English lo ng; ñ as in Spanish
8393-588: The membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the organization's 24 official languages . Greek is recognized as a minority language in Albania, and used co-officially in some of its municipalities, in the districts of Gjirokastër and Sarandë . It is also an official minority language in the regions of Apulia and Calabria in Italy. In the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages , Greek
8502-441: The modern period. The division into conventional periods is, as with all such periodizations, relatively arbitrary, especially because, in all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed heavily from it. Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows a mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas. It has only oral vowels and
8611-533: The modern scholarly reconstruction of its ancient pronunciation is covered in Ancient Greek phonology . Among speakers of Modern Greek , from the Byzantine Empire to modern Greece , Cyprus , and the Greek diaspora , Greek texts from every period have always been pronounced by using the contemporaneous local Greek pronunciation. That makes it easy to recognize the many words that have remained
8720-502: The name of beta , ancient /b/ regularly changed to modern /v/, and ancient /ɛː/ to modern /i/, resulting in the modern pronunciation vita ). The name of lambda is attested in early sources as λάβδα besides λάμβδα ; in Modern Greek the spelling is often λάμδα , reflecting pronunciation. Similarly, iota is sometimes spelled γιώτα in Modern Greek ( [ʝ] is conventionally transcribed ⟨γ{ι,η,υ,ει,οι}⟩ word-initially and intervocalically before back vowels and /a/ ). In
8829-399: The noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause-initial. However, the morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the modern form of the language . Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks
8938-470: The objects of study of the discipline of Classics . During antiquity , Greek was by far the most widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world . It eventually became the official language of the Byzantine Empire and developed into Medieval Greek . In its modern form , Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union . It
9047-706: The older periods of Greek, loanwords into Greek acquired Greek inflections, thus leaving only a foreign root word. Modern borrowings (from the 20th century on), especially from French and English, are typically not inflected; other modern borrowings are derived from Albanian , South Slavic ( Macedonian / Bulgarian ) and Eastern Romance languages ( Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian ). Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English. Example words include: mathematics , physics , astronomy , democracy , philosophy , athletics , theatre, rhetoric , baptism , evangelist , etc. Moreover, Greek words and word elements continue to be productive as
9156-418: The phonological pitch accent in Ancient Greek. By the time their use became conventional and obligatory in Greek writing, in late antiquity, pitch accent was evolving into a single stress accent , and thus the three signs have not corresponded to a phonological distinction in actual speech ever since. In addition to the accent marks, every word-initial vowel must carry either of two so-called "breathing marks":
9265-411: The pronunciation alone, while the reverse mapping, from spelling to pronunciation, is usually regular and predictable. The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers: Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern symbol–sound mappings in reading Greek of all historical stages. In other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of conventional approximations of
9374-543: The pronunciation was inconsistent with the descriptions that were handed down by ancient grammarians, and they suggested alternative pronunciations. This work culminated in Erasmus 's dialogue De recta Latini Graecique sermonis pronuntiatione (1528). The system that he proposed is called the Erasmian pronunciation . In 1540, John Cheke and Thomas Smith became Regius Professors at Cambridge . They independently proposed
9483-441: The realisation of Greek vowels before consonant clusters, even in stressed syllables: ε, η = [ɛ] ~ [eː] ; ο, ω = [ɔ] ~ [oː] ; ι, ῑ = [ɪ] ~ [iː] ; υ, ῡ = [ʏ] ~ [yː] ; ου = [ʊ] ~ [uː] . In reading poetry, it is customary to render the scansion patterns by strong dynamic accents on the long syllables, despite the natural accentuation of the words, not by the actual length. Pronunciation of Ancient Greek in French secondary schools
