82-480: The Guliang Zhuan is considered one of the classic books of ancient Chinese history . It is traditionally attributed to a writer with the surname of Guliang in the disciple tradition of Zixia , but versions of his name vary and there is no definitive way to date the text. Although it may be based in part on oral traditions from as early as the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), the first references to
164-556: A 'sense of right and wrong' ( 耻 ; chǐ ), 'gentleness' ( 温 ; wēn ), 'kindheartenedness' ( 良 ; liáng ), 'respect' ( 恭 ; gōng ), 'frugality' ( 俭 ; jiǎn ), and 让 ; ràng ; 'modesty'). Ren (仁 ) is the Confucian virtue denoting the good feeling a virtuous human experiences when being altruistic . Internally ren can mean "to look up" meaning "to aspire to higher Heavenly principles or ideals", It
246-428: A conversation between Confucius and his disciple Zeng Shen , is about how to set up a good society using the principle of xiao . In more general terms, filial piety means to be good to one's parents; to take care of one's parents; to engage in good conduct not just towards parents but also outside the home so as to bring a good name to one's parents and ancestors; to perform the duties of one's job well so as to obtain
328-399: A counterweight to subservience to authority. The famous thinker Huang Zongxi also strongly criticised the autocratic nature of the imperial system and wanted to keep imperial power in check. Many Confucians also realised that loyalty and filial piety have the potential of coming into conflict with one another. This may be true especially in times of social chaos, such as during the period of
410-460: A disciple who asked whether it is better to sacrifice to the god of the stove or to the god of the family (a popular saying), in 3.13 Confucius says that in order to appropriately pray to gods, one should first know and respect Heaven. In 3.12, he explains that religious rituals produce meaningful experiences, and one has to offer sacrifices in person, acting in presence, otherwise "it is the same as not having sacrificed at all". Rites and sacrifices to
492-650: A form of written Chinese consciously imitated by later authors, now known as Classical Chinese . A common Chinese word for "classic" ( 經 ; 经 ; jīng ) literally means ' warp thread ', in reference to the techniques by which works of this period were bound into volumes. Texts may include shi ( 史 , ' histories ') zi ( 子 'master texts'), philosophical treatises usually associated with an individual and later systematized into schools of thought but also including works on agriculture, medicine , mathematics, astronomy , divination, art criticism, and other miscellaneous writings) and ji ( 集 'literary works') as well as
574-545: A national Confucian Church ( 孔圣会 ; 孔聖會 ; Kǒngshènghuì ) in China to unify the many Confucian congregations and civil society organisations. Strictly speaking, there is no term in Chinese which directly corresponds to "Confucianism". The closest catch-all term for things related to Confucianism is the word ru ( 儒 ; rú ). Its literal meanings in modern Chinese include 'scholar', 'learned', or 'refined man'. In Old Chinese
656-540: A person may know the movements of tian , and this provides with the sense of having a special place in the universe. In 17.19 Confucius says that tian spoke to him, though not in words. The scholar Ronnie Littlejohn warns that tian was not to be interpreted as a personal God comparable to that of the Abrahamic faiths, in the sense of an otherworldly or transcendent creator. Rather it is similar to what Taoists meant by Dao : "the way things are" or "the regularities of
738-420: A philosophical system which regards "the secular as sacred ", Confucianism transcends the dichotomy between religion and humanism, considering the ordinary activities of human life—and especially human relationships—as a manifestation of the sacred, because they are the expression of humanity's moral nature ( 性 ; xìng ), which has a transcendent anchorage in tian ( 天 ; tiān ; 'heaven'). While
820-425: A set collection, and to be called collectively the "Five Classics". Several of the texts were already prominent by the Warring States period , but the literature culture at the time did not lend itself to clear boundaries between works, so a high degree of variance between individual witnesses of the same title was common, as well as considerable intertextuality and cognate chapters between different titles. Mencius ,
902-608: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Chinese classics The Chinese classics or canonical texts are the works of Chinese literature authored prior to the establishment of the imperial Qin dynasty in 221 BC. Prominent examples include the Four Books and Five Classics in the Neo-Confucian tradition, themselves an abridgment of the Thirteen Classics . The Chinese classics used
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#1732773184258984-515: Is exemplified by a normal adult's protective feelings for children. It is considered the essence of the human being, endowed by Heaven, and at the same time the means by which someone may act according to the principle of Heaven and become one with it. Yan Hui , Confucius's most outstanding student, once asked his master to describe the rules of ren and Confucius replied, "one should see nothing improper, hear nothing improper, say nothing improper, do nothing improper." Confucius also defined ren in
