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79-478: The village was first mentioned between 1130 and 1161 as "in Grothen", and means "land growth". Groet developed on the boundary of the dunes and the raised bog . The Dutch Reformed church is a single aisled church with wooden tower which was built in 1639 and was modified in 1738. In 1830, the choir collapsed and was rebuilt shortly after. The windmill Groetermolen is a polder mill was built in 1890. In 1977,

158-414: A spans many orders of magnitude, a more manageable constant, p K a is more frequently used, where p K a = −log 10 K a . Stronger acids have a smaller p K a than weaker acids. Experimentally determined p K a at 25 °C in aqueous solution are often quoted in textbooks and reference material. Arrhenius acids are named according to their anions . In the classical naming system,

237-450: A values are small, but K a1 > K a2 . A triprotic acid (H 3 A) can undergo one, two, or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants, where K a1 > K a2 > K a3 . An inorganic example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid (H 3 PO 4 ), usually just called phosphoric acid . All three protons can be successively lost to yield H 2 PO 4 , then HPO 4 , and finally PO 4 ,

316-493: A Lewis acid explicitly as such. Modern definitions are concerned with the fundamental chemical reactions common to all acids. Most acids encountered in everyday life are aqueous solutions , or can be dissolved in water, so the Arrhenius and Brønsted–Lowry definitions are the most relevant. The Brønsted–Lowry definition is the most widely used definition; unless otherwise specified, acid–base reactions are assumed to involve

395-447: A Lewis acid, H , but at the same time, they also yield an equal amount of a Lewis base (acetate, citrate, or oxalate, respectively, for the acids mentioned). This article deals mostly with Brønsted acids rather than Lewis acids. Reactions of acids are often generalized in the form HA ⇌ H + A , where HA represents the acid and A is the conjugate base . This reaction is referred to as protolysis . The protonated form (HA) of an acid

474-638: A Lewis base and transfers a lone pair of electrons to form a bond with a hydrogen ion. The species that gains the electron pair is the Lewis acid; for example, the oxygen atom in H 3 O gains a pair of electrons when one of the H—O bonds is broken and the electrons shared in the bond become localized on oxygen. Depending on the context, a Lewis acid may also be described as an oxidizer or an electrophile . Organic Brønsted acids, such as acetic, citric, or oxalic acid, are not Lewis acids. They dissociate in water to produce

553-580: A benzene solvent and in the third gaseous HCl and NH 3 combine to form the solid. A third, only marginally related concept was proposed in 1923 by Gilbert N. Lewis , which includes reactions with acid–base characteristics that do not involve a proton transfer. A Lewis acid is a species that accepts a pair of electrons from another species; in other words, it is an electron pair acceptor. Brønsted acid–base reactions are proton transfer reactions while Lewis acid–base reactions are electron pair transfers. Many Lewis acids are not Brønsted–Lowry acids. Contrast how

632-433: A class of strong acids. A common example is toluenesulfonic acid (tosylic acid). Unlike sulfuric acid itself, sulfonic acids can be solids. In fact, polystyrene functionalized into polystyrene sulfonate is a solid strongly acidic plastic that is filterable. Superacids are acids stronger than 100% sulfuric acid. Examples of superacids are fluoroantimonic acid , magic acid and perchloric acid . The strongest known acid

711-511: A covalent bond with an electron pair. An example is boron trifluoride (BF 3 ), whose boron atom has a vacant orbital that can form a covalent bond by sharing a lone pair of electrons on an atom in a base, for example the nitrogen atom in ammonia (NH 3 ). Lewis considered this as a generalization of the Brønsted definition, so that an acid is a chemical species that accepts electron pairs either directly or by releasing protons (H ) into

790-415: A distinction is made between lake mires or 'siltation-formed raised bogs' ( Verlandungshochmoore ) and 'mire-formed raised bogs' ( wurzelechte Hochmoore ). The former emerged in a secondary process after the silting up of lakes or oxbows (see illustration on the right in the sequence). At first, fens emerged under the influence of groundwater ( minerotrophy ). Oxygen deficiencies and high acidity in

869-524: A moist, balanced climate in which to grow. The quantity of precipitation has to be greater than the water losses through discharge and evaporation. In addition, the precipitation must be evenly spread through the year. Raised bogs in Europe have been developing for about 11,000 years, since the beginning of the Holocene and after the retreat of the last ice sheet . As far as their origins are concerned,

