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46-831: In Greek literature , they are mentioned in association with the Persian magi , the Chaldaeans of the Assyrians or the Babylonians, the druids of the Celts , and the priests of Egypt. Some sources claim that famous figures such as Lycurgus , Pythagoras , and Democritus may have met them. They are mentioned by authors such as Philo , Lucian , Clement of Alexandria , Philostratus , and Heliodorus of Emesa . These reports are thought to have served as models to Cynics as well as Christian ascetics. Many authors have discussed

92-456: A man cannot do"; the one who was asked which was the stronger, life or death, answered: "Life, since it supports so many ills." And the last, asked how long it were well for a man to live, answered: "Until he does not regard death as better than life." So, then, turning to the judge, Alexander bade him give his opinion. The judge declared that they had answered one worse than another. "Well, then," said Alexander, "thou shalt die first for giving such

138-512: A pyre, in front of Alexander and his army. Diodorus Siculus called him Caranus ( Ancient Greek : Κάρανος ). According to the Greek sources, he did not flinch as his body burned. He bade goodbye to some of the Greek soldiers who were his students, but not to Alexander. He communicated to Alexander that he would meet him in Babylon and curiously Alexander died exactly a year later in Babylon. It

184-795: A type that the Roman Virgil mastered in his Eclogues . Drama was represented by the New Comedy , of which Menander was the principal exponent. One of the most valuable contributions of the Hellenistic period was the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament into Greek. This work was done at Alexandria and completed by the end of the 2nd century BC. Literature in Greek in the Roman period contributed significant works to

230-545: A variety of subjects, including history, philosophy, and the sciences. Byzantine literature , the literature of the Byzantine Empire , was written in Atticizing , Medieval and early Modern Greek . Chronicles , distinct from historics, arose in this period. Encyclopedias also flourished in this period. Modern Greek literature is written in common Modern Greek . The Cretan Renaissance poem Erotokritos

276-554: A verdict." "That cannot be, O King ," said the judge, "unless thou falsely saidst that thou wouldst put to death first him who answered worst." These philosophers, then, he dismissed with gifts... Diogenes Laërtius (fl. 3rd century AD) refers to them, and reports that Pyrrho of Ellis was influenced by the gymnosophists while in India with Alexander the Great, and on his return to Ellis, imitated their habits of life and caused him to found

322-439: Is considered an extension of Thucydides's work. The greatest prose achievement of the 4th century BC was in philosophy. Greek philosophy flourished during the classical period. Of the philosophers, Socrates , Plato , and Aristotle are the most famous. By 338 BC many of the key Greek cities had been conquered by Philip II of Macedon . Philip II's son Alexander extended his father's conquests greatly. The Hellenistic age

368-416: Is defined as the time between the death of Alexander the Great and the rise of Roman domination. After the 3rd century BC, the Greek colony of Alexandria in northern Egypt became the center of Greek culture. Greek poetry flourished with significant contributions from Theocritus , Callimachus , and Apollonius of Rhodes . Theocritus, who lived from about 310 to 250 BC, was the creator of pastoral poetry,

414-462: Is known mainly from later summaries. The physician Galen pioneered developments in various scientific disciplines including anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, and neurology. This is also the period in which most of the Ancient Greek novels were written. The New Testament , written by various authors in varying qualities of Koine Greek , hails from this period. The Gospels and

460-599: Is one of the most significant works from this time period. Adamantios Korais and Rigas Feraios are two of the most notable figures. Ancient Greek literature refers to literature written in Ancient Greek dialects. These works range from the oldest surviving written works in the Greek language until works from the fifth century AD. The Greek language arose from the proto-Indo-European language ; roughly two-thirds of its words can be derived from various reconstructions of

506-491: Is the most famous of the Acritic songs and is often regarded as the only surviving epic poem from the Byzantine Empire . It is considered by some to signal the beginnings of modern Greek literature . Modern Greek literature is written in common Modern Greek . During this period, the modern vernacular form of the Greek language became more commonplace in writing. This period saw the revival of Greek and Roman studies and

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552-464: The Epistles of Saint Paul were written in this time period as well. Byzantine literature refers to literature of the Byzantine Empire written in Atticizing , Medieval and early Modern Greek . Byzantine literature combined Greek and Christian civilization on the common foundation of the Roman political system. This type of literature was set in the intellectual and ethnographic atmosphere of

598-988: The Galatians , the Sramanas of the Bactrians , and the philosophers of the Celts , the Magi among the Persians who announced beforehand the birth of the Saviour, being led by a star until they arrived in the land of Judaea , and among the Indians the Gymnosophists , and other philosophers of barbarous nations. Porphyry in the Peri Apoches gives a description of the Indian philosophers’ diet structured around