1066-486: Is identified as patriarchy, which is expressed in the worship of ancestors and deified progenitors in the male line, at ancestral shrines . Confucian ethical codes are described as humanistic. They may be practiced by all the members of a society. Confucian ethics is characterised by the promotion of virtues, encompassed by the Five Constants, elaborated by Confucian scholars out of the inherited tradition during
1148-569: Is minister; when the father is father, and the son is son." Particular duties arise from one's particular situation in relation to others. The individual stands simultaneously in several different relationships with different people: as a junior in relation to parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to younger siblings, students, and others. While juniors are considered in Confucianism to owe their seniors reverence, seniors also have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors. The same
1230-399: Is not merely Confucian but shared by many Chinese religions , "the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy" ( hundun and qi ), and is organized through the polarity of yin and yang that characterises any thing and life. Creation is therefore a continuous ordering; it is not creation ex nihilo . "Yin and yang are the invisible and visible, the receptive and
1312-474: Is to say self-cultivation and world redemption—synthesised in the ideal of "sageliness within and kingliness without". Ren , translated as "humaneness" or the essence proper of a human being, is the character of compassionate mind; it is the virtue endowed by Heaven and at the same time the means by which man may achieve oneness with Heaven comprehending his own origin in Heaven and therefore divine essence. In
1394-462: Is true with the husband and wife relationship where the husband needs to show benevolence towards his wife and the wife needs to respect the husband in return. This theme of mutuality still exists in East Asian cultures even to this day. The Five Bonds are: ruler to ruled, father to son, husband to wife, elder brother to younger brother, friend to friend. Specific duties were prescribed to each of
1476-704: Is variously described as a tradition, philosophy ( humanistic or rationalistic ), religion , theory of government, or way of life. Confucianism developed from teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551–479 BCE), during a time that was later referred to as the Hundred Schools of Thought era. Confucius considered himself a transmitter of cultural values inherited from the Xia (c. 2070–1600 BCE), Shang (c. 1600–1046 BCE) and Western Zhou (c. 1046–771 BCE) dynasties. Confucianism
1558-478: Is variously translated as ' rite ' or ' reason ', 'ratio' in the pure sense of Vedic ṛta ('right', 'order') when referring to the cosmic law, but when referring to its realisation in the context of human social behaviour it has also been translated as ' customs ', 'measures' and 'rules', among other terms. Li also means religious rites which establish relations between humanity and the gods. According to Stephan Feuchtwang, rites are conceived as "what makes
1640-579: The Biographies of the Immortals , a collection of Taoist hagiographies and hymns. Liu Xiang was also a poet, being credited with the " Nine Laments " that appears in the Chu Ci . The works edited and compiled by Liu Xiang include: This work was continued by his son, Liu Xin , who finally completed the task after his father's death. The transmitted corpus of these classical texts all derives from
1722-835: The Classic of Poetry and the Book of Documents , which meant that these texts would have been exempted, and that the Book of Rites and the Zuo Zhuan did not contain the glorification of defeated feudal states which the First Emperor gave as his reason for destroying them. Nylan further suggests that the story might be based on the fact that the Qin palace was razed in 207 BC and many books were undoubtedly lost at that time. Martin Kern adds that Qin and early Han writings frequently cite
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#17327731842581804-479: The Datong Shu [ zh ] , it is defined as "to form one body with all things" and "when the self and others are not separated ... compassion is aroused". "Lord Heaven" and " Jade Emperor " were terms for a Confucianist supreme deity who was an anthropromorphized tian , and some conceptions of it thought of the two names as synonymous. Tian , a key concept in Chinese thought, refers to
1886-406: The tao , and/or gods from Chinese folk religion . These movements are not a part of mainstream Confucianism, although the boundary between Chinese folk religion and Confucianism can be blurred. Other movements, such as Mohism which was later absorbed by Taoism, developed a more theistic idea of Heaven. Feuchtwang explains that the difference between Confucianism and Taoism primarily lies in