9592-576: The same or similar in written form from one period to another. Among Classical scholars, it is often called the Reuchlinian pronunciation , after the Renaissance scholar Johann Reuchlin , who defended its use in the West in the 16th century. Nevertheless, Greek textbooks for secondary education give a summary description of the reconstructed pronunciation of Ancient Greek. That includes the differentiation between short and long vowels and between
9701-526: The same principles as in Latin, a view that is now universally considered to be erroneous. It is generally accepted that the accented syllable in Ancient Greek is the one carrying the written accent, but most authorities consider that it was a pitch accent, rather than the Modern Greek stress accent. Henninius's has affected the pronunciation taught in schools in the UK and the Netherlands but has been resisted in
9810-448: The similarly written Italian diphthongs: As in most European countries, Ancient Greek is most usually, if not always, taught in the Erasmian pronunciation. Lately, however, some scholar reference books devote some space to the explanation of reconstructed Ancient Greek phonology. Due to Castilian Spanish phonological features, the Erasmian pronunciation is fairly well reflected, but, as expected, phonological features of Spanish sneak in
9919-434: The so-called iota subscript , which has the shape of a small vertical stroke or a miniature ⟨ ι ⟩ below the letter. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, ⟨ ᾱι, ηι, ωι ⟩ (i.e. /aːi, ɛːi, ɔːi/ ), which became monophthongized during antiquity. Another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis ( ¨ ), indicating a hiatus . This system of diacritics
10028-437: The stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks ( rough and smooth breathing ), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-initial /h/; and the diaeresis , used to mark the full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong. These marks were introduced during the course of the Hellenistic period. Actual usage of the grave in handwriting saw a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of
10137-445: The tables below, the Greek names of all letters are given in their traditional polytonic spelling; in modern practice, like with all other words, they are usually spelled in the simplified monotonic system. In the cases of the three historical sibilant letters below, the correspondence between Phoenician and Ancient Greek is less clear, with apparent mismatches both in letter names and sound values. The early history of these letters (and
10246-442: The temporal duration. Η is /e/ (fate) rather than /e̞/. Υ is /u/ instead of /y/ (while still others use /ʊ/). Another twentieth century text gives almost the same pronunciations as Peck's, except for ει (/eɪ/ rather than /ɛɪ/) and υι (/wi/ rather than /wɪ/). The situation in German education may be representative of that in many other European countries. The teaching of Greek is based on a roughly Erasmian model, but in practice, it
10355-589: The tradition of the Byzantine Empire. The study of Greek in the West expanded considerably during the Renaissance , in particular after the fall of Constantinople in 1453, when many Byzantine Greek scholars came to Western Europe. Greek texts were then universally pronounced with the medieval pronunciation that still survives intact. From about 1486, various scholars (notably Antonio of Lebrixa , Girolamo Aleandro , and Aldus Manutius ) judged that
10464-410: The values for simple vowels are generally correct, but many speakers have problems with the openness distinction between ε and η , ο and ω , matching similar confusion by many speakers of Modern French. α or ο , followed by a nasal consonant and another consonant, is often nasalized as [ɑ̃] or [ɔ̃] ( [ɑ̃ntrɔpos] for ἄνθρωπος ), under the influence of French. The pseudo-diphthong ει
10573-506: The various accents; the pronunciation of the spiritus asper as /h/ and the pronunciation of β, γ and δ as plosives and of diphthongs as such. However, there is often no mention of the ancient aspirate pronunciations of θ, φ and χ, which were different from the modern fricative values. The theology faculties and schools related to or belonging to the Eastern Orthodox Church use the Modern Greek pronunciation to follow
10682-459: The vowel symbols, Modern Greek sound values reflect the radical simplification of the vowel system of post-classical Greek, merging multiple formerly distinct vowel phonemes into a much smaller number. This leads to several groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the historical spellings in most of these cases. As a consequence, the spellings of words in Modern Greek are often not predictable from
