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148-731: During most of the Modern Greek period, the language existed in a situation of diglossia , with regional spoken dialects existing side by side with learned, more archaic written forms, as with the vernacular and learned varieties ( Dimotiki and Katharevousa ) that co-existed in Greece throughout much of the 19th and 20th centuries. Varieties of Modern Greek include Demotic, Katharevousa, Pontic, Cappadocian, Mariupolitan, Southern Italian, Yevanic, Tsakonian and Greco-Australian. Strictly speaking, Demotic or Dimotiki ( Δημοτική ), refers to all popular varieties of Modern Greek that followed

296-573: A "tiny proportion" and Joshua Prawer only some "pitiful remnants" of the original army arrived in the Holy Land. Recent studies suggest that the number was substantial but shy of a majority. Of the 92 named individuals who took the crusader vow in Villehardouin's account, between 23 and 26 of them went to the Holy Land. The rate of "desertion" seems highest among the French faction. Only about

444-811: A / , ⟨ ε, αι ⟩ / e / , ⟨ η, ι, υ, ει, οι, υι ⟩ / i / , ⟨ ο, ω ⟩ / o / , and ⟨ ου ⟩ / u / . The digraphs ⟨ αυ ⟩ , ⟨ ευ ⟩ and ⟨ ηυ ⟩ are pronounced /av/ , /ev/ , and /iv/ respectively before vowels and voiced consonants, and /af/ , /ef/ and /if/ respectively before voiceless consonants. The Greek letters ⟨ φ ⟩ , ⟨ β ⟩ , ⟨ θ ⟩ , and ⟨ δ ⟩ are pronounced / f / , / v / , / θ / , and / ð / respectively. The letters ⟨ γ ⟩ and ⟨ χ ⟩ are pronounced / ɣ / and / x / , respectively. All those letters represent fricatives in Modern Greek, but they were used for occlusives with

592-521: A European language serves as the official, prestige language, and local languages are used in everyday life outside formal situations. For example, Wolof is the everyday lingua franca in Senegal , French being spoken only in very formal situations, and English is spoken in formal situations in Nigeria , but native languages like Hausa , Igbo , and Yoruba are spoken in ordinary conversation. However,

740-461: A European language that serves as an official language can also act as a lingua franca , being spoken in informal situations between speakers of two or more different languages to facilitate communication. Diglossia can exist between two dialects of a European language as well. For example, in Côte d'Ivoire , Standard French is the prestige language used in business, politics, etc. while Ivorian French

888-587: A common evolutionary path from Koine and have retained a high degree of mutual intelligibility to the present. As shown in Ptochoprodromic and Acritic poems, Demotic Greek was the vernacular already before the 11th century and called the "Roman" language of the Byzantine Greeks , notably in peninsular Greece , the Greek islands , coastal Asia Minor , Constantinople , and Cyprus . Today,

1036-440: A contract for transport to Egypt, the stated objective of their crusade; one of the envoys was the future historian Geoffrey of Villehardouin . Earlier crusades focused on Palestine had involved the slow movement of large and disorganised land hosts across a generally hostile Anatolia . Egypt was now the dominant Muslim power in the eastern Mediterranean but also a major trading partner of Venice. An attack on Egypt would clearly be

1184-592: A great length of time to prepare this expedition. In addition, about 14,000 men or as many as 20–30,000 men (out of Venice's population of 60–100,000 people) were needed to man the entire fleet, placing further strain on the Venetian economy. Dandolo and the Venetians considered what to do with the crusade. It was too small to pay its fee, but disbanding the force gathered would harm Venetian prestige and cause significant financial and trading loss. Dandolo, who joined

1332-599: A maritime enterprise, requiring the creation of a fleet. Genoa was uninterested, but in March 1201 negotiations were opened with the doge of Venice, Enrico Dandolo who agreed to transport 33,500 crusaders, a very ambitious number. This was the moment, according to him, for the Venetian Republic to gain wealth, prestige, land, and trading routes in the Holy Land . This agreement required a full year of preparation on

1480-469: A matter of debate; he may have realized the Venetians' plans and left to avoid excommunication, or he may have wanted to meet with the Roman prince Alexios IV Angelos , Philip's brother-in-law and the son of the recently deposed Roman emperor Isaac II Angelos . Alexios IV had recently fled to Philip in 1201 but it is unknown whether or not Boniface knew he was at Philip's court. There, Alexios IV offered to pay

1628-433: A prototypical velar, between a velar [ ɣ ] and an uvular [ ʁ ] (transcribed ɣ̄ ). The letter ⟨ ξ ⟩ stands for the sequence /ks/ and ⟨ ψ ⟩ for /ps/ . The digraphs ⟨ γγ ⟩ and ⟨ γκ ⟩ are generally pronounced [ ɡ ] , but are fronted to [ ɟ ] before front vowels ( / e / and / i / ) and tend to be pronounced [ɡ̄] before

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1776-545: A result, his domains almost completely surrounded the diminished Crusader states. Constantinople had been in existence for 874 years at the time of the Fourth Crusade and was the largest and most sophisticated city in Christendom. Almost alone amongst major medieval urban centres, it had retained the civic structures, public baths, forums, monuments, and aqueducts of classical Rome in working form. At its height,

1924-573: A separate language because of this. Greco-Australian is an Australian dialect of Greek that is spoken by the Greek diaspora of Australia, including Greek immigrants living in Australia and Australians of Greek descent. A series of radical sound changes starting in Koine Greek has led to a phonological system in Modern Greek that is significantly different from that of Ancient Greek. Instead of

2072-435: A serious hindrance to the crusaders. A fierce wind blew from the shore and prevented most of the ships from drawing close enough to the walls to launch an assault. Only five of the wall's towers were actually engaged and none of these could be secured; by mid-afternoon it was evident that the attack had failed. The Latin clergy discussed the situation amongst themselves and settled upon the message they wished to spread through

2220-669: A significant escalation in longstanding tensions between the feudal states of western Europe and the Byzantine Empire. During the crusade, Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa , had almost besieged Constantinople because of the failure of the Byzantine government and Emperor, Isaac II Angelos to provide him with safe passage across the Dardanelles because Isaac was busy fighting a pretender named Theodore Mangaphas . The Byzantines for their part suspected him of conspiring with

2368-437: A standardized variety of Demotic Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus, and is referred to as "Standard Modern Greek", or less strictly simply as "Greek", "Modern Greek", or "Demotic". Demotic Greek comprises various regional varieties with minor linguistic differences, mainly in phonology and vocabulary. Due to the high degree of mutual intelligibility of these varieties, Greek linguists refer to them as "idioms" of

2516-609: A tempting target for the aggressive new states of the west, notably the Republic of Venice . In 1195, the Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos was deposed in favour of his brother by a palace coup. Ascending as Alexios III Angelos , the new emperor had his brother blinded (a traditional punishment for treason, considered more humane than execution) and exiled. Ineffectual on the battlefield, Isaac had also proven to be an incompetent ruler who had let

2664-463: A tenth of the knights who had taken the cross in Flanders arrived to reinforce the remaining Christian states in the Holy Land, but over half of those from the Île-de-France did. All told, about 300 knights with their retinues from northern France made it to the Holy Land. Of the contingents from Burgundy, Occitania, Italy and Germany there is less information, but there were certainly defections among