644-573: The Hellenistic philosophy of Pyrrhonism . Strabo (64 or 63 BC – c. AD 24) says that gymnosophists were religious people among the Indians (XVI,I), and otherwise divides Indian philosophers into Brahmanas and Śramaṇas (XV,I,59–60), following the accounts of Megasthenes . He further divides the Sramanas into "Hylobioi" (forest hermits, c.f. Aranyaka ) and "Physicians". Of the Sarmanes,

690-736: The Near East . Byzantine literature possesses four primary cultural elements: Greek, Christian, Roman, and Oriental . Aside from personal correspondence, the literature of this period was primarily written in the Atticizing style. Some early literature of this period was written in Latin ; some of the works from the Latin Empire were written in French . Chronicles , distinct from historic, arose in this period. Encyclopedias also flourished in this period. Digenes Akritas (Διγενῆς Ἀκρίτας)

736-552: The Greeks if I am compelled to do what I do not wish to do?" Kalanos lived as a teacher to Alexander and represented "eastern honesty and freedom". He was seventy-three years of age at time of his death. When the Persian weather and arduous travels had weakened him, he informed Alexander that he would prefer to die rather than live as an invalid. He decided to take his life by self-immolation . Although Alexander tried to dissuade him from this course of action, upon Kalanos' insistence

782-425: The Indians there is the class of the gymnosophists, who, in addition to natural philosophy, take great pains in the study of moral science likewise, and thus make their whole existence a sort of lesson in virtue. But it is necessary for us ... to bring forward as corroborative testimonies the lives of some particular good men who are the most undeniable evidences of freedom. Calanus was an Indian by birth, one of

828-476: The Olympian athletes. They shared their vegetarian meal with him. Greek literature Greek literature ( Greek : Ελληνική Λογοτεχνία ) dates back from the ancient Greek literature , beginning in 800 BC, to the modern Greek literature of today. Ancient Greek literature was written in an Ancient Greek dialect, literature ranges from the oldest surviving written works until works from approximately

874-613: The Preclassical period were meant to be sung or recited (writing was little known before the 7th century BC). Most poems focused on myths, legends that were part folktale and part religion. Tragedies and comedies emerged around 600 BC. At the beginning of Greek literature stand the works of Homer ; the Iliad and the Odyssey . Though dates of composition vary, these works were fixed around 800 BC or after . Another significant figure

920-460: The areas Alexander visited. Plutarch records that when first invited to meet Alexander, Kalanos "roughly commanded him to strip himself and hear what he said naked, otherwise he would not speak a word to him, though he came from Jupiter himself." Kalanos refused the rich gifts offered by Alexander, saying that man's desire cannot be satisfied by such gifts. The gymnosophists believed that even if Alexander killed them "they would be delivered from

966-490: The arms they carry. The Naga sadhus are often called Indian gymnosophists. They are mostly worshipers of Shiva and carry Trishula , swords and even other weapons. They were known for taking up arms to defend their faith. The ancient Shramanas , who included both the Digambara sect of Jain monks and Buddhist priests, have been identified as gymnosophists by researchers. The school of naked philosophers in upper Egypt

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1012-487: The astonishment of those who watched. Although Alexander was not personally present at time of his immolation, his last words to Alexander were "We shall meet in Babylon". He is said to have thus prophesied the death of Alexander in Babylon, even though at the time of death of Kalanos, Alexander did not have any plans to go to Babylon . A drinking contest was held in response to his death. According to Plutarch , citing Chares of Mytilene , Promachus of Macedon drank

1058-650: The body of flesh now afflicted with age and would be translated to a better and purer life." Alexander's representative Onesicritus had a discussion with several gymnosophists and Alexander was attracted by their thoughts on Greek philosophy, of which they generally approved, but criticized the Greeks for preferring custom to nature and for refusing to give up clothing. Alexander persuaded Kalanos to accompany him to Persis and stay with him as one of his teachers. Alexander even hinted use of force to take him to his country, to which Kalanos replied philosophically, that "what shall I be worth to you, Alexander, for exhibiting to

1104-661: The development of Renaissance humanism and science . The Cretan Renaissance poem Erotokritos is a prominent work of this time period. It is a verse romance written around 1600 by Vitsentzos Kornaros (1553–1613). Modern Greek literature is significantly influenced by the Diafotismos , a movement that translated the ideas of the European Enlightenment into the Greek world. Adamantios Korais and Rigas Feraios are two prominent figures of this movement. Today, Modern Greek Literature participates in