1968-499: The Five Classics which were the basic texts of Confucianism, all edited into their received versions around 500 years later by Imperial Librarian Liu Xin . The scholar Yao Xinzhong allows that there are good reasons to believe that Confucian classics took shape in the hands of Confucius, but that "nothing can be taken for granted in the matter of the early versions of the classics". Yao suggests that most modern scholars hold
2050-560: The Han dynasty . The Five Constants are: These are accompanied by the classical four virtues ( 四字 ; sìzì ), one of which ( Yi ) is also included among the Five Constants: There are many other traditionally Confucian values, such as 'honesty' ( 诚 ; chéng ), 'bravery' ( 勇 ; yǒng ), 'incorruptibility' ( 廉 ; lián ), 'kindness', 'forgiveness' ( 恕 ; shù ),
2132-494: The Ming-Qing transition . In Confucian philosophy, "filial piety" ( 孝 ; xiào ) is a virtue of respect for one's parents and ancestors, and of the hierarchies within society: father–son, elder–junior and male–female. The Confucian classic Xiaojing ("Book of Piety"), thought to be written during the Qin or Han dynasties, has historically been the authoritative source on the Confucian tenet of xiao . The book,
2214-645: The Republic of China , and then Maoism under the People's Republic of China . In the late twentieth century, the Confucian work ethic has been credited with the rise of the East Asian economy . With particular emphasis on the importance of the family and social harmony , rather than on an otherworldly source of spiritual values, the core of Confucianism is humanistic . According to American philosopher Herbert Fingarette 's conceptualisation of Confucianism as
2296-584: The Song dynasty (960–1297). The abolition of the examination system in 1905 marked the end of official Confucianism. The intellectuals of the New Culture Movement of the early twentieth century blamed Confucianism for China's weaknesses . They searched for new doctrines to replace Confucian teachings; some of these new ideologies include the " Three Principles of the People " with the establishment of
2378-532: The Song dynasty to serve as general introduction to Confucian thought, and they were, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, made the core of the official curriculum for the civil service examinations. They are: The official curriculum of the imperial examination system from the Song dynasty onward are the Thirteen Classics . In total, these works total to more than 600,000 characters that must be memorized in order to pass
2460-419: The "pragmatic" view that Confucius and his followers did not intend to create a system of classics, but nonetheless "contributed to their formation". The scholar Tu Weiming explains these classics as embodying "five visions" which underlie the development of Confucianism: Confucianism revolves around the pursuit of the unity of the individual self and tian ("heaven"). To put it another way, it focuses on
2542-652: The Classics, especially the Documents and the Classic of Poetry , which would not have been possible if they had been burned, as reported. The Five Classics ( 五經 ; Wǔjīng ) are five pre-Qin texts that became part of the state-sponsored curriculum during the Western Han dynasty , which adopted Confucianism as its official ideology. It was during this period that the texts first began to be considered together as
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2624-556: The Confucian Classics and their secondary literature; history; philosophy; and poetry. There are sub-categories within each branch, but due to the small number of pre-Qin works in the Classics, History and Poetry branches, the sub-categories are only reproduced for the Philosophy branch. The philosophical typology of individual pre-imperial texts has in every case been applied retroactively, rather than consciously within
2706-530: The Confucian concept of tian shares some similarities with the concept of a deity, it is primarily an impersonal absolute principle like the tao or the Brahman . Most scholars and practitioners do not think of tian as a god, and the deities that many Confucians worship do not originate from orthodox Confucianism. Confucianism focuses on the practical order that is given by a this-worldly awareness of tian . The worldly concern of Confucianism rests upon
2788-623: The God of Heaven, the northern culmen of the skies and its spinning stars, earthly nature and its laws which come from Heaven, to 'Heaven and Earth' (that is, "all things"), and to the awe-inspiring forces beyond human control. There are so many uses in Chinese thought that it is impossible to give a single English translation. Confucius used the term in a mystical way. He wrote in the Analects (7.23) that tian gave him life, and that tian watched and judged (6.28; 9.12). In 9.5 Confucius says that
2870-571: The Han dynasty. Today, the book is usually considered to be the work of the Han dynasty Confucian scholars and contains about 30,000 Chinese characters. Its focus is on clarifying Confucian debate on the political significance of the Spring and Autumn Annals in a style somewhat similar to the Gongyang Zhuan , but with many differences in both doctrine and interpretation. Its major concerns include
