Ancient
147-472: Medieval Modern Dasini ( Arabic : الداسنية al-Dāsinīyya ; Kurdish : داسنی Dasnî ) or Daseni , Dasiniyya , Tasini , Dasiki is a Kurdish Yazidi tribe and ethnonym of Yazidis. The tribe resided near Mosul , Duhok , Sheikhan , Sinjar and all the way to the west bank of Greater Zab river. The Daseni Principality ( Kurdish : میرگەها داسنیا Mīrgaha Dāsiniyyā ), also known as Shaykhan principality or Sheikhan principality ,
294-613: A Khanjar Beg as the Mir in their stead. However, after quarrels with Khanjar, the Mir position was returned to the old Dynasty and Khanjar was replaced by Jolo Beg's son, Hasan Beg. according to the French orientalist, Roger Lescot , the Ottomans launched 15 campaigns against the Yezidis of Shingal and Sheikhan in the 18th century alone. One expedition against the Yezidis of Shingal was led by
441-677: A black dog or stepping on an onion. Arabic language Arabic (endonym: اَلْعَرَبِيَّةُ , romanized : al-ʿarabiyyah , pronounced [al ʕaraˈbijːa] , or عَرَبِيّ , ʿarabīy , pronounced [ˈʕarabiː] or [ʕaraˈbij] ) is a Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world . The ISO assigns language codes to 32 varieties of Arabic , including its standard form of Literary Arabic, known as Modern Standard Arabic , which
588-620: A chief of the tribe, Sa'id ibn Ubayd at-Ta'i, was slain. Unlike the Tayy of Arabia, the Tayy in Syria led by Habis ibn Sa'd at-Ta'i aligned with the Umayyads, who assigned Habis as the commander of Jund Hims . In a confrontation between the two sides in Iraq, Habis was killed. Habis was the maternal uncle of Adi's son, Zayd, and the latter was angered by his slaying, prompting him to seek out and kill
735-575: A collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of Arabic, first emerged during the Iron Age . Previously, the earliest attestation of Old Arabic was thought to be a single 1st century CE inscription in Sabaic script at Qaryat al-Faw , in southern present-day Saudi Arabia. However, this inscription does not participate in several of the key innovations of the Arabic language group, such as
882-435: A corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'an usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ʿarabiyya . Arabic spread with the spread of Islam . Following the early Muslim conquests , Arabic gained vocabulary from Middle Persian and Turkish . In the early Abbasid period , many Classical Greek terms entered Arabic through translations carried out at Baghdad's House of Wisdom . By
1029-659: A delegation of fifteen Tayyid chiefs led by Zayd al-Khayl , who belonged to the Banu Nabhan clan of the Al al-Ghawth, converted to Islam and pledged allegiance to Muhammad. The latter was uniquely impressed by Zayd, who died a year later. Thus by the time of Muhammad's death, the Arabia-based clans of the Al Jadilah and Al al-Ghawth had become Muslims. In doing so, they firmly broke away from their long-time alliance with
1176-606: A few days later, arrived with a small escort at the town of Baadre, where the residence of the Yezidi princely family is located. It is unknown whether he took a small escort out of disdain for the Yezidi leader, or for the purpose of demonstrating his trust in his host. Upon his arrival, Ali Beg had him and his son, Sinjan Agha, treacherously murdered. This murder which was condemned by the Yazidi clergy and Yazidi chieftains, as it went against Yazidi canons and tribal customs. It also led to
1323-613: A great degree of anger among the Mizuris and provoking them into gathering for great raid against the town of Baadre. In anticipation of the attack, thousands of Yezidi warriors stationed themselves in Baadre. The raid was called off due to fear of Bahdinan forces assembling against the Mizuris when the Pasha of Amadiya, who was also the Prince of Bahdinan and was suspected of having conspired in
1470-672: A joint force of Yezidis and the Bahdinan who were led by Yusuf Abdo, a Bahdinan leader from Amadiya, and Baba Hurmuz, who was the head of the Christian monastery in Alqosh. These joint forces then left their positions and relocated to the town of Baadre . Ali Beg wished to negotiate, but Muhammad Kor, influenced by the clerics Mulla Yahya al-Mizuri and Muhammad Khati, rejected any chance of reconciliation. Yezidis of Sheikhan were defeated and subject to devastating massacres where slaughter of both
1617-513: A large and ancient Arab tribe, among whose descendants today are the tribes of Bani Sakher and Shammar . The nisba ( patronymic ) of Tayy is aṭ-Ṭāʾī ( ٱلطَّائِي ). In the second century CE, they migrated to the northern Arabian ranges of the Shammar and Salma Mountains , which then collectively became known as the Jabal Tayy , and later Jabal Shammar . The latter continues to be
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#17327732775511764-576: A large section remained Christian and agreed to pay jizya (poll tax). Most of the Christian tribesmen became Muslims in the few years after, with few exceptions. In the first Muslim civil war , the Tayy under Adi were strong supporters of Ali against the Umayyads . They fought alongside him at the Battle of the Camel and the Battle of Siffin in 656 and 657, respectively. During the latter battle,
1911-487: A lesser extent and more recently from Turkish, English, French, and Italian. Arabic is spoken by as many as 380 million speakers, both native and non-native, in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world, and the fourth most used language on the internet in terms of users. It also serves as the liturgical language of more than 2 billion Muslims . In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked Arabic
2058-690: A millennium before the modern period . Early lexicographers ( لُغَوِيُّون lughawiyyūn ) sought to explain words in the Quran that were unfamiliar or had a particular contextual meaning, and to identify words of non-Arabic origin that appear in the Quran. They gathered shawāhid ( شَوَاهِد 'instances of attested usage') from poetry and the speech of the Arabs—particularly the Bedouin ʾaʿrāb [ ar ] ( أَعْراب ) who were perceived to speak
2205-462: A script derived from ASA attest to a language known as Hasaitic . On the northwestern frontier of Arabia, various languages known to scholars as Thamudic B , Thamudic D, Safaitic , and Hismaic are attested. The last two share important isoglosses with later forms of Arabic, leading scholars to theorize that Safaitic and Hismaic are early forms of Arabic and that they should be considered Old Arabic . Linguists generally believe that "Old Arabic",