10791-614: The word for "ox", was used as the name for the glottal stop /ʔ/ , bet , or "house", for the /b/ sound, and so on. When the letters were adopted by the Greeks, most of the Phoenician names were maintained or modified slightly to fit Greek phonology; thus, ʾaleph, bet, gimel became alpha, beta, gamma . The Greek names of the following letters are more or less straightforward continuations of their Phoenician antecedents. Between Ancient and Modern Greek, they have remained largely unchanged, except that their pronunciation has followed regular sound changes along with other words (for instance, in
10900-574: Was a distinct dialect of Greek itself. Aside from the Macedonian question, current consensus regards Phrygian as the closest relative of Greek, since they share a number of phonological, morphological and lexical isoglosses , with some being exclusive between them. Scholars have proposed a Graeco-Phrygian subgroup out of which Greek and Phrygian originated. Among living languages, some Indo-Europeanists suggest that Greek may be most closely related to Armenian (see Graeco-Armenian ) or
11009-494: Was adopted for official use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. It uses only a single accent mark, the acute (also known in this context as tonos , i.e. simply "accent"), marking the stressed syllable of polysyllabic words, and occasionally the diaeresis to distinguish diphthongal from digraph readings in pairs of vowel letters, making this monotonic system very similar to the accent mark system used in Spanish . The polytonic system
11118-400: Was also borrowed as a consonant for [w] (Ϝ, digamma ). In addition, the Phoenician letter for the emphatic glottal /ħ/ ( heth ) was borrowed in two different functions by different dialects of Greek: as a letter for /h/ (Η, heta ) by those dialects that had such a sound, and as an additional vowel letter for the long /ɛː/ (Η, eta ) by those dialects that lacked the consonant. Eventually,
11227-568: Was also used as the official language of government and religion in the Christian Nubian kingdoms , for most of their history. Greek, in its modern form, is the official language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population. It is also the official language of Cyprus (nominally alongside Turkish ) and the British Overseas Territory of Akrotiri and Dhekelia (alongside English ). Because of
11336-442: Was also used in Ancient Greek. Greek has occasionally been written in the Latin script , especially in areas under Venetian rule or by Greek Catholics . The term Frankolevantinika / Φραγκολεβαντίνικα applies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism (because Frankos / Φράγκος is an older Greek term for West-European dating to when most of (Roman Catholic Christian) West Europe
11445-515: Was first developed by the scholar Aristophanes of Byzantium ( c. 257 – c. 185/180 BC), who worked at the Musaeum in Alexandria during the third century BC. Aristophanes of Byzantium also was the first to divide poems into lines, rather than writing them like prose, and also introduced a series of signs for textual criticism . In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as "monotonic",
11554-538: Was pronounced [ y ] , was called y psilon ("plain y") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph ⟨οι⟩ . Some dialects of the Aegean and Cypriot have retained long consonants and pronounce [ˈɣamːa] and [ˈkapʰa] ; also, ήτα has come to be pronounced [ˈitʰa] in Cypriot. Like Latin and other alphabetic scripts, Greek originally had only a single form of each letter, without
11663-580: Was under the control of the Frankish Empire ). Frankochiotika / Φραγκοχιώτικα (meaning 'Catholic Chiot') alludes to the significant presence of Catholic missionaries based on the island of Chios . Additionally, the term Greeklish is often used when the Greek language is written in a Latin script in online communications. The Latin script is nowadays used by the Greek-speaking communities of Southern Italy . The Yevanic dialect
11772-440: Was used for all of /o, oː, ɔː/ (corresponding to classical Ο, ΟΥ, Ω ). The letter Η (heta) was used for the consonant /h/ . Some variant local letter forms were also characteristic of Athenian writing, some of which were shared with the neighboring (but otherwise "red") alphabet of Euboia : a form of Λ that resembled a Latin L ( [REDACTED] ) and a form of Σ that resembled a Latin S ( [REDACTED] ). *Upsilon
11881-673: Was written by Romaniote and Constantinopolitan Karaite Jews using the Hebrew Alphabet . In a tradition, that in modern time, has come to be known as Greek Aljamiado , some Greek Muslims from Crete wrote their Cretan Greek in the Arabic alphabet . The same happened among Epirote Muslims in Ioannina . This also happened among Arabic-speaking Byzantine rite Christians in the Levant ( Lebanon , Palestine, and Syria ). This usage
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