1150-485: The distinction between two kinds of gymnosophists: the "Brahmins" and the "Samaneans". The Brahmins are described as theosophoi by descent. They are vegetarians and eat only fruit, yogurt and rice. They are independent from the king and devote all their time to the worship. "Samaneans" probably refers to Buddhist monks from Bactria. They become philosophers by choice and may descend from any Indian caste. When they become Samaneans, they renounce all their possessions and shave

1196-423: The equivalent of 13 litres of unmixed wine and won the first prize of a golden crown worth a talent . He died three days later and forty-one other contestants allegedly died of alcohol poisoning as well. A letter written by Kalanos to Alexander is preserved by Philo . A painting c.  1672 by Jean Baptiste de Champaigne depicts "Alexander the Great receiving the news of the death by immolation of

1242-551: The fields, and subsist upon rice and meal, which every one gives when asked, and receive them hospitably. ... Both this and the other class of persons practise fortitude, as well in supporting active toil as in enduring suffering, so that they will continue a whole day in the same posture, without motion. Philo Judaeus (c. 20 BCE – c. 50 CE), also called mentions the gymnosophists twice in the course of listing foreign ascetics and philosophers who are, in his estimation, "prudent, and just, and virtuous" and therefore truly free: And among

1288-446: The fifth century AD. This time period is divided into the Preclassical, Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman periods. Preclassical Greek literature primarily revolved around myths and include the works of Homer ; the Iliad and the Odyssey . The Classical period saw the dawn of drama and history. Three philosophers are especially notable: Socrates , Plato , and Aristotle . During the Roman era, significant contributions were made in

1334-571: The global literary community. The Greek authors George Seferis and Odysseas Elytis have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature . Calanus (person) Kalanos , also spelled Calanus ( Ancient Greek : Καλανός ) ( c.  398 – 323 BCE), was an ancient Indian gymnosophist and philosopher from Taxila who accompanied Alexander the Great to Persis and later self-immolated , after falling ill, entered himself into

1380-689: The gymnosophists, the philosophers of the Indians, from the Sramanas, "the philosophers of the Bactrians": Philosophy, then, with all its blessed advantages to man, flourished long ages ago among the barbarians, diffusing its light among the gentiles , and eventually penetrated into Greece. Its hierophants were the prophets among the Egyptians , the Chaldeans among the Assyrians , the Druids among

1426-665: The gymnosophists. The Brachmanes or Bragmanes, who are identified with the Brahmanas of Vedic religion , remained unclothed. Porphyry mentions that they lived on milk and fruits, similar to Vedic Brahmins. Jain Digambara went naked and preached non-violence and were identified as gymnosophists. The Naga sadhus ("naked saints") have been identified with the gymnosophists by some modern writers: they are historically known to carry arms, and learn martial arts which are promoted in their akharas . They move totally naked except for

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1472-496: The gymnosophists; he, being looked upon as the man who was possessed of the greatest fortitude of all his contemporaries, and that too, not only by his own countrymen, but also by foreigners, which is the rarest of all things, was greatly admired by some kings of hostile countries, because he had combined virtuous actions with praiseworthy language. In the 2nd century CE, the Christian theologian Clement of Alexandria distinguishes

1518-514: The hundreds of tragedies written and performed during this time period, only a limited number of plays survived. These plays are authored by Aeschylus , Sophocles , and Euripides . The comedy arose from a ritual in honor of Dionysus . These plays were full of obscenity, abuse, and insult. The surviving plays by Aristophanes are a treasure trove of comic presentation. Two influential historians of this age are Herodotus and Thucydides . A third historian, Xenophon , wrote "Hellenica," which

1564-465: The job of building a pyre was entrusted to Ptolemy . Kalanos is mentioned also by Alexander's admirals, Nearchus and Chares of Mytilene . The city where this immolation took place was Susa in the year 323 BC. Kalanos distributed all the costly gifts he got from the king to the people and wore just a garland of flowers and chanted vedic hymns. He presented his horse to one of his Greek pupils named Lysimachus . He did not flinch as he burnt to

1610-509: The living or the dead, said that the living were, since the dead no longer existed. The second, being asked whether the earth or the sea produced larger animals, said the earth did, since the sea was but a part of the earth. The third, being asked what animal was the most cunning, said: "That which up to this time man has not discovered." The fourth, when asked why he had induced Sabbas to revolt, replied: "Because I wished him either to die nobly or live." The fifth, being asked which, in his opinion,