2812-504: A truce with al-Adil of five years and eight months on 1 July 1198. The truce preserved the status quo: Jaffa remained in Ayyubid hands, but its destroyed fortifications could not be rebuilt; Beirut was left to the crusaders; and Sidon was placed under a revenue-sharing condominium. Before the expiration of the new truce on 1 March 1204, al-Adil succeeded in uniting the former empire of Saladin, acquiring Egypt in 1200 and Aleppo in 1202. As

2960-467: A verb, such as augmentation and reduplication , and has lost some patterns of noun declension and some distinct forms in the declensions. Most of these features are shared with other languages spoken in the Balkan peninsula (see Balkan sprachbund ), although Greek does not show all typical Balkan areal features, such as the postposed article. Because of the influence of Katharevousa, however, Demotic

3108-788: A wedding ceremony between two young urban Baoulé people with poor knowledge of the Baoulé language (spoken in Côte d'Ivoire) would require the presence of elder family members as interpreters to conduct the ceremony in that language. Local languages, if used as prestige languages, are also used in writing materials in a more formal type of vocabulary. There are also European languages in Africa, particularly North Africa , without official status that are used as prestige language: for example, in Morocco , while Modern Standard Arabic and recently Tamazight are

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3256-550: A wider "Demotic dialect", known as "Koine Modern Greek" ( Koiní Neoellinikí - 'common Neo-Hellenic'). Most English-speaking linguists however refer to them as "dialects", emphasizing degrees of variation only when necessary. Demotic Greek varieties are divided into two main groups, Northern and Southern. The main distinguishing feature common to Northern variants is a set of standard phonological shifts in unaccented vowel phonemes: [o] becomes [u] , [e] becomes [i] , and [i] and [u] are dropped. The dropped vowels' existence

3404-410: A young noble Nicolas Canabus as emperor, in what was to be one of the last known acts of this ancient institution. However he declined the appointment and sought church sanctuary. A nobleman Alexios Doukas (nicknamed Mourtzouphlos) became the leader of the anti-crusader faction within the Byzantine leadership. While holding the court rank of protovestilarios , Doukas had led Byzantine forces during

3552-487: Is a Greek dialect of central Turkey of the same fate as Pontic; its speakers settled in mainland Greece after the Greek genocide (1919–1921) and the later Population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923. Cappadocian Greek diverged from the other Byzantine Greek dialects earlier, beginning with the Turkish conquests of central Asia Minor in the 11th and 12th centuries, and so developed several radical features, such as

3700-475: Is an almost extinct language of Romaniote Jews . The language was already in decline for centuries until most of its speakers were killed in the Holocaust . Afterward, the language was mostly kept by remaining Romaniote emigrants to Israel , where it was displaced by modern Hebrew . Tsakonian ( Τσακωνικά ) is spoken in its full form today only in a small number of villages around the town of Leonidio in

3848-471: Is an important concept in the field of sociolinguistics . At the social level, each of the two dialects has certain spheres of social interaction assigned to it and in the assigned spheres it is the only socially acceptable dialect (with minor exceptions). At the grammatical level, differences may involve pronunciation, inflection , and/or syntax (sentence structure). Differences can range from minor (although conspicuous) to extreme. In many cases of diglossia,

3996-624: Is code switching and overlap in all diglossic societies, even German-speaking Switzerland. Examples where the High/Low dichotomy is justified in terms of social prestige include Italian dialects and languages as (L) and Standard Italian as (H) in Italy and German dialects and Standard German in Germany . In Italy and Germany, those speakers who still speak non-standard dialects typically use those dialects in informal situations, especially in

4144-530: Is divided into groups that include: Demotic Greek has officially been taught in monotonic Greek script since 1982. Katharevousa ( Καθαρεύουσα ) is a sociolect promoted in the 19th century at the foundation of the modern Greek state, as a compromise between Classical Greek and modern Demotic. It was the official language of modern Greece until 1976. Katharevousa is written in polytonic Greek script. Also, while Demotic Greek contains loanwords from Turkish, Italian, Latin, and other languages, these have for

4292-428: Is extremely rare, but could be heard in literary and scholarly words or when reading ancient texts (by a few readers); normally it retains its "original" pronunciation [ŋk] only in the trigraph ⟨ γκτ ⟩ , where ⟨ τ ⟩ prevents the sonorization of ⟨ κ ⟩ by ⟨ γ ⟩ (hence [ŋkt] ). Modern Greek is largely a synthetic language . Modern Greek and Albanian are

4440-424: Is implicit, and may affect surrounding phonemes: for example, a dropped [i] palatalizes preceding consonants, just like an [i] that is pronounced. Southern variants do not exhibit these phonological shifts. Examples of Northern dialects are Rumelian ( Constantinople ), Epirote , Macedonian , Thessalian , Thracian , Northern Euboean , Sporades , Samos , Smyrna , and Sarakatsanika . The Southern category

4588-435: Is in a similar situation with Portuguese. Most Asian countries instead have re-established a local prestige language (such as Hindi or Indonesian) and have at least partially phased out the colonial language, commonly English or Russian but also Dutch, French, and Portuguese in a few places, except for international, business, scientific, or interethnic communication; the colonial languages have also usually left many loanwards in

Modern Greek - Misplaced Pages Continue

4736-501: Is largely unique, but several of the vowels can be spelt in multiple ways. Thus reading is easy but spelling is difficult. A number of diacritical signs were used until 1982, when they were officially dropped from Greek spelling as no longer corresponding to the modern pronunciation of the language. Monotonic orthography is today used in official usage, in schools and for most purposes of everyday writing in Greece. Polytonic orthography, besides being used for older varieties of Greek,

4884-466: Is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary conversation. Here, diglossia is seen as a kind of bilingualism in a society in which one of the languages has high prestige (henceforth referred to as "H"), and another of the languages has low prestige ("L"). In Ferguson's definition, the high and low variants are always closely related. Ferguson gives

5032-891: Is not commonly used in its purest form. Archaisms are still widely used, especially in writing and in more formal speech, as well as in some everyday expressions, such as the dative εντάξει ('okay', literally 'in order') or the third person imperative ζήτω ! ('long live!'). The following is a sample text in Modern Greek of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (by the United Nations ): Άρθρο 1: Arthro 1: Árthro 1: [ˈarθro ˈena ‖ Όλοι Oloi Óli ˈoli οι oi i i άνθρωποι anthropoi ánthropi Diglossia In linguistics , diglossia ( / d aɪ ˈ ɡ l ɒ s i ə / dy- GLOSS -ee-ə , US also / d aɪ ˈ ɡ l ɔː s i ə / dy- GLAW -see-ə )

5180-533: Is now recognized as a standard language in Haiti; Swiss German dialects are hardly low-prestige languages in Switzerland (see Chambers, Sociolinguistic Theory); and after the end of the Greek military regime in 1974, Dimotiki was made into Greece's sole standard language in 1976, and nowadays, Katharevousa is (with a few exceptions) no longer used. Harold Schiffman wrote about Swiss German in 2010, "It seems to be