2952-593: The ability to cultivate and centre natural forces. Li embodies the entire web of interaction between humanity, human objects, and nature. Confucius includes in his discussions of li such diverse topics as learning, tea drinking, titles, mourning, and governance. Xunzi cites "songs and laughter, weeping and lamentation ... rice and millet, fish and meat ... the wearing of ceremonial caps, embroidered robes, and patterned silks, or of fasting clothes and mourning clothes ... spacious rooms and secluded halls, soft mats, couches and benches" as vital parts of
3034-425: The active, the unshaped and the shaped; they characterise the yearly cycle (winter and summer), the landscape (shady and bright), the sexes (female and male), and even sociopolitical history (disorder and order). Confucianism is concerned with finding "middle ways" between yin and yang at every new configuration of the world." Confucianism conciliates both the inner and outer polarities of spiritual cultivation—that
3116-486: The alleged Qin objective of strengthening Legalism, the traditional account is anachronistic in that Legalism was not yet a defined category of thought during the Qin period, and the "schools of thought" model is no longer considered to be an accurate portrayal of the intellectual history of pre-imperial China. Michael Nylan observes that despite its mythic significance, the " burning of books and burying of scholars " legend does not bear close scrutiny. Nylan suggests that
3198-419: The ancient virtuous rulers. Li Si believed that if the people were to read these works they were likely to invoke the past and become dissatisfied with the present. The reason for opposing various schools of philosophy was that they advocated political ideas often incompatible with the totalitarian regime. Modern historians doubt the details of the story, which first appeared more than a century later. Regarding
3280-399: The belief that human beings are fundamentally good, and teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavor, especially self-cultivation and self-creation. Confucian thought focuses on the cultivation of virtue in a morally organised world. Some of the basic Confucian ethical concepts and practices include ren , yi , li , and zhi . Ren is the essence of
3362-527: The cardinal moral values of ren and yi . Traditionally, cultures and countries in the Chinese cultural sphere are strongly influenced by Confucianism, including China , Taiwan , Korea , Japan , and Vietnam , as well as various territories settled predominantly by Han Chinese people , such as Singapore . Today, it has been credited for shaping East Asian societies and overseas Chinese communities , and to some extent, other parts of Asia. Most Confucianist movements have had significant differences from
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3444-460: The command of the emperor, Liu Xiang (77–6 BC ) compiled the first catalogue of the imperial library, the Abstracts ( 別錄 ; 别录 ; Bielu ), and is the first known editor of the Classic of Mountains and Seas , which was finished by his son. Liu also edited collections of stories and biographies, the Biographies of Exemplary Women . He has long erroneously been credited with compiling
3526-465: The cultivation of jing , 'essence' in Chinese medicine. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, the Four Books and Five Classics were the subjects of mandatory study by those Confucian scholars who wished to take the imperial examination and needed to pass them in order to become scholar-officials . Any political discussion was full of references to this background, and one could not become part of
3608-401: The entire network of social relations, even the respect for rulers. This is shown in the story where Duke Jing of Qi asks Confucius about government, by which he meant proper administration so as to bring social harmony: 齊景公問政於孔子。孔子對曰：君君，臣臣，父父，子子。 The duke Jing, of Qi , asked Confucius about government. Confucius replied, "There is government, when the prince is prince, and the minister
3690-413: The examination. Moreover, these works are accompanied by extensive commentary and annotation, containing approximately 300 million characters by some estimates. It is often difficult or impossible to precisely date pre-Qin works beyond their being "pre-Qin", a period of 1000 years. Information in ancient China was often by oral tradition and passed down from generations before so was rarely written down, so
3772-468: The fabric of li . Confucius envisioned proper government being guided by the principles of li . Some Confucians proposed that all human beings may pursue perfection by learning and practising li . Overall, Confucians believe that governments should place more emphasis on li and rely much less on penal punishment when they govern. Loyalty ( 忠 ; zhōng ) is particularly relevant for the social class to which most of Confucius's students belonged, because
3854-578: The fact that the former focuses on the realisation of the starry order of Heaven in human society, while the latter on the contemplation of the Dao which spontaneously arises in nature. However, Confucianism does venerate many aspects of nature and also respects various tao , as well as what Confucius saw as the main tao , the "[Way] of Heaven." The Way of Heaven involves "lifelong and sincere devotion to traditional cultural forms" and wu wei , "a state of spontaneous harmony between individual inclinations and
