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57-401: The current spelling guillemot is of French origin, first attested by Pierre Belon in 1555, but derived from Old (11th century) French willelm , and matched by English variants willock (attested 1631), willick , will and wilkie , all from forms of the name William , cf. French : Guillaume , but ultimately onomatopoeic from the loud, high-pitched " will , willem " begging calls of

114-502: A base for broad research on the digestive system . Further work on reflex actions involved involuntary reactions to stress and pain. Pavlov was always interested in biomarkers of temperament types described by Hippocrates and Galen. He called these biomarkers "properties of nervous systems" and identified three main properties: (1) strength, (2) mobility of nervous processes and (3) a balance between excitation and inhibition and derived four types based on these three properties. He extended

171-402: A child, Pavlov willingly participated in house duties such as doing the dishes and taking care of his siblings. He loved to garden, ride his bicycle, row, swim, and play gorodki ; he devoted his summer vacations to these activities. Although able to read by the age of seven, Pavlov did not begin formal schooling until he was 11 years old, due to serious injuries he had sustained when falling from

228-400: A full-scale kennel for the experimental canines. Pavlov was interested in observing their long-term physiological processes. This required keeping them alive and healthy to conduct chronic experiments, as he called them. These were experiments over time, designed to understand the normal functions of dogs. This was a new kind of study, because previously experiments had been "acute", meaning that

285-453: A high wall onto stone pavement. From his childhood days, Pavlov demonstrated intellectual curiosity along with an unusual energy which he referred to as "the instinct for research". Inspired by the progressive ideas which Dmitry Pisarev , a Russian literary critic of the 1860s, and Ivan Sechenov , the father of Russian physiology, were spreading, Pavlov abandoned his religious career and devoted his life to science. In 1870, he enrolled in

342-647: A historical backdrop for current learning theories. However, the Russian physiologist's initial interest in classical conditioning occurred almost by accident during one of his experiments on digestion in dogs. Considering that Pavlov worked closely with nonhuman animals throughout many of his experiments, his early contributions were primarily about learning in nonhuman animals. However, the fundamentals of classical conditioning have been examined across many different organisms, including humans. The basic underlying principles of Pavlov's classical conditioning have extended to

399-431: A miscarriage. When she conceived again, the couple took precautions, and she safely gave birth to their first child, a boy whom they named Mirchik; Sara became deeply depressed following Mirchik's sudden death in childhood. Pavlov and his wife eventually had four more children: Vladimir, Victor, Vsevolod, and Vera. Their youngest son, Vsevolod, died of pancreatic cancer in 1935, only one year before his father. Pavlov

456-503: A paper titled The Experimental Psychology and Psychopathology of Animals . As Pavlov's work became known in the West, particularly through the writings of John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner . The idea of "conditioning", as an automatic form of learning, became a key concept in the developing specialism of comparative psychology , and the general approach to psychology that underlay it, behaviorism . Pavlov's work with classical conditioning

513-462: A single pyriform (pear-shaped) egg directly on a cliff edge in dense breeding colonies; they do not build a nest, allowing them to nest close to one another even on uneven cliff edges, the density protecting their eggs and chicks from predatory gulls. While the egg would seem vulnerable to rolling off the edge, this does not usually happen. It has been suggested that the egg might simply spin if disturbed, or roll in an arc preventing it from falling over

570-501: A variety of settings, such as classrooms and learning environments. Classical conditioning focuses on using preceding conditions to alter behavioral reactions. The principles underlying classical conditioning have influenced preventative antecedent control strategies used in the classroom. Classical conditioning set the groundwork for the present day behavior modification practices, such as antecedent control. Antecedent events and conditions are defined as those conditions occurring before

627-431: Is popularly believed that Pavlov always signalled the occurrence of food by ringing a bell. However, his writings record the use of a wide variety of stimuli, including electric shocks, whistles , metronomes , tuning forks , and a range of visual stimuli, in addition to the ring of a bell. In 1994, A. Charles Catania cast doubt on whether Pavlov ever actually used a bell in his experiments. Littman tentatively attributed

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684-477: Is the only known occurrence of the Alcini tribe in the temperate to subtropical Pacific , except for the very fringe of the range of U. aalge . As in other genera of auks, fossils of prehistoric forms of Cepphus have been found: The latter two resemble the extant species, but because of the considerable distance in time or space from their current occurrence, they may represent distinct species. Guillemots lay