2352-470: A single language, despite mutual incomprehensibility among differing spoken versions. From a linguistic standpoint, it is often said that the various spoken varieties of Arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as the Romance languages . This is an apt comparison in a number of ways. The period of divergence from a single spoken form is similar—perhaps 1500 years for Arabic, 2000 years for
2499-507: A type of Arabic. Cypriot Arabic is recognized as a minority language in Cyprus. The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia , which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. Tawleed is the process of giving a new shade of meaning to an old classical word. For example, al-hatif lexicographically means
2646-507: A variety of regional vernacular Arabic dialects , which are not necessarily mutually intelligible. Classical Arabic is the language found in the Quran , used from the period of Pre-Islamic Arabia to that of the Abbasid Caliphate . Classical Arabic is prescriptive, according to the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as Sibawayh ) and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as
2793-476: A wider audience." In the wake of the industrial revolution and European hegemony and colonialism , pioneering Arabic presses, such as the Amiri Press established by Muhammad Ali (1819), dramatically changed the diffusion and consumption of Arabic literature and publications. Rifa'a al-Tahtawi proposed the establishment of Madrasat al-Alsun in 1836 and led a translation campaign that highlighted
2940-590: Is a minimum level of comprehension between all Arabic dialects, this level can increase or decrease based on geographic proximity: for example, Levantine and Gulf speakers understand each other much better than they do speakers from the Maghreb. The issue of diglossia between spoken and written language is a complicating factor: A single written form, differing sharply from any of the spoken varieties learned natively, unites several sometimes divergent spoken forms. For political reasons, Arabs mostly assert that they all speak
3087-559: Is a sister language rather than their direct ancestor. Arabia had a wide variety of Semitic languages in antiquity. The term "Arab" was initially used to describe those living in the Arabian Peninsula , as perceived by geographers from ancient Greece . In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside the Ancient South Arabian family (e.g. Southern Thamudic) were spoken. It
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#17327732775513234-478: Is believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages (non-Central Semitic languages) were spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hejaz , Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages. In Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested. In eastern Arabia, inscriptions in
3381-471: Is clear, that Adi played an integral role in preventing much of the rebellious clans of Tayy from actually fighting the Muslims and preventing the Muslims from attacking the Tayy. When he heard news of Abu Bakr's dispatch of a Muslim army against the Tayy in Syria, he sought to stop their march by smuggling the contested 300 camels to Abu Bakr, making the Tayy the first tribe to pay the sadaqa , an action that
3528-479: Is correct, with some Tayy leaders, foremost among them Adi ibn Hatim, fighting on the Muslim side and others joining the rebels. However, Tayyid rebels did not engage in direct conflict with the Muslims. Muhammad had appointed Adi to collect sadaqa (tribute) from the Tayy and Banu Asad. After Muhammad's death and the resulting chaos among the Muslims and the belief that Islam would imminently collapse, those among
3675-408: Is credited with establishing the rules of Arabic prosody . Al-Jahiz (776–868) proposed to Al-Akhfash al-Akbar an overhaul of the grammar of Arabic, but it would not come to pass for two centuries. The standardization of Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ʿarabiyya "Arabic", Sībawayhi's al - Kitāb , is based first of all upon
3822-472: Is credited with standardizing Arabic grammar , or an-naḥw ( النَّحو "the way" ), and pioneering a system of diacritics to differentiate consonants ( نقط الإعجام nuqaṭu‿l-i'jām "pointing for non-Arabs") and indicate vocalization ( التشكيل at-tashkīl ). Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (718–786) compiled the first Arabic dictionary, Kitāb al-'Ayn ( كتاب العين "The Book of the Letter ع "), and
3969-478: Is derived from Classical Arabic . This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as al-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā ( اَلعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْفُصْحَىٰ "the eloquent Arabic") or simply al-fuṣḥā ( اَلْفُصْحَىٰ ). Arabic is the third most widespread official language after English and French, one of six official languages of
4116-574: Is not present in the spoken varieties, but deletes Classical words that sound obsolete in MSA. In addition, MSA has borrowed or coined many terms for concepts that did not exist in Quranic times, and MSA continues to evolve. Some words have been borrowed from other languages—notice that transliteration mainly indicates spelling and not real pronunciation (e.g., فِلْم film 'film' or ديمقراطية dīmuqrāṭiyyah 'democracy'). The current preference
4263-906: Is official in Mali and recognized as a minority language in Morocco, while the Senegalese government adopted the Latin script to write it. Maltese is official in (predominantly Catholic ) Malta and written with the Latin script . Linguists agree that it is a variety of spoken Arabic, descended from Siculo-Arabic , though it has experienced extensive changes as a result of sustained and intensive contact with Italo-Romance varieties, and more recently also with English. Due to "a mix of social, cultural, historical, political, and indeed linguistic factors", many Maltese people today consider their language Semitic but not
4410-777: Is seen in European languages (mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese , Catalan , and Sicilian ) owing to the proximity of Europe and the long-lasting Arabic cultural and linguistic presence, mainly in Southern Iberia, during the Al-Andalus era. Maltese is a Semitic language developed from a dialect of Arabic and written in the Latin alphabet . The Balkan languages, including Albanian, Greek , Serbo-Croatian, and Bulgarian , have also acquired many words of Arabic origin, mainly through direct contact with Ottoman Turkish . Arabic has influenced languages across