3936-450: The family and society to create a harmonious community. Joël Thoraval studied Confucianism as a diffused civil religion in contemporary China, finding that it expresses itself in the widespread worship of five cosmological entities: Heaven and Earth ( 地 ; dì ), the sovereign or the government ( 君 ; jūn ), ancestors ( 親 ; qīn ), and masters ( 師 ; shī ). According to the scholar Stephan Feuchtwang , in Chinese cosmology, which
4018-696: The first emperor of China , unified China in 221 BC, his chancellor Li Si suggested suppressing intellectual discourse to unify thought and political opinion. This was alleged to have destroyed philosophical treatises of the Hundred Schools of Thought , with the goal of strengthening the official Qin governing philosophy of Legalism . According to the Shiji , three categories of books were viewed by Li Si to be most dangerous politically. These were poetry, history (especially historical records of other states than Qin), and philosophy. The ancient collection of poetry and historical records contained many stories concerning
4100-553: The following way: "wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge others." Another meaning of ren is "not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself." Confucius also said, " ren is not far off; he who seeks it has already found it." Ren is close to man and never leaves him. Li ( 礼 ; 禮 ) is a word which finds its most extensive use in Confucian and post-Confucian Chinese philosophy . Li
4182-589: The fourteenth year of his later counterpart Duke Ai of Lu ( 魯哀公 ) (481 BCE). Like the Gongyang Zhuan , the Gǔliáng Zhuàn is written as a didactic explanation of the subtle political and social messages of the Spring and Autumn Annals rather than in the anecdotal style of the Zuo Zhuan . It is an important book for the study of the development of Confucianism from the Warring States period through
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#17327731842584264-406: The gods have an ethical importance: they generate good life, because taking part in them leads to the overcoming of the self. Analects 10.11 tells that Confucius always took a small part of his food and placed it on the sacrificial bowls as an offering to his ancestors . Some Confucian movements worship Confucius, although not as a supreme being or anything else approaching the power of tian or
4346-466: The harmony of the family and the society as a whole. A Confucian revival began during the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE). In the late Tang, Confucianism further developed in response to the increasing influence of Buddhism and Taoism and was reformulated as Neo-Confucianism . This reinvigorated form was adopted as the basis of the imperial exams and the core philosophy of the scholar-official class in
4428-517: The human being which manifests as compassion. It is the virtue-form of Heaven. Yi is the upholding of righteousness and the moral disposition to do good. Li is a system of ritual norms and propriety that determines how a person should properly act in everyday life in harmony with the law of Heaven. Zhi ( 智 ; zhì ) is the ability to see what is right and fair, or the converse, in the behaviors exhibited by others. Confucianism holds one in contempt, either passively or actively, for failure to uphold
4510-564: The hundred things coming into being. What does Tian say?") as implying that even though Tian is not a "speaking person", it constantly "does" through the rhythms of nature, and communicates "how human beings ought to live and act", at least to those who have learnt to carefully listen to it. Duanmu Ci , a disciple of Confucius, said that Tian had set the master on the path to become a wise man (9.6). In 7.23 Confucius says that he has no doubt left that Tian gave him life, and from it he had developed right virtue ( de ). In 8.19, he says that
4592-420: The invisible visible", making possible for humans to cultivate the underlying order of nature. Correctly performed rituals move society in alignment with earthly and heavenly (astral) forces, establishing the harmony of the three realms—Heaven, Earth and humanity. This practice is defined as "centering" ( 央 ; yāng or 中 ; zhōng ). Among all things of creation, humans themselves are "central" because they have
4674-548: The leading Confucian scholar of the time, regarded the Spring and Autumn Annals as being equally important as the semi-legendary chronicles of earlier periods. Up to the Western Han, authors would typically list the Classics in the order Poems-Documents-Rituals-Changes-Spring and Autumn. However, from the Eastern Han the default order instead became Changes-Documents-Poems-Rituals-Spring and Autumn. In 26 BCE, at
4756-625: The literati—or even a military officer in some periods—without having memorized them. Generally, children first memorized the Chinese characters of the Three Character Classic and Hundred Family Surnames and they then went on to memorize the other classics. The literate elite therefore shared a common culture and set of values. According to Sima Qian 's Records of the Grand Historian , after Qin Shi Huang ,
4838-496: The lives of the sages are interwoven with Tian . Regarding personal gods ( shen , energies who emanate from and reproduce Tian ) enliving nature, in the Analects Confucius says that it is appropriate ( yi ) for people to worship ( 敬 ; jìng ) them, although only through proper rites ( li ), implying respect of positions and discretion. Confucius himself was a ritual and sacrificial master. Answering to