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948-538: A pH of less than 7. While the Arrhenius concept is useful for describing many reactions, it is also quite limited in its scope. In 1923, chemists Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Thomas Martin Lowry independently recognized that acid–base reactions involve the transfer of a proton. A Brønsted–Lowry acid (or simply Brønsted acid) is a species that donates a proton to a Brønsted–Lowry base. Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory has several advantages over Arrhenius theory. Consider

1027-486: A practical description of an acid. Acids form aqueous solutions with a sour taste, can turn blue litmus red, and react with bases and certain metals (like calcium ) to form salts . The word acid is derived from the Latin acidus , meaning 'sour'. An aqueous solution of an acid has a pH less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as "acid" (as in "dissolved in acid"), while the strict definition refers only to

1106-590: A proton to ammonia (NH 3 ), but does not relate to the Arrhenius definition of an acid because the reaction does not produce hydronium. Nevertheless, CH 3 COOH is both an Arrhenius and a Brønsted–Lowry acid. Brønsted–Lowry theory can be used to describe reactions of molecular compounds in nonaqueous solution or the gas phase. Hydrogen chloride (HCl) and ammonia combine under several different conditions to form ammonium chloride , NH 4 Cl. In aqueous solution HCl behaves as hydrochloric acid and exists as hydronium and chloride ions. The following reactions illustrate

1185-529: A pumping station was built and the wind mill was decommissioned resulting in a deterioration of the wind mill, therefore, it was decided to drain the polder both by the mill and the pumping station. Groetermolen is still in active service. In 1639, a little town hall was built in Groet. It claims to be the smallest and oldest town hall of the Netherlands. The oldest claim is definitely not true, but it may be

1264-457: A raised bog on neighbouring mineral soil. The formation of a typical raised bog is a very slow process, which lasts from centuries to a thousand years even in favourable, undisturbed conditions. Furthermore, there are a number of transitional and intermediate bogs , which in different ways combine characteristics of both raised bogs and fens. (See bog .) The main constituents of the peat are rootless peat mosses that grow slowly in height whilst at

1343-542: A result of freeze-thaw processes of the surrounding water. The low temperatures prevent full decomposition of the organic material. Polygonal bogs ( Polygonmoore ) are widespread on the Arctic and sub-Arctic plains of Siberia and North America and cover vast areas. They are associated with patterned peatland and ice wedges . A scanty layer of peat-forming vegetation can occur in the inner honeycomb-shaped areas of this frost pattern terrain ( cryoturbation ) and are fed during

1422-464: A simple solution of an acid compound in water is determined by the dilution of the compound and the compound's K a . Lewis acids have been classified in the ECW model and it has been shown that there is no one order of acid strengths. The relative acceptor strength of Lewis acids toward a series of bases, versus other Lewis acids, can be illustrated by C-B plots . It has been shown that to define

1501-498: A solution with pH 7.0, which is only the case with similar acid and base strengths during a reaction. Neutralization with a base weaker than the acid results in a weakly acidic salt. An example is the weakly acidic ammonium chloride , which is produced from the strong acid hydrogen chloride and the weak base ammonia . Conversely, neutralizing a weak acid with a strong base gives a weakly basic salt (e.g., sodium fluoride from hydrogen fluoride and sodium hydroxide ). In order for

1580-444: A substance that increases the concentration of hydronium ions when added to water. Examples include molecular substances such as hydrogen chloride and acetic acid. An Arrhenius base , on the other hand, is a substance that increases the concentration of hydroxide (OH ) ions when dissolved in water. This decreases the concentration of hydronium because the ions react to form H 2 O molecules: Due to this equilibrium, any increase in

1659-455: A very large number of acidic protons. A diprotic acid (here symbolized by H 2 A) can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the pH. Each dissociation has its own dissociation constant, K a1 and K a2 . The first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second (i.e., K a1 > K a2 ). For example, sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) can donate one proton to form the bisulfate anion (HSO 4 ), for which K a1

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1738-418: Is helium hydride ion , with a proton affinity of 177.8kJ/mol. Superacids can permanently protonate water to give ionic, crystalline hydronium "salts". They can also quantitatively stabilize carbocations . While K a measures the strength of an acid compound, the strength of an aqueous acid solution is measured by pH, which is an indication of the concentration of hydronium in the solution. The pH of