5328-550: Is spoken in informal situations, and Spanish is also spoken in informal situations. In Asia, the Philippines is the biggest example of such colonial exoglossia, with English since the Spanish-American War of 1898, Spanish before then (with a historic presence in place names, personal names, and loanwords in the local languages) and local Austronesian Philippine languages used for everyday situations; Timor-Leste

5476-567: Is still used in book printing, especially for academic and belletristic purposes, and in everyday use by some conservative writers and elderly people. The Greek Orthodox Church continues to use polytonic and the late Christodoulos of Athens and the Holy Synod of the Church of Greece have requested the reintroduction of polytonic as the official script. The Greek vowel letters and digraphs with their pronunciations are: ⟨ α ⟩ /

5624-632: Is the daily language in the street, on the markets, and in informal situations in general; in Mozambique , European Portuguese is used in formal situations, while Mozambican Portuguese is the spoken language in informal situations; and British English is used in formal situations in Nigeria, while Nigerian English is the spoken language in informal situations. In the countryside, local African dialects prevail. However, in traditional events, local languages can be used as prestige dialects: for example,

5772-561: Is the original mother tongue is almost always of low prestige . Its spheres of use involve informal, interpersonal communication : conversation in the home, among friends, in marketplaces. In some diglossias, this vernacular dialect is virtually unwritten. Those who try to use it in literature may be severely criticized or even persecuted. The other dialect is held in high esteem and is devoted to written communication and formal spoken communication, such as university instruction, primary education, sermons, and speeches by government officials. It

5920-941: Is used alongside the standard registers of Hindi (H) and Urdu (H); Hochdeutsch (H) is used alongside German dialects (L); the Arab world , where Modern Standard Arabic (H) is used alongside other varieties of Arabic (L); and China, where Standard Chinese (H) is used as the official, literary standard and local varieties of Chinese (L) are used in everyday communication). Other examples include literary Katharevousa (H) versus spoken Demotic Greek (L); literary Tamil (H) versus colloquial spoken Tamil (L); Indonesian , with its bahasa baku (H) and bahasa gaul (L) forms; Standard American English (H) versus African-American Vernacular English or Hawaiian Pidgin (L); and literary (H) versus spoken (L) Welsh . The Greek word διγλωσσία ( diglossía ), from δί- ( dí- , "two") and γλώσσα ( glóssa , "language"), meant bilingualism ; it

6068-421: Is usually not possible to acquire proficiency in the formal, "high" dialect without formal study of it. Thus in those diglossic societies which are also characterized by extreme inequality of social classes , most people are not proficient in speaking the high dialect, and if the high dialect is grammatically different enough, as in the case of Arabic diglossia, these uneducated classes cannot understand most of

Modern Greek - Misplaced Pages Continue

6216-486: Is where two dialects or languages are used (in fairly strict compartmentalization) by a single language community . In addition to the community's everyday or vernacular language variety (labeled "L" or "low" variety), a second, highly codified lect (labeled "H" or "high") is used in certain situations such as literature , formal education , or other specific settings, but not used normally for ordinary conversation. The H variety may have no native speakers within

6364-518: Is written in the Greek alphabet, which has 24 letters, each with a capital and lowercase (small) form. The letter sigma additionally has a special final form. There are two diacritical symbols, the acute accent which indicates stress and the diaeresis marking a vowel letter as not being part of a digraph . Greek has a mixed historical and phonemic orthography , where historical spellings are used if their pronunciation matches modern usage. The correspondence between consonant phonemes and graphemes

6512-711: The Byzantine successor states and with the Bulgarian Empire . The Nicaean Empire eventually recovered Constantinople and restored the Byzantine Empire in July 1261. The Fourth Crusade is considered to have solidified the East–West Schism . The crusade dealt an irrevocable blow to the Byzantine Empire, contributing to its decline and fall as all the unstable governments in the region, the Sack of Constantinople, and

6660-617: The Dorian Greek settlers who colonised the area from Sparta and Corinth in 700 BC. It has received significant Koine Greek influence through Byzantine Greek colonisers who re-introduced Greek language to the region, starting with Justinian 's conquest of Italy in late antiquity and continuing through the Middle Ages. Griko and Demotic are mutually intelligible to some extent, but the former shares some common characteristics with Tsakonian. Yevanic ( יעואניקה , Γεβανικά )

6808-686: The Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae or the partition of the Byzantine Empire by the Crusaders and their Venetian allies leading to a period known as Frankokratia , or "Rule of the Franks" in Greek. The Republic of Venice contracted with the Crusader leaders to build a dedicated fleet to transport their invasion force. However, the leaders greatly overestimated the number of soldiers who would embark from Venice, since many sailed from other ports, and

6956-438: The public speeches that they might hear on television and radio. The high prestige dialect (or language) tends to be the more formalised, and its forms and vocabulary often 'filter down' into the vernacular though often in a changed form. In many diglossic areas, there is controversy and polarization of opinions of native speakers regarding the relationship between the two dialects and their respective statuses . In cases that

7104-470: The Île-de-France , and Burgundy . Several other regions of Europe sent substantial contingents as well, such as Flanders and Montferrat . Other notable groups came from the Holy Roman Empire , including the men under Martin , abbot of Pairis Abbey and Bishop Conrad of Halberstadt , together in alliance with the Venetian soldiers and sailors led by the doge , Enrico Dandolo . The crusade

7252-410: The "Great Fire", which burnt from 19 to 21 August, destroying a large part of Constantinople and leaving an estimated 100,000 homeless. In January 1204, the blinded and incapacitated Isaac II died, probably of natural causes. Opposition to his son and co-emperor Alexios IV had grown during the preceding months of tension and spasmodic violence in and around Constantinople. The Byzantine Senate elected

7400-420: The "high" dialect is objectively not intelligible to those exposed only to the vernacular , some people insist that the two dialects are nevertheless a common language. The pioneering scholar of diglossia, Charles A. Ferguson , observed that native speakers proficient in the high prestige dialect will commonly try to avoid using the vernacular dialect with foreigners and may even deny its existence even though

7548-499: The (H) language, and was still used for this purpose until the fourth century AD, more than sixteen centuries after it had ceased to exist in everyday speech. Another historical example is Latin, Classical Latin being the (H) and Vulgar Latin the (L); the latter, which is almost completely unattested in text, is the tongue from which the Romance languages descended. The (L) variants are not just simplifications or "corruptions" of

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7696-528: The (H) variant exoglossia and the (L) variant endoglossia . In some cases (especially with creole languages ), the nature of the connection between (H) and (L) is not one of diglossia but a continuum ; for example, Jamaican Creole as (L) and Standard English as (H) in Jamaica. Similar is the case in the Scottish Lowlands , with Scots as (L) and Scottish English as (H). (H) is usually

7844-495: The (H) variants. In phonology, for example, (L) dialects are as likely to have phonemes absent from the (H) as vice versa. Some Swiss German dialects have three phonemes, /e/ , /ɛ/ and /æ/ , in the phonetic space where Standard German has only two phonemes, /ɛ(ː)/ ( Berlin 'Berlin', Bären 'bears') and /eː/ ( Beeren 'berries'). Jamaican Creole has fewer vowel phonemes than standard English, but it has additional palatal /kʲ/ and /ɡʲ/ phonemes. Especially in endoglossia