4557-590: Is the variety used in most current, printed Arabic publications, spoken by some of the Arabic media across North Africa and the Middle East, and understood by most educated Arabic speakers. "Literary Arabic" and "Standard Arabic" ( فُصْحَى fuṣḥá ) are less strictly defined terms that may refer to Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic. Some of the differences between Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are as follows: MSA uses much Classical vocabulary (e.g., dhahaba 'to go') that
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4704-413: Is to avoid direct borrowings, preferring to either use loan translations (e.g., فرع farʻ 'branch', also used for the branch of a company or organization; جناح janāḥ 'wing', is also used for the wing of an airplane, building, air force, etc.), or to coin new words using forms within existing roots ( استماتة istimātah ' apoptosis ', using the root موت m/w/t 'death' put into
4851-524: Is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the industrial and post-industrial era , especially in modern times. Due to its grounding in Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech, which is construed as a multitude of dialects of this language. These dialects and Modern Standard Arabic are described by some scholars as not mutually comprehensible. The former are usually acquired in families, while
4998-445: The Lisān al-ʻArab ). Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary
5145-628: The Battle of Chains in October 629. In 630, Muhammad dispatched his cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib on an expedition to destroy the Tayy's principal idol, al-Fils, in Jabal Aja. As a result of the expedition, the Tayy's Kufa-based Christian chieftain, Adi ibn Hatim , who belonged to the Banu Thu'ayl branch of Al al-Ghawth, fled to Syria with some of his tribesmen to join other Tayyid clans, but his sister
5292-679: The Byzantines ' chief Arab foederati in the early to mid-5th century, the Salihids . The Tayy are mentioned in the late 5th century as having raided numerous villages in the plains and mountains of the Syrian Desert, including parts of Byzantine territory. This prompted the Byzantine army to mobilize its Arab clients at the desert frontiers with Sassanid-held Mesopotamia to confront the Tayy. The Byzantines demanded restitution from
5439-800: The Euphrates Valley and southward along the valley through Basra and ultimately to the al-Washm region of central Najd; the Al Mira of Banu Rabi'ah controlled the Golan Heights and the area southward to the al-Harrah field north of Mecca ; the Al Ali branch of the Al Fadl controlled the Ghouta region around Damascus and southeastward to Tayma and al-Jawf in northern Najd; the Shammar and Banu Lam controlled Jabal Aja and Jabal Salma;
5586-709: The Ghassanids , and the Ghawth branch remaining in Jabal Tayy. A chieftain and poet of the Al Ghawth, Hatim al-Ta'i , is widely known among Arabs until today. Adi ibn Hatim and another Tayy chieftain, Zayd al-Khayr , converted to Islam together with much of their tribe in 629–630, and became companions of the Prophet . The Tayy participated in several Muslim military campaigns after Muhammad's death, including in
5733-550: The Great Zab River and first entering and killing many inhabitants of the Yezidi village, Kallak-a Dasinyya, which was situated near Erbil and was the border between Daseni and Soran Emirate until the 19th century. These forces proceeded to march and capture other Yezidi villages. After arriving in Sheikhan , Muhammad Pasha's forces seized the village of Khatara and marched onwards to Alqosh , where they were confronted by
5880-614: The Lakhmids of Mesopotamia. Towards the end of the 6th century, a Tayyid chief named Hassan assisted the Sassanid king Khosrow II when the latter fled from his usurper, Bahram Chobin , by giving Khosrow a horse. A few years later, the Lakhmid governor of al-Hirah , al-Nu'man III fell out with Khosrow II, who had been restored to the Sassanid throne, and sought safety with the Tayy. The tribe refused to grant refuge to al-Nu'man, who
6027-617: The Nile Delta . The Banu Jarm , who inhabited the area stretching from Gaza to the northern coastline of Palestine, were also a Tayyid tribe according to some sources, while others consider them to be from the Quda'a tribe. During Mamluk rule, the Bedouin of Syria were used as auxiliaries in the Mamluks' wars with the Mongols based in Iraq and Anatolia. In central and northern Syria,
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6174-522: The Rabban Hormizd monastery was plundered and its monks, together with the Abbot, Gabriel Dambo, were put to death. A large amount of the ancient manuscripts were destroyed or lost. The monastery of Sheikh Matta suffered the same fate. Sheikh Adi II seized Christian monetary of Mar-yuhanan and isho' sabran in 1219 and massacred all the monks in it. The Mir of Daseni had allegedly declared "that if
6321-681: The Ridda Wars and the Muslim conquest of Persia . Al-Jadila in northern Syria remained Christian until the Muslim conquest of the Levant in 638. The Tayy were split during the First Fitna , with those based in Arabia and Iraq supporting Ali as caliph and those in Syria supporting Mu'awiya . The latter and his Umayyad kinsmen ultimately triumphed and members of the Tayy participated in
6468-605: The Tulunid ruler Khumarawayh (884–896) in 885. For the remainder of Khumarawayh's reign, the Tayy remained suppressed, possibly due to the help of older-established Arab tribes like the Judham and Lakhm . However, law and order once again broke down during the reigns of Khumarawayh's successors Jaysh and Harun between 896 and 904. This coincided with the rising strength of the anarchist Qarmatian movement in eastern Arabia and southern Iraq. The Tayy associated themselves with
6615-568: The Xth form , or جامعة jāmiʻah 'university', based on جمع jamaʻa 'to gather, unite'; جمهورية jumhūriyyah 'republic', based on جمهور jumhūr 'multitude'). An earlier tendency was to redefine an older word although this has fallen into disuse (e.g., هاتف hātif 'telephone' < 'invisible caller (in Sufism)'; جريدة jarīdah 'newspaper' < 'palm-leaf stalk'). Colloquial or dialectal Arabic refers to
6762-494: The northern Hejaz . These features are evidence of common descent from a hypothetical ancestor , Proto-Arabic . The following features of Proto-Arabic can be reconstructed with confidence: On the other hand, several Arabic varieties are closer to other Semitic languages and maintain features not found in Classical Arabic, indicating that these varieties cannot have developed from Classical Arabic. Thus, Arabic vernaculars do not descend from Classical Arabic: Classical Arabic