1817-504: Is a dilute aqueous solution of this liquid), sulfuric acid (used in car batteries ), and citric acid (found in citrus fruits). As these examples show, acids (in the colloquial sense) can be solutions or pure substances, and can be derived from acids (in the strict sense) that are solids, liquids, or gases. Strong acids and some concentrated weak acids are corrosive , but there are exceptions such as carboranes and boric acid . The second category of acids are Lewis acids , which form

1896-408: Is a substance that, when added to water, increases the concentration of H ions in the water. Chemists often write H ( aq ) and refer to the hydrogen ion when describing acid–base reactions but the free hydrogen nucleus, a proton , does not exist alone in water, it exists as the hydronium ion (H 3 O ) or other forms (H 5 O 2 , H 9 O 4 ). Thus, an Arrhenius acid can also be described as

1975-464: Is a succession of raised bog types along the line of descent towards the ocean, from northwest to southeast. As a result of peat use, raised bogs have been harvested for peat and cultivated, apart from a few remnants (less than 10% of the original area). The largest contiguous raised bog in central Europe was the Bourtange Moor , which originally covered an area of about 2,300 km including

2054-426: Is also sometimes referred to as the free acid . Acid–base conjugate pairs differ by one proton, and can be interconverted by the addition or removal of a proton ( protonation and deprotonation , respectively). The acid can be the charged species and the conjugate base can be neutral in which case the generalized reaction scheme could be written as HA ⇌ H + A . In solution there exists an equilibrium between

2133-411: Is low in salt. By contrast, mire-formed raised bogs are created directly on the mineral substrate of low-salt areas without having been initially formed as fens (see figure on the left in the sequence). They are formed either as a primary bog due to the erosion of previously dry mineral soils, for example due to clearing, climate change or infiltration, or as a secondary process as a result of the growth of

2212-459: Is not yet clear how these bogs have emerged as mosses are entirely absent here. Coastal bogs ( Planregenmoore ) or Atlantic bogs, as their names suggest, tend to form close to the sea. In addition, in regions covered by blanket bog, there are also lightly convex coastal bogs with low energy surface relief in level locations. The distribution of coastal bogs in Europe extends from Ireland to the east via South Norway to Southwest Sweden and north to

2291-476: Is simply added to the name of the ionic compound. Thus, for hydrogen chloride, as an acid solution, the IUPAC name is aqueous hydrogen chloride. The strength of an acid refers to its ability or tendency to lose a proton. A strong acid is one that completely dissociates in water; in other words, one mole of a strong acid HA dissolves in water yielding one mole of H and one mole of the conjugate base, A , and none of

2370-428: Is strongly decomposed, and an overlying white peat layer which is less decomposed. This difference is a result of changes in the hydrology of the bog. The white peat grew more rapidly under humid conditions than the black peat. This is attributed to a climate change with high precipitation and low evaporation around 1000 to 500 BC. As a result, the peat moss growth grew locally and the black peat/white peat boundary layer

2449-422: Is very large; then it can donate a second proton to form the sulfate anion (SO 4 ), wherein the K a2 is intermediate strength. The large K a1 for the first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid. In a similar manner, the weak unstable carbonic acid (H 2 CO 3 ) can lose one proton to form bicarbonate anion (HCO 3 ) and lose a second to form carbonate anion (CO 3 ). Both K

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2528-634: The Amazon Basin . In these regions, bogs of all kinds and peat deposits of four million square kilometres have been formed, covering three percent of the Earth's surface. In the southern hemisphere low-mineral-rich bogs are rarely formed from peat mosses. Only in the Tierra del Fuego do peat moss raised bogs exist. The most peaty countries in the tropics are found in Southeast Asia. In many cases it

2607-599: The Annex 1 habitats : active raised bog, turlough (both priority habitats), degraded raised bog (capable of regeneration) and vegetation of depressions (rhynchosporion). These habitats are considered to be among the best examples in Ireland due to their relatively large size and the generally low levels of disturbance. In the Natura form compiled for the site active raised bog was given a rating of A (Excellent value) which emphasises

2686-637: The Black Forest the Wildseemoor has been protected and, in the Vosges on le Tanet , north of the Col de la Schlucht a large area has been protected. The Alpine Foreland , which was formed by ice-age glaciation, is also rich in peatland. The Wurzacher Ried (Haidgauer Regenmoorschild) is considered the largest and best preserved raised bog in central Europe. Other raised bogs and peatland areas include