7992-514: The (L) form may also be called " basilect ", the (H) form " acrolect ", and an intermediate form " mesolect ". Ferguson's classic examples include Standard German/Swiss German, Standard Arabic / Arabic vernaculars , French / Creole in Haiti , and Katharevousa / Dimotiki in Greece , though the "low prestige" nature of most of these examples has changed since Ferguson's article was published. Creole

8140-903: The Byzantines ultimately succumbed in 1453 . In 1187, the Ayyubid Sultanate under Saladin conquered most of the Crusader states in the Levant. Jerusalem was lost to the Ayyubids as a result of the siege of Jerusalem in 1187 leading to the calling of the Third Crusade . The Crusader states were then reduced by Saladin to little more than three cities along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea: Tyre , Tripoli and Antioch . The Third Crusade (1189–1193)

8288-470: The Crusader forces viciously counterattacked, with most of the defenders being cut down or drowning in the Bosporus in their attempts to escape. The tower was swiftly taken as a result. The Golden Horn now lay open to the Crusaders, and the Venetian fleet entered. The Crusaders sailed alongside Constantinople with 10 galleys to display the would-be Alexios IV, but from the walls of the city citizens taunted

8436-552: The Crusaders not to attack fellow Christians. The city was then brought under Venetian control. When the Pope heard of this, he temporarily excommunicated the Crusader army. In January 1203, en route to Jerusalem, the Crusader leadership entered into an agreement with the Byzantine prince Alexios Angelos to divert their main force to Constantinople and restore his deposed father Isaac II Angelos as emperor, who would then add his support to their invasion of Jerusalem. On 23 June 1203,

8584-508: The English equivalent diglossia in 1959 in the title of an article. His conceptualization of diglossia describes a society with more than one prevalent language or the high variety, which pertains to the language used in literature, newspapers, and other social institutions. The article has been cited over 4,000 times. The term is particularly embraced among sociolinguists and a number of these proposed different interpretations or varieties of

8732-457: The Fourth Crusade went to the Holy Land, while only a minority participated in the attack on Constantinople. Villehardouin, however, regarded those who went to the Holy Land as deserters of the main army and its leadership and he may have exaggerated their number in order to magnify the accomplishments of the minority that besieged Constantinople. Modern historians have tended to disregard Villehardouin's claims. Steven Runciman thought that only

8880-462: The Greek State", scholars brought to life "Katharevousa" or "purist" language. Katharevousa did not constitute the natural development of the language of the people, the " Koine ", " Romeika ", Demotic Greek or "Dimotiki" as it is currently referred to. While Singapore has predominantly been an English speaking country, a more informal style of English has been developed and popularised within

9028-667: The Occitan and German contingents. A large sum of money raised by the preacher Fulk of Neuilly did reach the Holy Land. Before his death in May 1202, Fulk gave the money to the Abbey of Cîteaux . Abbot Arnaud Amalric sent it to Acre in two installments. It was used to repair walls, towers and other defences that had been damaged by the earthquake of May 1202 . A second wall was even added at Acre sometime before 1212. Several crusaders, instead of going on to Venice, turned south at Piacenza in

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9176-653: The Ottomans in 1461. Thereafter, the Crimean Greek state continued to exist as the independent Greek Principality of Theodoro . The Greek-speaking inhabitants of Crimea were deported by Catherine the Great to resettle in the new city of Mariupol after the Russo-Turkish War (1768–74) to escape the then Muslim-dominated Crimea. Mariupolitan's main features have certain similarities with both Pontic (e.g.

9324-547: The Pontic villages of Turkey.) It derives from Hellenistic and Medieval Koine and preserves characteristics of Ionic due to ancient colonizations of the region. Pontic evolved as a separate dialect from Demotic Greek as a result of the region's isolation from the Greek mainstream after the Fourth Crusade fragmented the Byzantine Empire into separate kingdoms (see Empire of Trebizond ). Cappadocian ( Καππαδοκικά )

9472-623: The St. Romanus Gate, vastly outnumbering the crusaders. Alexios III's army of about 8,500 men faced the Crusaders' seven divisions (about 3,500 men), but his courage failed, and the Byzantine army returned to the city without a fight. The unforced retreat and the effects of the fire greatly damaged morale, and the disgraced Alexios III abandoned his subjects, slipping out of the city and fleeing to Mosynopolis in Thrace . The Imperial officials quickly deposed their runaway emperor and restored Isaac II, robbing

9620-462: The Venetians had an appreciation for the art which they discovered (they were themselves semi-Byzantines) and saved much of it, the French and others destroyed indiscriminately, halting to refresh themselves with wine, violation of nuns, and murder of Orthodox clerics. The Crusaders vented their hatred for the Greeks most spectacularly in the desecration of the greatest Church in Christendom. They smashed

9768-458: The Venetians took a section of the wall of about 25 towers, while the Varangian guard held off the Crusaders on the land wall. The Varangians shifted to meet the new threat, and the Venetians retreated under the screen of fire. The fire destroyed about 120 acres (0.49 km ) of the city and left some 20,000 people homeless. Alexios III finally took offensive action, leading 17 divisions from

9916-463: The Venetians were also successful at scaling the walls from the sea, though there was fighting with the Byzantine infantry. The remaining Anglo-Saxon "axe bearers" had been amongst the most effective of the city's defenders, but they now attempted to negotiate higher wages from their Byzantine employers, before dispersing or surrendering. The crusaders captured the Blachernae section of the city in

10064-428: The army in time. The bulk of the army arrived at Zara on 10–11 November 1202 and the attack proceeded. The citizens of Zara made reference to the fact that they were fellow Catholics by hanging banners marked with crosses from their windows and the walls of the city, but nevertheless the city fell on 24 November 1202 after a brief siege. There was extensive pillaging, and the Venetians and other crusaders came to blows over

10212-540: The army that appeared could not pay the contracted price. In lieu of payment, the Venetian Doge Enrico Dandolo proposed that the Crusaders back him in attacking the rebellious city of Zadar (Zara) on the eastern Adriatic coast. This led in November 1202 to the siege and sack of Zara , the first attack against a Catholic city by a Catholic Crusader army, despite Pope Innocent III 's calls for

10360-623: The army, the leaders of the crusade decided not to inform their followers of this. Regarding the Crusaders as having been coerced by the Venetians, in February 1203 he rescinded the excommunications against all non-Venetians in the expedition. The commercial rivalry between the Republic of Venice and the Byzantine Empire and the living memory of the Massacre of the Latins did much to exacerbate

10508-414: The back vowels ( / o / and / u / ). When these digraphs are preceded by a vowel, they are pronounced [ŋɡ] and [ɲɟ] before front vowels ( / e / and / i / ) and [ŋ̄ɡ̄] before the back ( / o / and / u / ). The digraph ⟨ γγ ⟩ may be pronounced [ŋɣ] in some words ( [ɲʝ] before front vowels and [ŋ̄ɣ̄] before back ones). The pronunciation [ŋk] for the digraph ⟨ γκ ⟩

10656-478: The breakaway Byzantine provinces of Serbia and Bulgaria as Frederick Barbarossa was on friendly terms with Grand Prince Stefan Nemanja of Serbia and also got a letter getting support and fealty from Tsar Ivan Asen I of Bulgaria. King Richard I Lionheart of England also seized the breakaway Eastern Roman province of Cyprus . Rather than return it to the Empire (and realizing his inability to govern it), he gave