741-661: The Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1904, becoming the first Russian Nobel laureate. A survey in the Review of General Psychology , published in 2002, ranked Pavlov as the 24th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Pavlov's principles of classical conditioning have been found to operate across a variety of behavior therapies and in experimental and clinical settings, such as educational classrooms and even reducing phobias with systematic desensitization . The basics of Pavlov's classical conditioning serve as

798-593: The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1907. Pavlov's dog , the Pavlovian session and Pavlov's typology are named in his honour. The asteroid 1007 Pawlowia and the lunar crater Pavlov were also named after him. The concept for which Pavlov is best known is the " conditioned reflex ", or what he called the "conditional reflex", which he developed jointly with his assistant Ivan Tolochinov in 1901; Edwin B. Twitmyer at

855-522: The University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia published similar research in 1902, a year before Pavlov published his. The concept was developed after observing the rates of salivation in dogs. Pavlov noticed that his dogs began to salivate in the presence of the technician who normally fed them, rather than simply salivating in the presence of the food. If a buzzer or metronome was sounded before

912-719: The University of Warsaw in Poland. He did not take up either post. In 1890, he was appointed the role of professor of Pharmacology at the Military Medical Academy and occupied the position for five years. In 1891, Pavlov was invited to the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St. Petersburg to organize and direct the Department of Physiology. Over a 45-year period, under his direction, the institute became one of

969-600: The "prophet of comparative anatomy". Belon was born in 1517 at the hamlet of Souletière near Cérans-Foulletourte in the Pays de la Loire . Nothing is known about his descent. Somewhere between 1532 and 1535 he started working as an apprentice to René des Prez, born in Foulletourte but by then an apothecary to the bishop of Clermont, Guillaume Duprat . Between 1535 and 1538 he entered the service of René du Bellay, bishop of Le Mans , who allowed him to study medicine at

1026-547: The Digestive Glands in 1897, after 12 years of research. His experiments earned him the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. These experiments included surgically extracting portions of the digestive system from nonhuman animals, severing nerve bundles to determine the effects, and implanting fistulas between digestive organs and an external pouch to examine the organ's contents. This research served as

1083-501: The Pedagogical Institute. In her later years, she suffered from ill health and died in 1947. The first nine years of their marriage were marred by financial problems; Pavlov and his wife often had to stay with others to have a home and, for a time, the two lived apart so that they could find hospitality. Although their poverty caused despair, material welfare was a secondary consideration. Sara's first pregnancy ended in

1140-768: The University of Wittenberg with the botanist Valerius Cordus (1515-1544). He travelled around Germany with Cordus in 1542, and on his return, he travelled through Flanders and to England. By the end of summer in 1542 he continued his studies at Paris . With the recommendation of Duprat, he became an apothecary to Cardinal François de Tournon . Under this patronage, he was able to undertake extensive scientific voyages. Starting in December 1546, he travelled through Greece , Crete , Asia Minor , Egypt , Arabia and Palestine , and returned to France in 1549. A full account of his Observations on this journey, with illustrations,

1197-408: The antecedents that were eliciting responses, which is similar to the ways in which educational professionals conduct functional behavior assessments. Antecedent strategies are supported by empirical evidence to operate implicitly within classroom environments. Antecedent-based interventions are supported by research to be preventative, and to produce immediate reductions in problem behaviors. Pavlov

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1254-404: The article stated, "It is gratifying to be assured that Professor Pavlov is raising potatoes only as a pastime and still gives the best of his genius to scientific investigation". That same year, Pavlov began holding laboratory meetings known as the 'Wednesday meetings' at which he spoke frankly on many topics, including his views on psychology. These meetings lasted until he died in 1936. Pavlov

1311-526: The behavior. Pavlov's early experiments used manipulation of events or stimuli preceding behavior (i.e., a tone) to produce salivation in dogs much like teachers manipulate instruction and learning environments to produce positive behaviors or decrease maladaptive behaviors. Although he did not refer to the tone as an antecedent, Pavlov was one of the first scientists to demonstrate the relationship between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses. Pavlov systematically presented and withdrew stimuli to determine