2765-734: The Federsee , the High Fens on the Germano-Belgian border, the Ewiges Meer near Aurich and the Lengener Meer near Wiesmoor. In 2003, Estonia exported 3.6 million m³ of peat for west European garden use, more than 60% of the state production. In Lithuania 60% of the usable peat area has been prepared for extraction or is already exhausted. Lough Lurgeen Bog and Glenamaddy Turlough Bog contains very good examples of

2844-590: The Lofoten . In North America there are coastal bogs in the area of the Great Lakes (especially in Minnesota and Ontario ). Coastal bogs are also fed exclusively by rain. In the less oceanically influenced climatic regions of North-West Europe (lower precipitation), raised bogs take on the classical lens shape and are called plateau bogs or plateau raised bogs ( Plateauregenmoore ). They grow more strongly in

2923-425: The citrate ion. Although the subsequent loss of each hydrogen ion is less favorable, all of the conjugate bases are present in solution. The fractional concentration, α (alpha), for each species can be calculated. For example, a generic diprotic acid will generate 3 species in solution: H 2 A, HA , and A . The fractional concentrations can be calculated as below when given either the pH (which can be converted to

3002-400: The solute . A lower pH means a higher acidity , and thus a higher concentration of positive hydrogen ions in the solution. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be acidic . Common aqueous acids include hydrochloric acid (a solution of hydrogen chloride that is found in gastric acid in the stomach and activates digestive enzymes ), acetic acid (vinegar

3081-957: The Dutch portion, but only small sections remain. The largest remaining raised bog in northern Europe is the 76 km Lille Vildmose . Other large raised bogs are the Teufelsmoor northeast of Bremen, the Vehnemoor (exhausted) and the Esterweger Dose (formerly about 80 km , exhausted) between Oldenburg and Papenburg. The raised bogs of the Central Uplands of the Harz , Solling , Thuringian Forest ( Großer Beerberg , Schneekopf - Teufelsbad, Fichtenkopf, Saukopf), Giant Mountains , Ore Mountains , Fichtel and Rhön ( Black Moor , Red Moor ) are, by contrast, comparatively small. In

3160-474: The Scandinavian hills, central Finland, Karelia and north Siberia. In North America, Alaska is the main location for string bogs, thanks to its cold continental climate. Frost action plays an important role in these bogs. On the ridges or hummocks, ground ice is found until early summer. Palsa bogs ( Palsamoore or Palsenmoore ) are found on the margins of the Arctic permafrost soils ( tundra ). Here

3239-406: The [H ]) or the concentrations of the acid with all its conjugate bases: A plot of these fractional concentrations against pH, for given K 1 and K 2 , is known as a Bjerrum plot . A pattern is observed in the above equations and can be expanded to the general n -protic acid that has been deprotonated i -times: where K 0 = 1 and the other K-terms are the dissociation constants for

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3318-424: The acid and its conjugate base. The equilibrium constant K is an expression of the equilibrium concentrations of the molecules or the ions in solution. Brackets indicate concentration, such that [H 2 O] means the concentration of H 2 O . The acid dissociation constant K a is generally used in the context of acid–base reactions. The numerical value of K a is equal to the product (multiplication) of

3397-435: The acid. Neutralization is the reaction between an acid and a base, producing a salt and neutralized base; for example, hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide form sodium chloride and water: Neutralization is the basis of titration , where a pH indicator shows equivalence point when the equivalent number of moles of a base have been added to an acid. It is often wrongly assumed that neutralization should result in

3476-425: The air. They thus represent a special type of bog , hydrologically , ecologically and in terms of their development history, in which the growth of peat mosses over centuries or millennia plays a decisive role. They also differ in character from blanket bogs which are much thinner and occur in wetter, cloudier climatic zones. Raised bogs are very threatened by peat cutting and pollution by mineral salts from

3555-434: The bog 'floor'. Here fresh organic substances (peat formation horizon) are created by the growth and dying of plant elements. The "catotelm" (Greek: kato = below) is the underlying water-saturated part with less biological activity. This layer is counted as a geological subsoil due to the small earth-forming processes that are still going on and is known as the peat preservation horizon ( Torferhaltungshorizont ). In raised bogs,