10804-460: The case that Swiss German was once consensually agreed to be in a diglossic hierarchy with Standard German, but that this consensus is now breaking." Code-switching is also commonplace, especially in the Arabic world; according to Andrew Freeman, this is "different from Ferguson's description of diglossia which states that the two forms are in complementary distribution." To a certain extent, there

10952-420: The category whereby, while the living language of the area evolves and changes as time passes by, there is an artificial retrospection to and imitation of earlier (more ancient) linguistic forms preserved in writing and considered to be scholarly and classic. One of the earliest recorded examples of diglossia was during the first century AD, when Hellenistic Alexandrian scholars decided that, in order to strengthen

11100-592: The city had a population of approximately 500,000 people, a garrison of 15,000 men (including 5,000 Varangians ), and a fleet of 20 galleys. For both political and financial reasons, the permanent garrison of Constantinople had been limited to a relatively small force, made up of elite guards and other specialist units. At previous times in East Roman and Byzantine history when the capital had come under direct threat, it had been possible to assemble reinforcements from frontier and provincial forces. On this occasion,

11248-593: The city was economically independent, under the protection of the King. King Emeric was Catholic and had himself taken the cross in 1195 or 1196. Many of the crusaders were opposed to attacking Zara, and some, including a force led by the elder Simon de Montfort , refused to participate altogether and returned home or went to the Holy Land on their own. While the Papal legate to the Crusade, Cardinal Peter of Capua , endorsed

11396-591: The city was home to an estimated population of about half a million people protected by 20 km (around 13 miles) of triple walls. Its planned location made Constantinople not only the capital of the surviving eastern part of the Roman Empire but also a commercial centre that dominated trade routes from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea, China, India and Persia. As a result, it was both a rival and

11544-550: The city, would not have been as cruel as the Latin Christians. The defeat of Byzantium, already in a state of decline, accelerated political degeneration so that the Byzantines eventually became easy prey to the Turks. The Fourth Crusade and the crusading movement generally thus resulted, ultimately, in the victory of Islam, a result which was of course the exact opposite of its original intention. When Innocent III heard of

11692-463: The city. The crusaders and Venetians, incensed at the murder of their supposed patron, demanded that Mourtzouphlos honour the contract that Alexios IV had promised. When the emperor refused, the Crusaders assaulted the city once again. On 8 April Alexios V's army put up a strong resistance, which did much to discourage the crusaders. The Byzantines hurled large projectiles onto the enemy siege engines, shattering many of them. Bad weather conditions were

11840-466: The civilian population of the city were killed and their property looted. Despite the threat of excommunication, the crusaders destroyed, defiled and looted the city's churches and monasteries. It was said that the total amount looted from Constantinople was about 900,000 silver marks. The Venetians received 150,000 silver marks that were their due, while the crusaders received 50,000 silver marks. A further 100,000 silver marks were divided evenly up between

11988-578: The co-emperor's absence in August, rioting broke out in the city and a number of Latin residents were killed. In retaliation armed Venetians and other crusaders entered the city from the Golden Horn and attacked a mosque (Constantinople at this time had a sizable Muslim population), which was defended by Muslim and Byzantine Greek residents . In order to cover their retreat the Westerners instigated

12136-487: The community. In cases of three dialects, the term triglossia is used. When referring to two writing systems coexisting for a single language, the term digraphia is used. The high variety may be an older stage of the same language (as in medieval Europe , where Latin (H) remained in formal use even as colloquial speech (L) diverged), an unrelated language, or a distinct yet closely related present-day dialect (as in northern India and Pakistan , where Hindustani (L)

12284-455: The complex vowel system of Ancient Greek, with its four vowel-height levels, length distinction, and multiple diphthongs, Modern Greek has a simple system of five vowels. This came about through a series of mergers, especially towards /i/ ( iotacism ). Modern Greek consonants are plain (voiceless unaspirated) stops , voiced stops , or voiced and unvoiced fricatives . Modern Greek has not preserved length in vowels or consonants. Modern Greek

12432-487: The concept. In his 1959 article, Charles A. Ferguson defines diglossia as follows: DIGLOSSIA is a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language (which may include a standard or regional standards), there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which

12580-454: The conduct of his pilgrims he was filled with shame and rage, and he strongly rebuked them. The main army that sailed from Venice to Constantinople experienced several waves of defections as men sought to fulfill their vows independently of the leadership. Most of them sailed directly from ports in Apulia (southern Italy) to Acre. According to Villehardouin, the majority of those who set out on

12728-437: The country, assisted by its demographic whom come from many different countries. The Singaporean government has long insisted for English to be the sole language used, both in formal settings and everyday lives. However, in practice, Singlish is used predominantly in casual contexts, with speakers switching to English in formal contexts. As an aspect of study of the relationships between codes and social structure , diglossia

12876-622: The crusade during a public ceremony in the church of San Marco di Venezia , proposed that the crusaders pay their debts by intimidating many of the local ports and towns down the Adriatic, culminating in an attack on the port of Zara in Dalmatia . The city had been dominated economically by Venice throughout the 12th century but had rebelled in 1181 and allied itself with King Emeric of Hungary and Croatia . Subsequent Venetian attempts to recover control of Zara had been repulsed, and by 1202

13024-658: The crusade. The conquest of Constantinople was followed by the fragmentation of the Byzantine Empire into three states centered in Nicaea , Trebizond and Epirus . The Crusaders then founded several new Crusader states, known as Frankokratia , in former Roman territory, largely hinged upon the Latin Empire of Constantinople . The presence of the Latin Crusader states almost immediately led to war with

13172-402: The crusader army was collected at Venice, although with far smaller numbers than expected: about 12,000 (4–5,000 knights and 8,000 foot soldiers) instead of 33,500. The Venetians had performed their part of the agreement: there awaited 50 war galleys and 450 transports – enough for three times the assembled army. The Venetians, under their aged and blind Doge Dandolo, would not let

13320-542: The crusaders and Venetians. The remaining 500,000 silver marks were secretly kept back by many crusader knights. The eyewitness accounts of Niketas Choniates , Geoffrey of Villehardouin , Robert of Clari , and the anonymous Latin author of the Devastatio Constantinopolitana all accuse the crusaders of egregious rapacity. Speros Vryonis in Byzantium and Europe gives a vivid account of

13468-403: The crusaders leave without paying the full amount agreed to, originally 85,000 silver marks . The crusaders could only initially pay 35,000 silver marks. The Doge threatened to keep them interned unless full payment was made so a further 14,000 marks were collected, and that only by reducing the crusaders to extreme poverty. This was disastrous to the Venetians, who had halted their commerce for

13616-656: The crusaders of the pretext for attack. The crusaders were now in the quandary of having achieved their stated aim while being debarred from the actual objective, namely the reward that the younger Alexios had (unbeknownst to the Romans) promised them. The crusaders insisted that they would only recognize the authority of Isaac II if his son was raised to co-emperor, and on 1 August the latter was crowned as Alexios Angelos IV, co-emperor. Alexios IV realised that his promises were hard to keep. Alexios III had managed to flee with 1,000 pounds of gold and some priceless jewels, leaving