6909-419: The "learned" tradition (Classical Arabic). This variety and both its classicizing and "lay" iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past, but they are thought to continue an Old Higazi register. It is clear that the orthography of the Quran was not developed for the standardized form of Classical Arabic; rather, it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of Old Higazi. In
7056-815: The "purest," most eloquent form of Arabic—initiating a process of jamʿu‿l-luɣah ( جمع اللغة 'compiling the language') which took place over the 8th and early 9th centuries. Kitāb al-'Ayn ( c. 8th century ), attributed to Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi , is considered the first lexicon to include all Arabic roots ; it sought to exhaust all possible root permutations —later called taqālīb ( تقاليب ) — calling those that are actually used mustaʿmal ( مستعمَل ) and those that are not used muhmal ( مُهمَل ). Lisān al-ʿArab (1290) by Ibn Manzur gives 9,273 roots, while Tāj al-ʿArūs (1774) by Murtada az-Zabidi gives 11,978 roots. Tayy The Tayy ( Arabic : طيء / ALA-LC : Ṭayyi’ ), (Musnad : 𐩷𐩺), also known as Ṭayyi , Tayyaye , or Taiyaye , are
7203-731: The (purity of) lineage of their families and groups". Thus the lineage of the Tayy's many subbranches was difficult for genealogists to accurately ascertain. The Banu Tayy were originally based in Yemen , but migrated to northern Arabia in the late 2nd century CE, in the years following the dispersion of the Banu Azd from Yemen. They largely lived among the north Arabian mountain ranges of Aja and Salma with Khaybar north of Medina as their most important oasis, and from there they would make incursions into Syria and Iraq during times of drought. Their concentration in Jabal Aja and Jabal Salma lent
7350-454: The 11th and 12th centuries in al-Andalus , the zajal and muwashah poetry forms developed in the dialectical Arabic of Cordoba and the Maghreb. The Nahda was a cultural and especially literary renaissance of the 19th century in which writers sought "to fuse Arabic and European forms of expression." According to James L. Gelvin , " Nahda writers attempted to simplify the Arabic language and script so that it might be accessible to
7497-462: The 4th to the 6th centuries, the Nabataean script evolved into the Arabic script recognizable from the early Islamic era. There are inscriptions in an undotted, 17-letter Arabic script dating to the 6th century CE, found at four locations in Syria ( Zabad , Jebel Usays , Harran , Umm el-Jimal ). The oldest surviving papyrus in Arabic dates to 643 CE, and it uses dots to produce the modern 28-letter Arabic alphabet. The language of that papyrus and of
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#17327732775517644-414: The 6th century, the Tayy and the Asad formed a confederation, which was later joined by the Banu Ghatafan as well. The alliance collapsed when Asad and Ghatafan assaulted both the Al al-Ghawth and Al Jadilah and drove them out of their territories in Jabal Tayy. However, one of the leaders of the Asad, Dhu al-Khimarayn Awf al-Jadhami defected from the Ghatafan soon after and reestablished the alliance with
7791-603: The 8th century, knowledge of Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world, both for Muslims and non-Muslims. For example, Maimonides , the Andalusi Jewish philosopher, authored works in Judeo-Arabic —Arabic written in Hebrew script . Ibn Jinni of Mosul , a pioneer in phonology , wrote prolifically in the 10th century on Arabic morphology and phonology in works such as Kitāb Al-Munṣif , Kitāb Al-Muḥtasab , and Kitāb Al-Khaṣāʾiṣ [ ar ] . Ibn Mada' of Cordoba (1116–1196) realized
7938-492: The Alghushiyya branch of Mizuris raided the Yezidi village of Ghabara in western Sheikhan , killed nearly a hundred people and occupied Lalish for eight months. Furthermore, during this period, conflict erupted between the tribe of Mizuri and the principality of Bahdinan, which resulted in a clash in 1804. The Mizuris stormed into the city of Amadiya and captured the family of the Bahdinan prince, Qubad Pasha, and imprisoned him together with his brother, after which they plundered
8085-405: The Ali loyalist, a member of the Banu Bakr, responsible for Habis's death. Zayd's act was sharply condemned by Adi who threatened to hand him over to Ali, prompting Zayd to defect to the Umayyads. Afterward, Adi smoothed over the consequent tension with Ali's camp by reaffirming his loyalty. The Umayyads ultimately triumphed and established a caliphate that had reached the Indian Subcontinent by
8232-401: The Bahdinan emirate and Yazidi lands. In 1815, for the sake of power, he executed his two uncles, Timur Khan and Wahbi Beg, along with their sons, to rid himself of contenders for the rulership. Knowing this, Mulla Yahya persuaded him into sending a punitive force to punish the Yezidis. Accounts regarding the manner in which he persuaded Muhammad Pasha vary from him visiting and seeking the aid of
8379-522: The Banu Assad and Banu Ghatafan . Following Muhammad's death in 632, several Arab tribes rebelled against his Rashidun successor, Caliph Abu Bakr , switching their allegiance to Tulayha of the Banu Asad. The Tayy's allegiance during the ensuing Ridda Wars is a "widely disputed matter", according to historian Ella Landau-Tasseron. Some Muslim traditions claim all of the Tayy remained committed to Islam, while Sayf ibn Umar 's tradition holds they all defected. Landau-Tasseron asserts that neither extreme
8526-402: The Banu Bakr at the Battle of Dhi Qar in 609, in which the Sassanids were defeated. According to historian Irfan Shahid , evidence suggests clans of the Tayy moved into Byzantine-held Syria beginning in the 6th century. By then, the Ghassanids had largely supplanted the Salihids as the Byzantines' main foederati, and the Salihids began living alongside the Tayy in the region of Kufa . In
8673-439: The Bedouin came under the authority of the Al Fadl emirs in their capacity as the hereditary officeholders of the amir al-ʿarab (commander of the Bedouin) post, beginning with Emir Isa ibn Muhanna (r. 1260–1284). The Al Mira emirs held a similar, but lower-ranking office, in southern Syria, and its preeminent emir was known as malik al-ʿarab (king of the Bedouin). In al-Sharqiyah, the Tha'laba, whose encampments were close to