3634-476: The central area of these bogs, there are always large kolks. In northern Russia and western Siberia, kermis frequently occur in giant complexes where the bogs have grown into one another. Kermis are also found in Finland in the central and northern boreal forest zone. String bogs or aapa fens ( Aapamoore or Strangmoore ) are typically found on the northern fringes of the distribution area for raised bogs, in

3713-433: The centre than at the margins. This results in the centre of the bog bulging, hence the name "raised bog". This bulging can be several metres high. As a result, the perimeter of the bog is more or less inclined, and is known as the rand . The sloping bog sides of larger bogs are traversed by drainage channels or soaks ( Rüllen ) through which excess water is discharged. Other characteristic structures of these raised bogs are

3792-509: The classical, lens-shaped bogs of northwest Germany . The bogs are not influenced by mineral-rich groundwater or surface water, but are fed exclusively by precipitation — mainly rainwater, hence their alternative German designation of Regenmoor or "rain-fed bog". Thus the latter refers to all bogs, not just those that are arched or only slightly arched, but which nevertheless are characterized by an extreme mineral salt deficiency and other resulting ecological properties. A living raised bog needs

3871-438: The concentration of hydronium is accompanied by a decrease in the concentration of hydroxide. Thus, an Arrhenius acid could also be said to be one that decreases hydroxide concentration, while an Arrhenius base increases it. In an acidic solution, the concentration of hydronium ions is greater than 10 moles per liter. Since pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydronium ions, acidic solutions thus have

3950-423: The concentrations of the products divided by the concentration of the reactants, where the reactant is the acid (HA) and the products are the conjugate base and H . The stronger of two acids will have a higher K a than the weaker acid; the ratio of hydrogen ions to acid will be higher for the stronger acid as the stronger acid has a greater tendency to lose its proton. Because the range of possible values for K

4029-433: The constantly moist substrate inhibited the decomposition of dead plant parts and led to peat formation. Thus the raised bog rises very slowly above the groundwater level, hence its name. As the resulting peat slowly rises above the influence of mineral salts in the groundwater, it reaches a point where the development of the raised bog begins to change in nature; that is, the bog now becomes fed solely by rainwater, which

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4108-485: The entire system is very important from both a hydrological and ecological perspective. A region of peatland extends from Alaska in the west to the coast of the Atlantic in the east, and is comparable in size to that of West Siberia. A zone of domed raised bogs adjoins the zones of palsa bogs and string fens. In the direction of descent towards the ocean, blanket bogs occur east of Hudson Bay. These are superseded towards

4187-571: The flat, treeless raised bog core with its characteristic microrelief of shallow wet depressions or flarks ( Schlenken ) alternating with hummocks ( Bülten ) of drier peat moss. Larger accumulations of water in the middle of the bogs are called kolks or bog ponds (of humic acid -rich water); the wet area on the outer margins is known as a moat or lagg . Genuine ombrotrophic bogs on the North German Plain are usually sharply divided into two layers: an underlying black peat layer, which

4266-413: The fluoride nucleus than they are in the lone fluoride ion. BF 3 is a Lewis acid because it accepts the electron pair from fluoride. This reaction cannot be described in terms of Brønsted theory because there is no proton transfer. The second reaction can be described using either theory. A proton is transferred from an unspecified Brønsted acid to ammonia, a Brønsted base; alternatively, ammonia acts as

4345-449: The following reactions are described in terms of acid–base chemistry: In the first reaction a fluoride ion , F , gives up an electron pair to boron trifluoride to form the product tetrafluoroborate . Fluoride "loses" a pair of valence electrons because the electrons shared in the B—F bond are located in the region of space between the two atomic nuclei and are therefore more distant from

4424-427: The following reactions of acetic acid (CH 3 COOH), the organic acid that gives vinegar its characteristic taste: Both theories easily describe the first reaction: CH 3 COOH acts as an Arrhenius acid because it acts as a source of H 3 O when dissolved in water, and it acts as a Brønsted acid by donating a proton to water. In the second example CH 3 COOH undergoes the same transformation, in this case donating

4503-458: The importance of the site. Raised bog habitats are now very rare in Europe and it has recently been estimated that the Republic of Ireland contains 50% of the relatively intact oceanic raised bog systems in Europe. The site contains the second largest area of intact raised bog surface in Ireland. The combination of raised bog, oligotrophic lake and turlough habitats is unique in Ireland and thus