13764-515: The crusaders' fleet, the Aquila (Eagle), broke the chain. A section of it was then sent to Acre to boost the defences in the Holy Land. As the crusaders laid siege to the Tower of Galata, the defenders routinely attempted to sally out with some limited success, but often suffered bloody losses. On one occasion the defenders sallied out but were unable to retreat back to the safety of the tower in time,

13912-479: The decline of the Roman state". Forcing the populace to destroy their icons at the behest of an army of foreign schismatics did not endear Alexios IV to the citizens of Constantinople. In fear of his life, the co-emperor asked the crusaders to renew their contract for another six months, to end by April 1204. Alexios IV then led 6,000 men from the Crusader army against his rival Alexios III in Adrianople. During

14060-402: The demoralised army. They had to convince the men that the events of 9 April were not God's judgment on a sinful enterprise: the campaign, they argued, was righteous and with proper belief it would succeed. The concept of God testing the determination of the crusaders through temporary setbacks was a familiar means for the clergy to explain failure in the course of a campaign. The clergy's message

14208-457: The division of the spoils. Order was achieved, and the leaders of the expedition agreed to winter in Zara, while considering their next move. The fortifications of Zara were demolished by the Venetians. When Innocent III heard of the sack, he sent a letter to the crusaders excommunicating them and ordering them to return to their holy vows and head for Jerusalem. Out of fear that this would dissolve

14356-605: The earliest attestations of the dialect. Ruméika ( Ρωμαίικα ) or Mariupolitan Greek is a dialect spoken in about 17 villages around the northern coast of the Sea of Azov in southern Ukraine and Russia . Mariupolitan Greek is closely related to Pontic Greek and evolved from the dialect of Greek spoken in Crimea , which was a part of the Byzantine Empire and then the Pontic Empire of Trebizond , until that latter state fell to

14504-639: The entire debt owed to the Venetians, give 200,000 silver marks to the crusaders, 10,000 Byzantine professional troops for the Crusade, the maintenance of 500 knights in the Holy Land, the service of the Byzantine navy to transport the Crusader Army to Egypt, and the placement of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the authority of the Pope, if they would sail to Constantinople and topple the reigning emperor Alexios III Angelos , brother of Isaac II. This offer, tempting for an enterprise that

14652-573: The example of standardized Arabic and says that, "very often, educated Arabs will maintain they never use L at all, in spite of the fact that direct observation shows that they use it constantly in ordinary conversation" Joshua Fishman expanded the definition of diglossia to include the use of unrelated languages as high and low varieties. For example, in Alsace the Alsatian language (Elsässisch) serves as (L) and French as (H). Heinz Kloss calls

14800-444: The family. In German-speaking Switzerland , on the other hand, Swiss German dialects are to a certain extent even used in schools, and to a larger extent in churches. Ramseier calls German-speaking Switzerland's diglossia a "medial diglossia", whereas Felicity Rash prefers "functional diglossia". Paradoxically, Swiss German offers both the best example of diglossia (all speakers are native speakers of Swiss German and thus diglossic) and

14948-644: The feeling of animosity among the Venetians towards the Byzantine Greeks . According to the Chronicle of Novgorod Doge Enrico Dandolo had been blinded by the Emperor Manuel I Komnenos the Great while part of an embassy to Constantinople in 1171, and accordingly held personal enmity towards the Byzantines. Boniface of Montferrat , meanwhile, had left the fleet before it sailed from Venice, to visit his cousin Philip of Swabia . The reasons for his visit are

15096-614: The fleet's equipment down to the very nails to enrich himself. Pope Innocent III succeeded to the papacy in January 1198, and the preaching of a new crusade became the prime goal of his pontificate, expounded in his bull Post miserabile . His call was largely ignored by the European monarchs: the Germans were struggling against Papal power, and England and France were still engaged in warfare against each other . However, due to

15244-470: The great city. They won a cavalry skirmish in which they were outnumbered, defeating 500 Byzantines with just 80 Frankish knights. To take the city by force, the crusaders first needed to cross the Bosphorus . About 200 ships, horse transports, and galleys delivered the crusading army across the narrow strait, where Alexios III had lined up the Byzantine army in battle formation along the shore, north of

15392-469: The imperial treasury short on funds. At that point the young emperor ordered the destruction and melting of valuable Roman icons in order to extract their gold and silver, but even then he could only raise 100,000 silver marks. In the eyes of all Greeks who knew of this decision, it was a shocking sign of desperation and weak leadership, which deserved to be punished by God. The Byzantine historian Nicetas Choniates characterized it as "the turning point towards

15540-408: The initial clashes with the crusaders, winning respect from both military and populace. He was accordingly well-placed to move against the increasingly isolated Alexios IV, whom he overthrew, imprisoned, and had strangled in early February. Doukas then was crowned as Emperor Alexios V Doukas Mourtzouphlos. He immediately moved to have the city fortifications strengthened and summoned additional forces to

15688-503: The island to Guy of Lusignan , the former king of Jerusalem, who lost the crown to a former Eastern Roman ally, Conrad of Montferrat . Saladin died on 4 March 1193, before the expiration of the truces, and his empire was contested and divided between three of his sons and two of his brothers. The new ruler of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, Henry II of Champagne , signed an extension of the truce with Egyptian Sultan al-Aziz Uthman . In 1197,

15836-511: The lack of synizesis of -ía, éa ) and the northern varieties of the core dialects (e.g. the northern vocalism). Southern Italian or Italiot ( Κατωιταλιώτικα ) comprises both Calabrian and Griko varieties, spoken by around 15 villages in the regions of Calabria and Apulia . The Southern Italian dialect is the last living trace of Hellenic elements in Southern Italy that once formed Magna Graecia . Its origins can be traced to

15984-656: The language in everyday use in Ancient Egypt during the Middle Kingdom (2000–1650 BC). By 1350 BC, in the New Kingdom (1550–1050 BC), the Egyptian language had evolved into Late Egyptian , which itself later evolved into Demotic (700 BC – AD 400). These two later forms served as (L) languages in their respective periods. But in both cases, Middle Egyptian remained the standard written, prestigious form,

16132-529: The link between the people and the glorious culture of the Greek "Golden Age" (5th c. BC), people should adopt the language of that era. The phenomenon, called " Atticism ", dominated the writings of part of the Hellenistic period , the Byzantine and Medieval era. Following the Greek War of Independence of 1821 and in order to "cover new and immediate needs" making their appearance with "the creation of

16280-742: The local languages. In Ghana , a dialect called " Student Pidgin " was traditionally used by men in all-male secondary schools, though an ever-increasing number of female students are now also using it due to social change. Gender-based oral speech variations are found in Arabic-speaking communities. Makkan males are found to adopt more formal linguistic variants in their WhatsApp messages than their female counterparts, who tend to use more informal "locally prestigious" linguistic variants. Among Garifuna (Karif) speakers in Central America , men and women often have different words for

16428-624: The loss of the gender for nouns. Having been isolated from the crusader conquests ( Fourth Crusade ) and the later Venetian influence of the Greek coast, it retained the Ancient Greek terms for many words that were replaced with Romance ones in Demotic Greek. The poet Rumi , whose name means "Roman", referring to his residence amongst the "Roman" Greek speakers of Cappadocia, wrote a few poems in Cappadocian Greek, one of