8820-431: The Byzantines under Hassan and his son Allaf, protecting Edessa from Numayrid and Marwanid advances in 1036. In 1041, the Jarrahids regained control of Palestine, but the Fatimids continued to go to war against them. The Jarrahids continued to disrupt Fatimid rule until the Fatimids were driven out of Syria and Palestine in 1071. With the end of the Fatimid era in Syria and Palestine, descendants of Mufarrij entered
8967-402: The Christians would put the sign of the cross on their foreheads, they would raise it over their heads." in 1222, the Daseni Emir sacked and destroyed the Christian village of bashbitah. Making the surviving Christian population flee to bartelah . According to Evliya Chalabi , any Muslim who cursed Satan , Yazid or black Dog risked instant execution. The same penalty was imposed for striking
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#17327732775519114-491: The Daseni tribe were a branch of Bokhti Kurdish tribe. The Daseni territory included the northern and eastern Foothills of Mosul. It included Sheikhan , lalish , Dohuk-e Dasinya , Kalak-e Dasinya , Simel and Sinjar. In 16th century, The Daseni territory stretched to erbil and Kirkuk in southeast. There was also present of Daseni tribe in Homs Governorate , Syria . They were called Akrad Al-Daseniya "Daseni Kurds", who still spoke Kurdish for generations. In 906,
9261-427: The Dasini rulers several times, their initial attempts were unsuccessful and were repelled, until the neighbouring Kurdish Ardalan dynasty formed an alliance against Hussein Beg, and captured Erbil while Hussein Beg was absent and on a visit to Sheikhan, or Istanbul according to other sources. Hussein Beg's attempts to retake the city were unsuccessful due to the local support enjoyed by the Muslim rulers and resulted in
9408-514: The Dasinis rebelled against the Hamdanid rule. Dasini are mentioned by yaqut al-hamawi as residing in "Jabal Dâsin". in 14th century, it was recorded by al-'Umari that Akre was resided by Dasinis. in 15th century, The Daseni were Attacked by Bahdinan Emirate . Under the reign of Sultan Suleyman in 1534, the Daseni Mir , Hussein Begi Daseni was given the control over the domain of the Soran Emirate that included Erbil and Kirkuk . Hussein Beg's father, Hassan Beg , had allied himself with
9555-432: The Fatimids as the governor of Ramla , the traditional Muslim capital of Palestine. Mufarrij was also the preeminent chieftain of the Banu Tayy tribe as a whole, giving him authority over his Bedouin and peasant kinsmen in an area extending from the coast of Palestine eastward through Balqa and to the Tayy's traditional homeland in northern Arabia. While his Fatimid assignment gave him prestige, Mufarrij's tribal authority
9702-420: The Ghuzayya held territories within parts of Syria, the Hejaz and Iraq that were controlled by the Banu Rabi'ah. In Lower Egypt , the Sunbis branch of the Tayy lived in the Buhayrah district, while the Tha'laba branch inhabited the area stretching from Egypt's Mediterranean coast northeastward to al-Kharruba in the western Galilee . The Tha'laba were particularly influential in the al-Sharqiyah district in
9849-434: The Governor of Baghdad, Ali Pasha, who forced many families into converting to Islam. Another expedition in 1809 was led by the new Governor of Baghdad, Sulayman Pasha, who burnt down Yezidi farms and beheaded Yezidi chieftains. The 18th-19th centuries saw a further decline of the Yazidi influence, power and population. With the ending of the semi-autonomous Kurdish principalities and the series of Ottoman Tanzimat reforms from
9996-442: The Kalb defected to the Fatimids, who decisively defeated the Tayy and Kilab near Lake Tiberias in 1029, prompting Hassan and his tribesmen to flee northward. The Tayy established an alliance with the Byzantines and upon the latter's invitation, the 20,000-strong Tayy of Syria relocated their encampments from the vicinity of Palmyra to the al-Ruj plain, near Byzantine-held Antioch , in 1031. The Tayy continued to fight alongside
10143-431: The Khurasani sultan, Mahmud of Ghazni . During this period, in 1025, the Tayy made an agreement with the Kilab and the Kalb, whereby Hassan ibn Mufarrij of Tayy ruled Palestine, Sinan ibn Sulayman of the Kalb ruled Damascus and Salih ibn Mirdas of the Kilab ruled Aleppo. Together, they defeated a Fatimid punitive expedition sent by Caliph az-Zahir at Ascalon , and Hassan conquered al-Ramla. The alliance fell apart when
10290-458: The Mamluk seat of government, were tasked with maintaining and protecting the barid (postal route) in their district and were occasionally appointed to government posts. The Tayy in Syria and Egypt were both required to supply Arabian horses to the Mamluks for use in the army and barid . Sultan an-Nasir Muhammad had a special affinity for the Bedouin and maintained strong relations with the tribes of Syria and Egypt. However, following his death,
10437-412: The Middle East and North Africa have become a badge of sophistication and modernity and ... feigning, or asserting, weakness or lack of facility in Arabic is sometimes paraded as a sign of status, class, and perversely, even education through a mélange of code-switching practises." Arabic has been taught worldwide in many elementary and secondary schools, especially Muslim schools. Universities around
10584-574: The Mizuri chieftain's assassination, announced his opposition to the raid. Thereby, Mulla Yahya al-Mizuri, a cousin or nephew to the Mizuri chieftain and a respected religious dignitary, unsuccessfully attempted to plead for rectification from the Bahdinan princes Ahmed Pasha and his brother, Said Pasha, who declined to sanction punitive action against Yezidis and blamed Ali Agha for naively accepting Ali Beg's offer and venturing into his enemy's own country without adequate escort, furthermore, they also killed
10731-508: The Muslim army, per their request, which was a testament to their influence since only the Ansar (core of the Muslim force) had their own banner. At the Battle of Buzakha against Tulayha, Adi and Muknif ibn Zayd, who unlike Zayd's other son Muhalhil had fought alongside the Muslims from the start, commanded the right and left wings of the Muslim army. The "Tayyaye d-Mhmt" were reported by Thomas
10878-676: The Muslim army, preventing an imminent Muslim rout. Among those who defected were the poet Abu Zubayd at-Ta'i. Urwah later fought at the Battle of al-Qadisiyah and died fighting the Daylamites . The Al Jadila tribesmen based in Qinnasrin did not join their Arabian counterparts and fought alongside the Byzantines during the Muslim conquest of Syria . The Muslim general Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah encountered them in their hadir in 638, after which many agreed to convert to Islam, though