4582-454: The ionic suffix is dropped and replaced with a new suffix, according to the table following. The prefix "hydro-" is used when the acid is made up of just hydrogen and one other element. For example, HCl has chloride as its anion, so the hydro- prefix is used, and the -ide suffix makes the name take the form hydrochloric acid . Classical naming system: In the IUPAC naming system, "aqueous"

4661-564: The kermi bog type. They represent probably the most important type of raised bog on earth. The Vasyugan Swamp in this region, is the largest bog system on earth and covers more than 50,000 km (19,000 sq mi). It is estimated to contain over 14 billion tonnes of peat deposits. The largest central European raised bog areas are the southern North Sea coastal area and the Alpine Foreland . As in North America there

4740-467: The limitations of Arrhenius's definition: As with the acetic acid reactions, both definitions work for the first example, where water is the solvent and hydronium ion is formed by the HCl solute. The next two reactions do not involve the formation of ions but are still proton-transfer reactions. In the second reaction hydrogen chloride and ammonia (dissolved in benzene ) react to form solid ammonium chloride in

4819-477: The margins of lowland bogs i.e. fens , or transition into them. Kermi bogs ( Kermimoore, Schildhochmoore, Strangmoore or Blankenmoore ) or kermi raised bogs have only a slightly domed shape. The surface of the bog rises steadily from the broad lagg zone. Kermis have ridge-shaped hummocks of peat moss, that are aligned with the contours of the bog. The flarks or elongated depressions are generally tub-shaped and hardly distinguishable externally from kolks . In

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4898-503: The more easily it loses a proton, H . Two key factors that contribute to the ease of deprotonation are the polarity of the H—A bond and the size of atom A, which determines the strength of the H—A bond. Acid strengths are also often discussed in terms of the stability of the conjugate base. Stronger acids have a larger acid dissociation constant , K a and a lower p K a than weaker acids. Sulfonic acids , which are organic oxyacids, are

4977-600: The order of Lewis acid strength at least two properties must be considered. For Pearson's qualitative HSAB theory the two properties are hardness and strength while for Drago's quantitative ECW model the two properties are electrostatic and covalent. Monoprotic acids, also known as monobasic acids, are those acids that are able to donate one proton per molecule during the process of dissociation (sometimes called ionization) as shown below (symbolized by HA): Common examples of monoprotic acids in mineral acids include hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO 3 ). On

5056-423: The orthophosphate ion, usually just called phosphate . Even though the positions of the three protons on the original phosphoric acid molecule are equivalent, the successive K a values differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged. An organic example of a triprotic acid is citric acid , which can successively lose three protons to finally form

5135-740: The other hand, for organic acids the term mainly indicates the presence of one carboxylic acid group and sometimes these acids are known as monocarboxylic acid. Examples in organic acids include formic acid (HCOOH), acetic acid (CH 3 COOH) and benzoic acid (C 6 H 5 COOH). Polyprotic acids, also known as polybasic acids, are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule, in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule. Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names, such as diprotic (or dibasic) acid (two potential protons to donate), and triprotic (or tribasic) acid (three potential protons to donate). Some macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids can have

5214-423: The protonated acid HA. In contrast, a weak acid only partially dissociates and at equilibrium both the acid and the conjugate base are in solution. Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydroiodic acid (HI), hydrobromic acid (HBr), perchloric acid (HClO 4 ), nitric acid (HNO 3 ) and sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ). In water each of these essentially ionizes 100%. The stronger an acid is,

5293-478: The ridges of the string bogs can grow into hummocks several metres high. Like string bogs, the so-called palsas frequently lie within peatlands fed by mineral soil water. Some are surrounded by water-filled, ditch-like hollows. Peat formation is limited; these bogs are peat deposits from warmer, interglacial periods and did not experience frost heaving of their inner core of ice until the climate became colder. These ice lenses increase in size from year to year as

5372-407: The same time the lower layer becomes peat as the air is excluded. Depending on the geographical location, various species of peat moss are involved in making a raised bog. The growth rate of the peat layer is only about a millimetre per year. Growing bogs can be divided into two layers. The ' acrotelm ' ( Greek : akros = highest; telma = bog) is the upper part and includes the vegetation layer and