16576-414: The main Crusader army reached Constantinople, while other contingents (perhaps a majority of all crusaders) continued to Acre . In August 1203, following the siege of Constantinople , Alexios was crowned co-emperor. However, in January 1204 he was deposed by a popular uprising, depriving the Crusaders of their promised bounty payments. Following the murder of Alexios on 8 February, the Crusaders decided on

16724-546: The most part been purged from Katharevousa. See also the Greek language question . Pontic ( Ποντιακά ) was originally spoken along the mountainous Black Sea coast of Turkey, the so-called Pontus region, until most of its speakers were killed or displaced to modern Greece during the Pontic genocide (1919–1921), followed later by the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923. (Small numbers of Muslim speakers of Pontic Greek escaped these events and still reside in

16872-556: The move as necessary to prevent the crusade's complete failure, the Pope was alarmed at this development and wrote a letter to the crusading leadership threatening excommunication . In 1202, Pope Innocent III, despite wanting to secure papal authority over the Roman Orthodox Church , forbade the crusaders of Western Christendom from committing any atrocious acts against their Christian neighbours. However, this letter, delivered by Peter of Lucedio , may not have reached

17020-418: The northwest and used it as a base to attack the rest of the city. While attempting to defend themselves with a wall of fire, however, they burned even more of the city. This second fire left 15,000 people homeless. The crusaders completely took the city on 13 April. The crusaders sacked Constantinople for three days, during which many ancient and medieval Greco-Roman works of art were stolen or ruined. Many of

17168-497: The only two modern Indo-European languages that retain a synthetic passive (the North Germanic passive is a recent innovation based on a grammaticalized reflexive pronoun ). Modern Greek has changed from Classical Greek in morphology and syntax , losing some features and gaining others. Features lost: Features gained: Modern Greek has developed a simpler system of grammatical prefixes marking tense and aspect of

17316-586: The only two official languages used in formal situations, with Moroccan Arabic and Amazigh dialects spoken in informal situations, while French and Spanish are also spoken in formal situations, making some Moroccans bilinguals or trilinguals in Modern Standard Arabic or Tamazight, French or Spanish, and Moroccan Arabic or Amazigh dialects. In Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic , the official languages are Modern Standard Arabic and Spanish, which are spoken in formal situations, while Hassaniya Arabic

17464-427: The outright conquest of the city. In April 1204, they captured and plundered the city's enormous wealth. Only a handful of the Crusaders continued to the Holy Land thereafter. Several prominent Crusaders, including Enguerrand III, Lord of Coucy , Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester and Guy of Vaux-de-Cernay , among others, disagreed with the attacks on Zara and Constantinople, refused to take part in them and left

17612-496: The papal letter was suppressed by the clergy, and the crusaders prepared for their own attack, while the Venetians attacked from the sea. Alexios V's army stayed in the city to fight, but when the unpaid Varangians left the city, Alexios V himself fled during the night. An attempt was made to find a further replacement emperor from amongst the Byzantine Greek nobility, but the situation had now become too chaotic for either of

17760-521: The part of the Venetians to build numerous ships and train the sailors who would man them, all the while curtailing the city's commercial activities. The crusading army was expected to consist of 4,500 knights (as well as 4,500 horses), 9,000 squires, and 20,000 foot-soldiers. The majority of the crusading army that set out from Venice in early October 1202 originated from areas within France. It included men from Blois , Champagne , Amiens , Saint-Pol ,

17908-485: The peace was interrupted by the arrival of the German Crusade of 1197. Without the permission of Henry, the Germans attacked the territory of al-Adil I of Damascus , who responded by attacking Jaffa. The sudden death of Henry prevented the relief of the port and the city was taken by force. The Germans did, however, succeed in capturing Beirut in the north. Henry was succeeded by Aimery of Cyprus , who signed

18056-489: The preaching of Fulk of Neuilly , a crusading army was finally organised at a tournament held at Écry-sur-Aisne by Count Thibaut of Champagne in 1199. Thibaut was elected leader, but he died in 1201 and was replaced by Boniface of Montferrat . Boniface was the brother of Conrad of Montferrat and succeeded Conrad as marquis of Montferrat after he had died at Tyre. Boniface and the other leaders sent envoys to Venice , Genoa , and other city-states in 1200 to negotiate

18204-464: The puzzled crusaders, who had been led to believe that they would rise up to welcome the young pretender Alexios as a liberator. On 11 July, the Crusaders took positions opposite the Palace of Blachernae on the northwest corner of the city. Their first attacks were repulsed, but on 17 July, with four divisions attacking the land walls while the Venetian fleet attacked the sea walls from the Golden Horn,

18352-489: The region of Arcadia in the Southern Peloponnese , and partially spoken further afield in the area. Tsakonian evolved directly from Laconian (ancient Spartan) and therefore descends from Doric Greek . It has limited input from Hellenistic Koine and is significantly different from and not mutually intelligible with other Greek varieties (such as Demotic Greek and Pontic Greek ). Some linguists consider it

18500-465: The sack: The Latin soldiery subjected the greatest city in Europe to an indescribable sack. For three days they murdered, raped, looted and destroyed on a scale which even the ancient Vandals and Goths would have found unbelievable. Constantinople had become a veritable museum of ancient and Byzantine art, an emporium of such incredible wealth that the Latins were astounded at the riches they found. Though

18648-545: The same (or with a similar) articulation point in Ancient Greek. Before mid or close front vowels ( / e / and / i / ), ⟨ γ ⟩ and ⟨ χ ⟩ are fronted, becoming [ ʝ ] and [ ç ] , respectively, which, in some dialects, notably those of Crete and Mani , are further fronted to [ ʑ ] or [ ʒ ] and [ ɕ ] or [ ʃ ] , respectively. Μoreover, before mid or close back vowels ( / o / and / u / ), ⟨ γ ⟩ tends to be pronounced further back than

18796-471: The same concepts. In Ireland, deaf men and women studied in two separate schools throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Lack of contact between the two groups led to the development of gender-specific varieties of Irish Sign Language . Diglossia may have appeared in Arabic when Muslim-majority countries emerged in North Africa during the early history of Islam . Greek diglossia belongs to

18944-413: The silver iconostasis, the icons and the holy books of Hagia Sophia , and seated upon the patriarchal throne a whore who sang coarse songs as they drank wine from the Church's holy vessels. The estrangement of East and West, which had proceeded over the centuries, culminated in the horrible massacre that accompanied the conquest of Constantinople. The Greeks were convinced that even the Turks, had they taken

19092-510: The suburb of Galata. The Crusader knights charged straight out of the horse transports, and the Byzantine army fled south. The Crusaders followed and attacked the Tower of Galata , which held the northern end of the massive chain that blocked access to the Golden Horn . The Tower of Galata held a garrison of mercenary troops of English, Danish, and Italian origin. On 6 July the largest ship in

19240-542: The suddenness of the danger posed by the Fourth Crusade put the defenders at a serious disadvantage. The main objective of the crusaders was to place Alexios IV on the Byzantine throne so that they could receive the rich payments he had promised them. Conon of Bethune delivered this ultimatum to the Lombard envoy sent by the Emperor Alexios III Angelos , who was the pretender's uncle and had seized