11025-570: The Muslim side. However, the Al Jadila remained in revolt and the Muslim commander Khalid ibn al-Walid was set to move against them. He was stopped by the intercession of Adi, who was able secure the Al Jadila's allegiance through diplomacy. The consensus in all Muslim traditions is that the Tayy of Arabia was firmly on the Muslims' side by the time of the Battle of Buzakha in September 632. The Tayy supposedly were given their own banner in
11172-579: The Muslims. Thus, Adi and the Muslim Tayyids devised a strategy to lure the Tayy in Tulayha's camp to return to Jabal Tayy by issuing a false claim that the Muslims were attacking them. When the apostate Tayyids reached their tribesmen in Jabal Tayy, far from Tulayha's reach, they discovered the false alarm and were persuaded to rejoin Islam. With this, the entirety of the Al al-Ghawth had returned to
11319-566: The Presbyter as fighting with Romans 12 miles east of Gaza in 634. During the Battle of the Bridge against the Sassanids in 634, another of Zayd's sons, Urwah, participated and was said by al-Baladhuri to have "fought so fiercely that his action was estimated to be equivalent to be that of a whole group of men". During the battle, Christian Tayy tribesmen on the Sassanid side defected to
11466-511: The Qarmatians to establish their dominance of southern Syria; with likely Qarmatian encouragement, the Tayy launched a revolt between Syria and the Hejaz in 898, during which they plundered caravans and disrupted lines of communication. When the Qarmatians attacked Ikhshidid -controlled Palestine in 968, the leading Tayyid clan of Jarrah came with them and firmly established themselves in
11613-690: The Qur'an is referred to by linguists as "Quranic Arabic", as distinct from its codification soon thereafter into " Classical Arabic ". In late pre-Islamic times, a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of Arabic emerged in the Hejaz , which continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the Hijra , most strongly in Judeo-Christian texts, keeping alive ancient features eliminated from
11760-576: The Romance languages. Also, while it is comprehensible to people from the Maghreb , a linguistically innovative variety such as Moroccan Arabic is essentially incomprehensible to Arabs from the Mashriq , much as French is incomprehensible to Spanish or Italian speakers but relatively easily learned by them. This suggests that the spoken varieties may linguistically be considered separate languages. With
11907-580: The Tayy (direct descendants of Mufarrij) and the Mazyadid branch of the Banu Assad were the last influential Arab tribes in Syria and Iraq, with the rest having "disappeared from the political map", according to historian Mustafa A. Hiyari. The tribal distribution in the Syrian and north Arabian deserts had significantly changed by the late 12th century as a result of the decline of several major tribes,
12054-558: The Tayy in northern Arabia, while the offspring of Hani (Banu Hani) became a major sub-branch in southern Mesopotamia. According to traditional Arab genealogists, the Banu Thu'al were the ancestors of the Banu Rabi'ah of Syria, and in turn of the Al Fadl emirs. The Al Jadilah's namesake was a woman of the Tayy named Jadilah, whose sons Hur and Jundub became the progenitors of Banu Hur and Banu Jundub, respectively. The latter produced
12201-642: The Tayy were left dominant in the southern Syrian Desert and Jabal Tayy. Under the Jarrahids , they established themselves in Palestine under Fatimid rule. As the virtually independent rulers of the area between Ramla and Jabal Tayy, they controlled the key routes between Egypt, Syria, Arabia and Iraq. They vacillated between the Fatimids and the Byzantines and then between the Seljuks and Crusaders until
12348-401: The Tayy who had paid their sadaqa (in this case, 300 camels) to Adi demanded the return of their camels or they would rebel. Adi either advised them to abandon this demand because Islam would survive Muhammad's death and they would be viewed as traitors or threatened to fight against them if they revolted. After this encounter, the accounts of contemporary and early Muslim historians vary. It
12495-423: The Tayy, but the Sassanid general Qardag Nakoragan instead opened negotiations that called for the Byzantines' Arab clients to restore livestock and captives taken from Sassanid territory in previous years in return for compensation from the Tayy. The negotiations succeeded, and moreover, the Sassanids and Byzantines delineated their borders to prevent future raiding between their respective Arab clients. However, to
12642-469: The Tayy. Together, they campaigned against Ghatafan and restored their territories in Jabal Tayy. The Tayy's initial reaction to the emergence of Islam in Arabia was varied, with some embracing the new faith and others resistant. The Tayyid clans of Jabal Tayy, all of whom lived within close proximity of each other, had maintained close relationships with the inhabitants and tribes of Mecca and Medina ,
12789-551: The Umayyad conquest of Sindh in the early eighth century. Nonetheless, a branch of the Tayy under Qahtaba ibn Shabib al-Ta'i were among the leaders of the Abbasid Revolution which toppled the Umayyads in the mid-eighth century. The Tayy fared well under the Abbasid Caliphate , producing military officials and renowned poets such as Buhturi and Abu Tammam . By the mid-9th century, Abbasid authority had eroded and
12936-567: The United Nations , and the liturgical language of Islam . Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities around the world and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, governments and the media. During the Middle Ages , Arabic was a major vehicle of culture and learning, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As a result, many European languages have borrowed words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary,
13083-411: The capital, the prisoners were asked to convert to Islam, many of them, including Ali Beg and his entourage, rejected the request and thus were taken and executed at Gali Ali Beg , which is until today named after Ali Beg. Christian communities lying in the path of Muhammad Kor's army were also victim to the massacres, the town of Alqosh was sacked, large number of its inhabitants were put to the sword and
13230-576: The city and remained in there until at the request of Ahmed Pasha, another Bahdinan prince who ruled Akre , the Yazidis of the Dina tribe came to the aid and the Mizuris were expelled from Amadiya, restoring order in the city. Ahmed Pasha sought to put an end to inter-tribal feuds and reconcile his neighbours. Thus, the Yezidi leader Ali Beg, sent a word the Mizuri chieftain Ali Agha al-Balatayi, expressing