1656-456: The most honourable, he says, are the Hylobii, who live in the forests, and subsist on leaves and wild fruits: they are clothed with garments made of the bark of trees, and abstain from commerce with women and from wine. Of the Sarmanes ... second in honour to the Hylobii, are the physicians, for they apply philosophy to the study of the nature of man. They are of frugal habits, but do not live in

1702-526: The most trouble for the Macedonians. These philosophers were reputed to be clever and concise in answering questions, and Alexander therefore put difficult questions to them, declaring that he would put to death he who first made an incorrect answer, and then the rest, in an order determined in like manner; and he commanded one of them, the oldest, to be the judge in the contest. The first one, accordingly, being asked which, in his opinion, were more numerous,

1748-466: The purported questions by Alexander the Great and answers by the Gymnosophists. The term gymnosophist was used by Plutarch (c. 46–120 CE) in the 1st century CE, when describing an encounter by Alexander the Great with ten gymnosophists near the banks of the Indus river in what is now Pakistan. He (Alexander) captured ten of the gymnosophists who had done most to get Sabbas to revolt, and had made

1794-466: The subjects of poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy. A large proportion of literature from this time period were histories. Significant historians of the period were Timaeus , Polybius , Diodorus Siculus , Dionysius of Halicarnassus , Appian of Alexandria , Arrian , and Plutarch . The period of time they cover extends from late in the 4th century BC to the 2nd century AD. Eratosthenes of Alexandria wrote on astronomy and geography , but his work

1840-796: The superfluous hair on their body. They live in communities and spend their time in debates about the divine. The philosophical, religious, and tribal identities of the gymnosophists that the Greeks encountered in the 3rd century BC at the town of Taxila in Ancient India were not preserved in the ancient Greek literature, leading to much modern speculation. The following have been proposed as non-mutually exclusive possibilities. Some sects of Brahmins belonging to Hinduism remained naked, lived in forests, practiced austerities, shaved their heads, ate only fruit and milk and meditated. The Ājīvika went without clothes. Their antinomian ethics match those Pyrrho brought back to Greece from his meetings with

1886-529: The tongue. A number of alphabets and syllabaries had been used to render Greek, but surviving Greek literature was written in a Phoenician -derived alphabet that arose primarily in Greek Ionia and was fully adopted by Athens by the fifth century BC. All ancient Greek literature was to some degree oral in nature, and the earliest literature was completely so. The Greeks created poetry before making use of writing for literary purposes. Poems created in

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1932-555: Was a Jain , but modern scholarship rejects this notion as Jain ascetics are forbidden from using fire and intentional self-harm due to their convictions about Sallekhana . Moreover, there is no evidence of Jain occupation in Taxila at the time of Alexander. Considering the dominant Brahmanical presence in Taxila, it's likely that the ascetics Alexander met, including Kalanos, were Brahmanical . Johannes Bronkhorst states that it's highly unlikely that Buddhists or Jains were present in

1978-487: Was from Kalanos that Alexander learned of Dandamis , the leader of their group, whom Alexander later went to meet in the forest. Plutarch indicates that his real name was Sphínēs and that he was from Taxila , but since he greeted people with the word "Kalē!" — perhaps kallāṇa (mitta) "Greetings (friend)" — the Greeks called him Kalanos. Kalanos was a Brahmin sage , and lived at Taxila and led an austere religious life. Some scholars have claimed that Kalanos

2024-438: Was older, day or night, replied: "Day, by one day"; and he added, upon the king expressing dissatisfaction, that unusual questions must have unusual answers. Passing on, then, to the sixth, Alexander asked how a man could be most loved; "If," said the philosopher, "he is most powerful, and yet does not inspire fear." Of the three remaining, he who was asked how one might become a god instead of man, replied: "By doing something which

2070-481: Was the poet Hesiod . His two surviving works are Works and Days and Theogony . During the classical period, many of the genres of western literature became more prominent. Lyrical poetry , odes , pastorals , elegies , epigrams ; dramatic presentations of comedy and tragedy ; histories , rhetorical treatises, philosophical dialectics , and philosophical treatises all arose in this period. The two major lyrical poets were Sappho and Pindar . Of

2116-650: Was visited by the Neopythagorean philosopher Apollonius of Tyana (c. 15 – c. 100 AD) who called them Ethiopian Gymnosophists. Apollonius had met the gymnosophists of India before his arrival in Egypt, and repeatedly compared the Ethiopian Gymnosophists with them. He regarded them to be derived from the Indians. They lived without any cottages nor houses, but had a shelter for the visitors. They did not wear any clothes and thus compared themselves to

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