1368-744: The circumstances of his dying. He wanted to create unique evidence of subjective experiences of this terminal phase of life. Pavlov died on 27 February 1936 of double pneumonia at the age of 86. He was given a grand funeral, and his study and laboratory were preserved as a museum in his honour. His grave is in the Literatorskie mostki (writers' footways) section of Volkovo Cemetery in St. Petersburg. Pavlov contributed to many areas of physiology and neurological sciences. Most of his work involved research in temperament , conditioning and involuntary reflex actions . Pavlov performed and directed experiments on digestion, eventually publishing The Work of

1425-420: The cliff edge. There is no evidence for either explanation. However, a pyriform egg placed experimentally on a steep slope did not roll, while a less pointed and more ellipsoidal egg did. Ornithologist Tim Birkhead experimented, and found that the arc that a pyriform egg rolls in is wider than most cliff ledges, so not protective against falls. He attributed the egg's stability to its long straight edge resting on

1482-554: The definitions of the four temperament types under study at the time: choleric, phlegmatic, sanguine, and melancholic, updating the names to "the strong and impetuous type, the strong equilibrated and quiet type, the strong equilibrated and lively type, and the weak type", respectively. Pavlov and his researchers observed and began the study of transmarginal inhibition (TMI), the body's natural response of shutting down when exposed to overwhelming stress or pain by electric shock. This research showed how all temperament types responded to

1539-582: The department when de Cyon was replaced by another instructor. After some time, Pavlov obtained a position as a laboratory assistant to Konstantin Nikolaevich Ustimovich at the physiological department of the Veterinary Institute. For two years, Pavlov investigated the circulatory system for his medical dissertation. In 1878, Professor S. P. Botkin , a famous Russian clinician, invited the gifted young physiologist to work in

1596-518: The digestive glands, which would eventually grant him the aforementioned Nobel prize. Pavlov investigated the gastric function of dogs, and later, homeless children, by externalizing a salivary gland so he could collect, measure, and analyze the saliva and what response it had to food under different conditions. He noticed that the dogs tended to salivate before food was actually delivered to their mouths, and set out to investigate this "psychic secretion", as he called it. Pavlov's laboratory housed

1653-447: The dog underwent vivisection which ultimately killed it. Pavlov would often remove the esophagus of several dogs and created a fistula in their throats. A 1921 article by Sergius Morgulis in the journal Science was critical of Pavlov's work, raising concerns about the environment in which these experiments had been performed. Based on a report from H. G. Wells , claiming that Pavlov grew potatoes and carrots in his laboratory

1710-632: The first and included a description of 110 species of fish, with illustrations; it was a work that laid the foundation of modern ichthyology . Its French translation La nature et diversite des poissons (Paris, 1555) was followed by an edition of 1560, and the volume was reprinted in Frankfurt and Zurich. His works were translated by Carolus Clusius , and he was held in high authority by the Italian naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi . In his L'Histoire de la nature des oyseaux (1555) he included two figures of

1767-627: The food was given, the dog would later come to associate the sound with the presentation of the food and salivate upon the presentation of the sound stimulus alone. Tolochinov, whose own term for the phenomenon had been "reflex at a distance", communicated the results at the Congress of Natural Sciences in Helsinki in 1903. Later the same year Pavlov more fully explained the findings, at the 14th International Medical Congress in Madrid , where he read

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1824-529: The ground, creating more friction and making it less likely to move and fall. Guillemot eggs were collected until the late 1920s in Scotland 's St Kilda islands by their men scaling the cliffs. The eggs were buried in St Kilda peat ash to be eaten through the cold, northern winters. The eggs were considered to be similar to duck eggs in taste and nutrition. Guillemot chicks are born on rocky cliffs near

1881-636: The hind leg of a frog to the type of social experiment that the regime was conducting in Russia. Four years later he wrote to Stalin, protesting at what was being done to Russian intellectuals and saying he was ashamed to be a Russian. After the murder of Sergei Kirov in 1934, Pavlov wrote several letters to Vyacheslav Molotov criticizing the mass persecutions which followed and asking for the reconsideration of cases pertaining to several people he knew personally. Conscious until his final moments, Pavlov asked one of his students to sit beside his bed and to record

1938-634: The latter of whom accorded him lodging in the Château de Madrid in the Bois de Boulogne . There he undertook the translations of Dioscurides and Theophrastus . Belon was murdered, possibly by thieves, one evening in April 1564, when coming through the Bois on his return from Paris. Belon was typical of the Renaissance scholar and took an interest in "all kinds of good disciplines" in his lifetime. He