13377-574: The conversion of Semitic mimation to nunation in the singular. It is best reassessed as a separate language on the Central Semitic dialect continuum. It was also thought that Old Arabic coexisted alongside—and then gradually displaced— epigraphic Ancient North Arabian (ANA), which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries. ANA, despite its name, was considered a very distinct language, and mutually unintelligible, from "Arabic". Scholars named its variant dialects after
13524-624: The country. However, under the Jarrahid chieftains, the Tayy assisted the Fatimids , who conquered the Ikhshidids, against the Qarmatians in 971 and 977. During the latter occasion, the Jarrahid chieftain Mufarrij ibn Daghfal captured the pro-Qarmatian rebel, Alptakin , and handed him over to the Fatimids in exchange for a large reward. In return for his support, Mufarrij was appointed by
13671-600: The death of 500 Yezidi warriors. After the defeat, Hussein Beg was summoned back to Istanbul and executed. Throughout the 18th century, Daseni Emirate were subjects to the Kurdish Muslim Emirate Bahdinan , a semi-autonomous fiefdom which guarded the Ottoman frontiers in the east. Yezidi mirs of Sheikhan were also involved in several rebellions against Amadiya principality; in 1770-1771, Bedagh Beg, who
13818-482: The desire for peace and friendship and offering him to act as a kirîv (sponsor) for the circumcision of his son. However, another prince of Bahdinan, Said Pasha, persuaded Mîr Elî Beg to kill the Mizuri chieftain and rid everyone of him, intending to put another tribal leader in his position. Some sources report that he threatened Mîr Elî Beg that he would kill his entire family if he refused to do this. Ali Agha al-Balatayi responded favourably to Mîr Elî Beg's invitation and
13965-465: The district. The Yezidis who survived the massacres took refuge in distant areas including but not limited to Tur Abdin , Mount Judi and the less-affected Shingal region. After controlling most of the Yezidi territory, the Pasha's forces enslaved and took home around 10,000 Yezidi captives, mostly females and children together with Ali Beg, to Rawanduz , the capital of the Emirate. Upon the arriving in
14112-560: The early 8th century. A Tayyid commander named al-Qasim ibn Tha'laba ibn Abdullah ibn Hasn played an instrumental role in the Umayyad conquest of Sindh in 712 by killing the country's Hindu king Raja Dahir in battle. The Abbasids contested leadership of the caliphate and overtook the Umayyads in what became known as the Abbasid Revolution in the mid-8th century. The leader of the Abbasid movement in Khurasan in northeastern Persia
14259-467: The elderly and young, rape and slavery were some of the tactics. Yezidi property, including gold and silver was plundered and looted, and numerous towns and villages previously inhabited by the Yezidis were demographically islamized. Afterwards, Muhammad Pasha sent a large force to Shingal where he was met with the resistance of the Yezidis under the leadership of Ali Beg's wife. After numerous defeats, Muhammad Pasha's forces eventually succeeded in capturing
14406-543: The embarrassment of the Sassanids and the outrage of the Byzantines, four hundred Tayyid tribesmen raided several minor villages in Byzantine territory while representatives of the two sides were meeting in Nisibis . Despite this violation of the bilateral agreement, the Sassanid-Byzantine peace held. Throughout the 6th century, the Tayy continued their relations with the Sassanids and their chief Arab clients,
14553-587: The emergence of Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include: There are several features which Classical Arabic, the modern Arabic varieties, as well as the Safaitic and Hismaic inscriptions share which are unattested in any other Central Semitic language variety, including the Dadanitic and Taymanitic languages of
14700-728: The eve of the conquests: Northern and Central (Al-Jallad 2009). The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests. Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines, the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features, which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories. According to Veersteegh and Bickerton, colloquial Arabic dialects arose from pidginized Arabic formed from contact between Arabs and conquered peoples. Pidginization and subsequent creolization among Arabs and arabized peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular Arabic compared to Classical and MSA. In around
14847-447: The expansion of others, namely the Tayy, and the gradual assimilation of substantial Bedouin population with the settled inhabitants. The Tayy were left as the predominant tribe of the entire Syrian steppe , Upper Mesopotamia, Najd and the northern Hejaz . The Tayy divisions and their respective territories at the time were as follows: The Al Fadl of Banu Rabi'ah controlled the regions of Homs and Hama eastward to Qal'at Ja'bar at
14994-607: The fact that they participate in the innovations common to all forms of Arabic. The earliest attestation of continuous Arabic text in an ancestor of the modern Arabic script are three lines of poetry by a man named Garm(')allāhe found in En Avdat, Israel , and dated to around 125 CE. This is followed by the Namara inscription , an epitaph of the Lakhmid king Imru' al-Qays bar 'Amro, dating to 328 CE, found at Namaraa, Syria. From
15141-617: The first years of Muhammad's mission, individual members of certain Tayyid clans converted to Islam. Among these early converts were Suwayd ibn Makhshi who fought against the pagan Arabs of Mecca, including two of his kinsmen, in the Battle of Badr in 624 CE; Walid ibn Zuhayr who served as a guide for the Muslims in their expedition against the Banu Asad in Qatan in 625; and Rafi' ibn Abi Rafi' who fought under Muslim commander Amr ibn al-As in
15288-459: The former were driven out of Palestine. They sacked a Hajj pilgrim caravan later in 982, then annihilated a Fatimid army at Ayla , before being defeated and forced to flee north toward Homs . Between then and Mufarrij's death in 1013, the Tayy switched allegiance between the various regional powers, including the Fatimids, Byzantines, and the Hamdanids ' Turkish governor of Homs, Bakjur . By