4920-422: The material means to support parents as well as carry out sacrifices to the ancestors; not be rebellious; show love, respect and support; the wife in filial piety must obey her husband absolutely and take care of the whole family wholeheartedly. display courtesy; ensure male heirs, uphold fraternity among brothers; wisely advise one's parents, including dissuading them from moral unrighteousness, for blindly following
5002-459: The most important way for an ambitious young scholar to become a prominent official was to enter a ruler's civil service. Confucius himself did not propose that "might makes right", but rather that a superior should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude. In addition, loyalty does not mean subservience to authority. This is because reciprocity is demanded from the superior as well. As Confucius stated "a prince should employ his minister according to
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#17327731842585084-712: The older the composition of the texts may not be in a chronological order as that which was arranged and presented by their attributed "authors". The below list is therefore organized in the order which is found in the Siku Quanshu ( Complete Library of the Four Treasuries ), the encyclopedic collation of the works found in the imperial library of the Qing dynasty under the Qianlong Emperor . The Siku Quanshu classifies all works into 4 top-level branches:
5166-456: The original Zhou -era teachings, and are typically much more complex because of their reliance on "elaborate doctrine " and other factors such as traditions with long histories. In the past few decades, there have been talks of a "Confucian Revival" in the academic and the scholarly community, and there has been a grassroots proliferation of various types of Confucian churches . In late 2015, many Confucian personalities formally established
5248-419: The parents' wishes is not considered to be xiao ; display sorrow for their sickness and death; and carry out sacrifices after their death. Filial piety is considered a key virtue in Chinese culture, and it is the main concern of a large number of stories. One of the most famous collections of such stories is " The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars ". These stories depict how children exercised their filial piety in
5330-434: The participants in these sets of relationships. Such duties are also extended to the dead, where the living stand as sons to their deceased family. The only relationship where respect for elders is not stressed was the friend to friend relationship, where mutual equal respect is emphasised instead. All these duties take the practical form of prescribed rituals, for instance wedding and death rituals. The junzi ('lord's son')
5412-454: The past. While China has always had a diversity of religious beliefs, filial piety has been common to almost all of them; historian Hugh D.R. Baker calls respect for the family the only element common to almost all Chinese believers. Social harmony results in part from every individual knowing his or her place in the natural order, and playing his or her part well. Reciprocity or responsibility ( renqing ) extends beyond filial piety and involves
5494-459: The principles of humaneness and righteousness at its core. In the Western world, the character for water is often used as a symbol for Confucianism, which is not the case in modern China. However, the five phases were used as important symbols representing leadership in Han dynasty thought, including Confucianist works. Traditionally, Confucius was thought to be the author or editor of
5576-546: The reason Han dynasty scholars charged the Qin with destroying the Confucian Five Classics was partly to "slander" the state they defeated and partly because Han scholars misunderstood the nature of the texts, for it was only after the founding of the Han that Sima Qian labeled the Five Classics as Confucian. Nylan also points out that the Qin court appointed classical scholars who were specialists on
5658-414: The relationship between humanity and heaven. The principle or way of Heaven ( tian li or tian tao ) is the order of the world and the source of divine authority. Tian li or tian tao is monistic , meaning that it is singular and indivisible. Individuals may realise their humanity and become one with Heaven through the contemplation of such order. This transformation of the self may be extended to
5740-620: The ritual code, political and familial hierarchies, and hereditary succession. In general, the Gǔliáng Zhuàn uses a somewhat simple explanatory style rather than the grandiloquent language adopted by the Gongyang Zhuan . Bai Yulin 白玉林 and Dang Huaixing 党怀兴 (2006). Shisanjing daodu 十三经导读 [Reading Guide to the Thirteen Classics]. Beijing: Chinese Social Science Publishing House. ISBN 7-5004-5629-8 (paperback) Available online: http://lc.search.dglib.cn/ebook/read_11710055.html This Confucianism -related article