1995-581: The most important centers of physiological research in the world. Pavlov continued to direct the Department of Physiology at the institute, while taking up the chair of physiology at the Medical Military Academy in 1895. Pavlov would head the physiology department at the academy continuously for three decades. Starting in 1901, Pavlov was nominated over four successive years for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. He did not win

2052-489: The newly fledged young of the common guillemot . The American name murre , also known from England (particularly Cornwall) from the 17th century, is by contrast, onomatopoeic of the growling call of adult common guillemots. The two living species of Uria , together with the razorbill , little auk , and the extinct great auk , make up the tribe Alcini. They have distinctly white bellies, thicker and longer bills than Cepphus , and form very dense colonies on cliffs during

2109-488: The physics and mathematics department at the University of Saint Petersburg to study natural science. Pavlov attended the Ryazan church school before entering the local theological seminary. In 1870, however, he left the seminary without graduating to attend the university at St. Petersburg. There he enrolled in the physics and math department and took natural science courses. In his fourth year, his first research project on

2166-520: The physiological laboratory as the clinic's chief. In 1879, Pavlov graduated from the Medical Military Academy with a gold medal award for his research work. After a competitive examination, Pavlov won a fellowship at the academy for postgraduate work. The fellowship and his position as director of the Physiological Laboratory at Botkin's clinic enabled Pavlov to continue his research work. In 1883, he presented his doctor's thesis on

2223-524: The physiology of the nerves of the pancreas won him a prestigious university award. In 1875, Pavlov completed his course with an outstanding record and received the degree of Candidate of Natural Sciences. Impelled by his overwhelming interest in physiology, Pavlov decided to continue his studies and proceeded to the Imperial Academy of Medical Surgery . While at the academy, Pavlov became an assistant to his former teacher, Elias von Cyon . He left

2280-426: The popular imagery to Pavlov's contemporaries Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev and John B. Watson. Roger K. Thomas, of the University of Georgia , however, said they had found "three additional references to Pavlov's use of a bell that strongly challenge Littman's argument". In reply, Littman suggested that Catania's recollection, that Pavlov did not use a bell in research, was "convincing ... and correct". In 1964,

2337-511: The prize until 1904 because his previous nominations were not specific to any discovery, but based on a variety of laboratory findings. When Pavlov received the Nobel Prize it was specified that he did so "in recognition of his work on the physiology of digestion, through which knowledge on vital aspects of the subject has been transformed and enlarged". At the Institute of Experimental Medicine, Pavlov carried out his classical experiments on

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2394-513: The psychologist Hans Eysenck reviewed Pavlov's "Lectures on Conditioned Reflexes" for The BMJ : Volume I – "Twenty-five Years of Objective Study of the Higher Nervous Activity of Animals", Volume II – "Conditioned Reflexes and Psychiatry". Pavlov married Seraphima Vasilievna Karchevskaya on 1 May 1881. Seraphima, called Sara for short, was born in 1855. They had met in 1878 or 1879 when she went to St. Petersburg to study at

2451-475: The reproductive season. Guillemot eggs are large (around 11% of female weight), pyriform in shape, and colourful, making them attractive targets for egg collectors. The three living species of Cepphus form a tribe of their own, Cepphini. They are smaller than the Uria species and have black bellies in breeding plumage, rounder heads and bright red feet. Some prehistoric species are also known: Uria brodkorbi

2508-407: The seaside. They leave the nest by jumping off the cliffsides before their wings are strong enough to allow them to fly, so they parachute down toward the ground as opposed to flying. Their dense, downy feathers and underdeveloped wings allow them to avoid serious harm when falling to the ground, so they bounce around slightly after hitting the ground. Pierre Belon Pierre Belon (1517–1564)

2565-650: The skeletons of humans and birds, marking the homologous bones. This is widely seen as one of the earliest demonstrations of comparative anatomy . All of the following were first published in Paris. A genus in the plant family Gesneriaceae was named as Bellonia in his honour by Charles Plumier . A statue of Belon was erected at Le Mans in 1887. Ivan Pavlov Ivan Petrovich Pavlov ( Russian : Иван Петрович Павлов , IPA: [ɪˈvan pʲɪˈtrovʲɪtɕ ˈpavləf] ; 26 September [ O.S. 14 September] 1849 – 27 February 1936)