5451-400: The short summers with sufficient moisture, because the meltwater is prevented from draining away by the raised polygonal margins. The peat layers can attain a thickness of 0.3 to 1 m (1.0–3.3 ft). The west Siberian raised bog area covers 700,000 km (270,000 sq mi). The large bogs have domes in the centre up to 10 m (33 ft) high. They are predominantly of

5530-654: The smallest. Groet was a separate municipality between 1817 and 1834, when it was merged with Schoorl . The village was home to 186 people in 1840. In 2001, it became part of the municipality of Bergen . The 1st and the 4th International Youth Congress of Esperanto , in 1938 and 1948 respectively, took place in Groet. Raised bog Raised bogs , also called ombrotrophic bogs , are acidic, wet habitats that are poor in mineral salts and are home to flora and fauna that can cope with such extreme conditions. Raised bogs, unlike fens , are exclusively fed by precipitation ( ombrotrophy ) and from mineral salts introduced from

5609-406: The solution, which then accept electron pairs. Hydrogen chloride, acetic acid, and most other Brønsted–Lowry acids cannot form a covalent bond with an electron pair, however, and are therefore not Lewis acids. Conversely, many Lewis acids are not Arrhenius or Brønsted–Lowry acids. In modern terminology, an acid is implicitly a Brønsted acid and not a Lewis acid, since chemists almost always refer to

5688-434: The special case of aqueous solutions , proton donors form the hydronium ion H 3 O and are known as Arrhenius acids . Brønsted and Lowry generalized the Arrhenius theory to include non-aqueous solvents . A Brønsted or Arrhenius acid usually contains a hydrogen atom bonded to a chemical structure that is still energetically favorable after loss of H . Aqueous Arrhenius acids have characteristic properties that provide

5767-503: The sub-polar zone, north of the 66th latitude in the northern hemisphere. Here, raised bogs only occur as islands within wetlands supplied by mineral soil water. On level ground these islands are irregularly distributed; on hillsides they form ridges parallel to the contours and at right angles to line of slope. The ridges separate boggy hollows of mineral soil known by the Finnish word, rimpis . The main distribution area for string bogs are

5846-465: The surrounding land (due to agriculture and industry ). The last great raised bog regions are found in western Siberia and Canada . The term raised bog derives from the fact that this type of bog rises in height over time as a result of peat formation. They are like sponges of peat moss, full of water, that form a more or less dome shape in the landscape. In Germany, the term Hochmoor ( lit.   ' high bog ' ) strictly refers only to

5925-413: The temperature. In addition, the relief of the terrain has an influence on the water discharge behaviour and thus the shape of a raised bog. This results in geographical limitations to the formation of raised bogs. Favourable conditions for the development of raised bogs are found mainly in North America ( Canada and Alaska ), Northern Europe and Western Siberia , South America , Southeast Asia and in

6004-439: The transfer of a proton (H ) from an acid to a base. Hydronium ions are acids according to all three definitions. Although alcohols and amines can be Brønsted–Lowry acids, they can also function as Lewis bases due to the lone pairs of electrons on their oxygen and nitrogen atoms. In 1884, Svante Arrhenius attributed the properties of acidity to hydrogen ions (H ), later described as protons or hydrons . An Arrhenius acid

6083-412: The upper peat layer is called white peat, since it consists of largely undecomposed light brown peat mosses. The lower layer is black peat, which is already well humified and has a black-brown colour with still recognizable plant remains. The formation of raised bogs is dependent on the climate, that is to say the amount of precipitation and rate of evaporation, which in turn are decisively determined by

6162-408: The west by plateau bogs in the area of the large lakes and, eventually, by kermi bogs. Acidity An acid is a molecule or ion capable of either donating a proton (i.e. hydrogen ion, H ), known as a Brønsted–Lowry acid , or forming a covalent bond with an electron pair , known as a Lewis acid . The first category of acids are the proton donors, or Brønsted–Lowry acids . In

6241-427: Was formed, although this did not develop simultaneously in all raised bogs. Raised bogs also occur in precipitation-rich upland regions at the montane and, more rarely, alpine levels (i.e. above the tree line ). As a result of the sloping terrain, they often have a characteristic, asymmetric or non-concentric appearance. Mountain or upland bogs may be topographically divided into: All these bog types may occur on

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