5822-540: The ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's obligations to the ruled. Like filial piety, loyalty was often subverted by the autocratic regimes in China. Nonetheless, throughout the ages, many Confucians continued to fight against unrighteous superiors and rulers. Many of these Confucians suffered and sometimes died because of their conviction and action. During the Ming-Qing era, prominent Confucians such as Wang Yangming promoted individuality and independent thinking as
5904-416: The ruler is incompetent, he should be replaced. If the ruler is evil, then the people have the right to overthrow him. A good Confucian is also expected to remonstrate with his superiors when necessary. At the same time, a proper Confucian ruler should also accept his ministers' advice, as this will help him govern the realm better. In later ages, however, emphasis was often placed more on the obligations of
5986-455: The rules of propriety; ministers should serve their prince with faithfulness (loyalty)." Similarly, Mencius also said that "when the prince regards his ministers as his hands and feet, his ministers regard their prince as their belly and heart; when he regards them as his dogs and horses, they regard him as another man; when he regards them as the ground or as grass, they regard him as a robber and an enemy." Moreover, Mencius indicated that if
6068-483: The sacred Way". Kelly James Clark argued that Confucius himself saw Tian as an anthropomorphic god that Clark hypothetically refers to as "Heavenly Supreme Emperor", although most other scholars on Confucianism disagree with this view. As explained by Stephan Feuchtwang, the order coming from Heaven preserves the world, and has to be followed by humanity finding a "middle way" between yin and yang forces in each new configuration of reality. Social harmony or morality
6150-403: The term has been "burdened ... with the ambiguities and irrelevant traditional associations". Ruism, as he states, is more faithful to the original Chinese name for the school. The term "Traditionalist" has been suggested by David Schaberg to emphasize the connection to the past, its standards, and inherited forms, in which Confucius himself placed so much importance. This translation of
6232-426: The text itself. The categorization of works of these genera has been highly contentious, especially in modern times. Many modern scholars reject the continued usefulness of this model as a heuristic for understanding the shape of the intellectual landscape of the time. Confucian Confucianism , also known as Ruism or Ru classicism , is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China , and
6314-528: The versions edited down by Liu Xiang and Liu Xin. Michael Nylan has characterised the scope of the Liu pair's editing as having been so vast that it affects our understanding of China's pre-imperial period to the same degree as the Qin unification does. The Four Books ( 四書 ; Sìshū ) are texts illustrating the core value and belief systems in Confucianism . They were selected by Zhu Xi (1130–1200) during
6396-526: The word ru is followed by e.g. Yuri Pines. According to Zhou Youguang , ru originally referred to shamanic methods of holding rites and existed before Confucius's times, but with Confucius it came to mean devotion to propagating such teachings to bring civilisation to the people. Confucianism was initiated by the disciples of Confucius, developed by Mencius ( c. 372–289 BCE) and inherited by later generations, undergoing constant transformations and restructuring since its establishment, but preserving
6478-525: The word had a distinct set of meanings, including 'to tame', 'to mould', 'to educate', and 'to refine'. Several different terms, some of which with modern origin, are used in different situations to express different facets of Confucianism, including: Three of them use ru . These names do not use the name "Confucius" at all, but instead focus on the ideal of the Confucian man. The use of the term "Confucianism" has been avoided by some modern scholars, who favor "Ruism" and "Ruists" instead. Robert Eno argues that
6560-538: The work appear in the Han dynasty , and the peak of its influence was the 1st century BCE. Along with the Zuo Zhuan and Gongyang Zhuan , the work is one of the Three Commentaries on the Spring and Autumn Annals . Written in question and answer style, the work annotates the Spring and Autumn Annals covering the period between the first year of State of Lu ruler Duke Yin of Lu (722 BCE) and
6642-410: The world", which Stephan Feuchtwang equates with the ancient Greek concept of physis , "nature" as the generation and regenerations of things and of the moral order. Tian may also be compared to the Brahman of Hindu and Vedic traditions. The scholar Promise Hsu, in the wake of Robert B. Louden, explained 17:19 ("What does Tian ever say? Yet there are four seasons going round and there are
6724-487: Was suppressed during the Legalist and autocratic Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE), but survived. During the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), Confucian approaches edged out the "proto-Taoist" Huang–Lao as the official ideology, while the emperors mixed both with the realist techniques of Legalism. Confucianism regards principles contained in the Five Classics , the key tenets that should be followed to promote
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