19388-432: The summer of 1202 intending to go directly to the Holy Land from ports in southern Italy. Among them were Vilain of Nully , Henry of Arzillières , Renard II of Dampierre , Henry of Longchamp and Giles of Trasignies with their retinues. They do not seem to have been acting in concert or travelling together. Ultimately, several hundred knights and accompanying infantry reached the Holy Land via south Italian ports. The force

19536-483: The thousands of deaths had left the region depleted of soldiers, resources, people, and money which left the region vulnerable to attack. Additionally, the empire had badly shrunk as it lost control of most of the Balkans, Anatolia, and Aegean islands. This made the empire, once eventually restored, both territorially diminished and vulnerable to invasions from the expanding Ottomans in the following centuries, to which

19684-493: The throne from the pretender's father Isaac II. The citizens of Constantinople were not concerned with the cause of the deposed emperor and his exiled son; hereditary right of succession had never been adopted by the empire and a palace coup between brothers was not considered illegitimate in the way it would have been in the West. First the crusaders attacked and were repulsed from the cities of Chalcedon and Chrysopolis , suburbs of

19832-569: The treasury dwindle and outsourced the navy to the Venetians. His actions in wastefully distributing military weapons and supplies as gifts to his supporters had undermined the empire's defenses. The new emperor was to prove no better. Anxious to shore up his position, Alexios bankrupted the treasury. His attempts to secure the support of semi-autonomous border commanders undermined central authority. He neglected his crucial responsibilities for defence and diplomacy. The emperor's chief admiral (his wife's brother-in-law), Michael Stryphnos , reportedly sold

19980-667: The troops and giving the church to the Holy See. Count Boniface agreed and Alexios IV returned with the Marquess to rejoin the fleet at Corfu after it had sailed from Zara. Most of the rest of the crusade's leaders, encouraged by bribes from Dandolo, eventually accepted the plan as well. However, there were dissenters. Led by Renaud of Montmirail , those who refused to take part in the scheme to attack Constantinople sailed on to Syria. The remaining fleet of 60 war galleys , 100 horse transports , and 50 large transports (the entire fleet

20128-409: The two candidates who came forward to find sufficient support. On 12 April 1204, the weather conditions finally favoured the crusaders. A strong northern wind aided the Venetian ships in coming close to the walls, and after a short battle approximately seventy crusaders managed to enter the city. Some were able to knock holes in the walls, large enough for only a few knights at a time to crawl through;

20276-458: The two dialects are so divergent that they are distinct languages as defined by linguists : they are not mutually intelligible . Thomas Ricento, an author on language policy and political theory believes that there is always a "socially constructed hierarchy, indexed from low to high." The hierarchy is generally imposed by leading political figures or popular media and is sometimes not the native language of that particular region. The dialect that

20424-568: The vernacular is the only socially appropriate one for themselves to use when speaking to their relatives and friends. Yet another common attitude is that the low dialect, which is everyone's native language , ought to be abandoned in favor of the high dialect, which presently is nobody's native language. Fourth Crusade Holy Land: In the Holy Land (1095–1291) Later Crusades (1291–1717) Northern (1147–1410) Against Christians (1209–1588) Popular (1096–1320) The Fourth Crusade (1202–1204)

20572-639: The worst, because there is no clear-cut hierarchy. While Swiss Standard German is spoken in formal situations like in school, news broadcasts, and government speeches, Swiss Standard German is also spoken in informal situations only whenever a German Swiss is communicating with a German-speaking foreigner who it is assumed would not understand the respective dialect. Amongst themselves, the German-speaking Swiss use their respective Swiss German dialect, irrespective of social class, education or topic. In most African countries, as well as some Asian ones,

20720-407: The written language whereas (L) is the spoken language. In formal situations, (H) is used; in informal situations, (L) is used. Sometimes, (H) is used in informal situations and as spoken language when speakers of 2 different (L) languages and dialects or more communicate with each other (as a lingua franca ), but not the other way around. One of the earliest examples was that of Middle Egyptian ,

20868-556: Was a Latin Christian armed expedition called by Pope Innocent III . The stated intent of the expedition was to recapture the Muslim -controlled city of Jerusalem , by first defeating the powerful Egyptian Ayyubid Sultanate . However, a sequence of economic and political events culminated in the Crusader army's 1202 siege of Zara and the 1204 sack of Constantinople , rather than the conquest of Egypt as originally planned. This led to

21016-527: Was designed to reassure and encourage the Crusaders. Their argument that the attack on Constantinople was spiritual revolved around two themes. First, the Greeks were traitors and murderers since they had killed their rightful lord, Alexios IV. The churchmen used inflammatory language and claimed that "the Greeks were worse than the Jews", and they invoked the authority of God and the pope to take action. Although Innocent III had again demanded that they not attack,

21164-504: Was given its specialized meaning "two forms of the same language" by Emmanuel Rhoides in the prologue of his Parerga in 1885. The term was quickly adapted into French as diglossie by the Greek linguist and demoticist Ioannis Psycharis , with credit to Rhoides. The Arabist William Marçais used the term in 1930 to describe the linguistic situation in Arabic -speaking countries. The sociolinguist Charles A. Ferguson introduced

21312-594: Was launched in response to the fall of Jerusalem, with the goal of recovering the city. It successfully reclaimed an extensive territory, effectively reestablishing the Kingdom of Jerusalem . Although Jerusalem itself was not recovered, the important coastal towns of Acre and Jaffa were. On 2 September 1192, the Treaty of Jaffa was signed with Saladin, bringing the crusade to an end. The truce would last for three years and eight months. The crusade had also been marked by

21460-421: Was manned by 10,000 Venetian oarsmen and marines) sailed in late April 1203. In addition, 300 siege engines were brought along on board the fleet. Hearing of their decision, the Pope hedged and issued an order against any more attacks on Christians unless they were actively hindering the Crusader cause, but he did not condemn the scheme outright. When the Fourth Crusade arrived at Constantinople on 23 June 1203,

21608-436: Was short on funds, reached the leaders of the Crusade on 1 January 1203 as they wintered at Zara. Doge Dandolo was a fierce supporter of the plan; however, in his earlier capacity as an ambassador to the Byzantine Empire and someone who knew the finer details of how the empire's politics worked, it is likely he knew the promises were false and there was no hope of any Byzantine emperor raising the money promised, let alone raising

21756-540: Was so small that King Aimery of Jerusalem refused to break his truce with the Ayyubids to allow them to go to war, despite the pleas of Renard, who was fulfilling the crusading vow of the late Count Theobald III of Champagne and possessed ample funds. As a result, eighty crusaders under Renard decided to go to the Principality of Antioch , which had no such truce. Advised against such a move, they were ambushed on

21904-401: Was to be ready to sail on 24 June 1203 and make directly for the Ayyubid capital, Cairo . This agreement was ratified by Pope Innocent, with a solemn ban on attacks on Christian states. There was no binding agreement among the crusaders that all should sail from Venice. Accordingly, many chose to sail from other ports, particularly Flanders , Marseille , and Genoa . By May 1202, the bulk of

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