2622-426: The stimuli the same way, but different temperaments move through the responses at different times. He commented "that the most basic inherited difference ... was how soon they reached this shutdown point and that the quick-to-shut-down have a fundamentally different type of nervous system." Pavlov carried out experiments on the digestive glands, as well as investigated the gastric function of dogs, and eventually won

2679-500: The subject of The centrifugal nerves of the heart and posited the idea of nerves and the basic principles on the trophic function of the nervous system. Additionally, his collaboration with the Botkin Clinic produced evidence of a basic pattern in the regulation of reflexes in the activity of circulatory organs. He was inspired to pursue a scientific career by D. I. Pisarev , a literary critic and natural science advocate of

2736-529: The technique by overcoming the problem of maintaining the external nerve supply. The exteriorized section became known as the Heidenhain or Pavlov pouch. In 1886, Pavlov returned to Russia to look for a new position. His application for the chair of physiology at the University of Saint Petersburg was rejected. Eventually, Pavlov was offered the chair of pharmacology at Tomsk University in Siberia and at

2793-541: The time and I. M. Sechenov , a Russian physiologist, whom Pavlov described as "the father of physiology ". After completing his doctorate, Pavlov went to Germany , where he studied in Leipzig with Carl Ludwig and Eimear Kelly in the Heidenhain laboratories in Breslau . He remained there from 1884 to 1886. Heidenhain was studying digestion in dogs, using an exteriorized section of the stomach. However, Pavlov perfected

2850-600: The whole of human behaviour is open to question, but at any rate they cover a very large field and within this field they have shown how to apply scientific methods with quantitative exactitude". Pavlov's research on conditional reflexes greatly influenced not only science, but also popular culture. Pavlovian conditioning is a major theme in Aldous Huxley 's dystopian novel, Brave New World (1932), and in Thomas Pynchon 's Gravity's Rainbow (1973). It

2907-512: Was a French traveller, naturalist , writer and diplomat . Like many others of the Renaissance period, he studied and wrote on a range of topics including ichthyology , ornithology , botany , comparative anatomy , architecture and Egyptology . He is sometimes known as Pierre Belon du Mans , or, in the Latin in which his works appeared, as Petrus Bellonius Cenomanus . The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (known for Pavlov's dogs ) called him

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2964-457: Was a Russian and Soviet experimental neurologist and physiologist known for his discovery of classical conditioning through his experiments with dogs. Pavlov was born the first of ten children, in Ryazan , Russian Empire . His father, Peter Dmitrievich Pavlov (1823–1899), was a village Russian Orthodox priest. His mother, Varvara Ivanovna Uspenskaya (1826–1890), was a devoted homemaker. As

3021-638: Was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1904. He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1907 , elected an International Member of the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1908, was awarded the Royal Society's Copley Medal in 1915, and elected an International Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1932. He became a foreign member of

3078-520: Was highly regarded by the Soviet government, and he was able to continue his research. He was praised by Lenin . Despite praise from the Soviet Union government, the money that poured in to support his laboratory, and the honours he was given, Pavlov made no attempts to conceal the disapproval and contempt with which he regarded Soviet Communism. In 1923, he stated that he would not sacrifice even

3135-448: Was interested in zoology, botany and classical Antiquity . Besides the narrative of his travels he wrote several scientific works of considerable value. His first book was Histoire naturelle des estranges poissons (1551) and despite its title was a work mainly on the dolphin ; it did have woodcuts of some fishes, possibly the first among printed books in the West. His second book, De aquatilibus (in Latin, 1553) greatly expanded on

3192-502: Was of huge influence on how humans perceived themselves, their behavior and learning processes; his studies of classical conditioning continue to be central to modern behavior therapy . The Pavlov Institute of Physiology of the Russian Academy of Sciences was founded by Pavlov in 1925 and named after him following his death. British philosopher Bertrand Russell observed that "[w]hether Pavlov's methods can be made to cover

3249-538: Was published in Paris, 1553. Returning to the household of Cardinal de Tournon at Rome for the Papal conclave, 1549-1550 , Belon encountered the naturalists Guillaume Rondelet and Hippolyte Salviani . He returned to Paris with his copious notes and began to publish. In 1557 he travelled again, this time in northern Italy, Savoy, the Dauphiné and Auvergne. Belon was highly favoured both by Henry II and by Charles IX ,

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