15435-510: The fourth most useful language for business, after English, Mandarin Chinese , and French. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet , an abjad script that is written from right to left . Arabic is usually classified as a Central Semitic language . Linguists still differ as to the best classification of Semitic language sub-groups. The Semitic languages changed between Proto-Semitic and
15582-742: The globe throughout its history, especially languages where Islam is the predominant religion and in countries that were conquered by Muslims. The most markedly influenced languages are Persian , Turkish , Hindustani ( Hindi and Urdu ), Kashmiri , Kurdish , Bosnian , Kazakh , Bengali , Malay ( Indonesian and Malaysian ), Maldivian , Pashto , Punjabi , Albanian , Armenian , Azerbaijani , Sicilian, Spanish, Greek, Bulgarian, Tagalog , Sindhi , Odia , Hebrew and African languages such as Hausa , Amharic , Tigrinya , Somali , Tamazight , and Swahili . Conversely, Arabic has borrowed some words (mostly nouns) from other languages, including its sister-language Aramaic, Persian, Greek, and Latin and to
15729-597: The inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts. In 1997, a bureau of Arabization standardization was added to the Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization of the Arab League . These academies and organizations have worked toward the Arabization of the sciences, creating terms in Arabic to describe new concepts, toward
15876-613: The language. Software and books with tapes are an important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or Arabic language school classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations. A number of websites on the Internet provide online classes for all levels as a means of distance education; most teach Modern Standard Arabic, but some teach regional varieties from numerous countries. The tradition of Arabic lexicography extended for about
16023-517: The late 12th and early 13th centuries, when the Tayy's various subbranches, chief among them the Al Fadl , were left as the last politically influential Arab tribe in the region extending from Najd northward to Upper Mesopotamia . The Tayy's progenitor , according to early Arab genealogists, was Julhumah ibn Udad, who was known as "Tayy" or "Tayyi". The theory in some Arab tradition, as cited by 9th-century Muslim historian al-Tabari , holds that Julhumah's laqab (surname) of Ṭayyiʾ derived from
16170-604: The late 6th century AD, a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic koine" distinct from the spoken vernaculars developed based on the Bedouin dialects of Najd , probably in connection with the court of al-Ḥīra . During the first Islamic century, the majority of Arabic poets and Arabic-writing persons spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. Their texts, although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts, contain traces of non-standardized Classical Arabic elements in morphology and syntax. Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali ( c. 603 –689)
16317-542: The late 6th century, the Al al-Ghawth and Al Jadila fought against each other in the 25-year-long Fasad War ( harb al-Fasad ) in northern Arabia. Numerous atrocities were committed by both factions and the war resulted in the migration of several Jadila clans from the north Arabian plains to Syria, while the Al Al-Ghawth remained in Jabal Aja and Jabal Salma. The Jadila tribesmen founded a hadir (military encampment) near Qinnasrin (Chalcis) called "Hadir Tayyi" after
16464-420: The latter is taught in formal education settings. However, there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension of stories told in the standard variety among preschool-aged children. The relation between Modern Standard Arabic and these dialects is sometimes compared to that of Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin vernaculars (which became Romance languages ) in medieval and early modern Europe. MSA
16611-883: The many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language. Colloquial Arabic has many regional variants; geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be mutually unintelligible , and some linguists consider them distinct languages. However, research indicates a high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related Arabic variants for native speakers listening to words, sentences, and texts; and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situations. The varieties are typically unwritten. They are often used in informal spoken media, such as soap operas and talk shows , as well as occasionally in certain forms of written media such as poetry and printed advertising. Hassaniya Arabic , Maltese , and Cypriot Arabic are only varieties of modern Arabic to have acquired official recognition. Hassaniya
16758-546: The mid-19th century onward made the Yezidi-populated regions more prone to localized political instabilities. By the early 19th century, Yezidis were involved in a long feud with the neighbouring Sunni Kurdish tribe of Mizuri who with one of their clerics had issued in a fatwa in 1724 that Yezidis were infidels and apostates and that killing them was a religious duty. Yezidi women and the Yezidi property were to be considered spoils of war. In another encounter in 1802,
16905-487: The mountain ranges their ancient, collective name "Jabal Tayy". Prior to the Tayy migration, the mountains had been the home of the Banu Assad , who lost some territory with the arrival of Tayyid tribesmen. However, the two tribes ultimately became allies in later centuries and intermarried. In ancient times, the two main branches of the Tayy were the Al al-Ghawth and Al Jadila. The tribesmen lived in different parts of
17052-782: The need for a lexical injection in Arabic, to suit concepts of the industrial and post-industrial age (such as sayyārah سَيَّارَة 'automobile' or bākhirah باخِرة 'steamship'). In response, a number of Arabic academies modeled after the Académie française were established with the aim of developing standardized additions to the Arabic lexicon to suit these transformations, first in Damascus (1919), then in Cairo (1932), Baghdad (1948), Rabat (1960), Amman (1977), Khartum [ ar ] (1993), and Tunis (1993). They review language development, monitor new words and approve
17199-590: The numerous Al al-Tha'alib (Tha'laba) subbranch, which itself produced the Banu La'm , which became a leading sub-branch of Al Jadilah in northern Arabia. The Jarm (or Jurum) may have also been a branch of the Al al-Tha'alib. According to the 14th-century Arab historian and sociologist, Ibn Khaldun , the Tayy were among those Qahtanite tribes who lived in the hills and plains of Syria and Mesopotamia and intermarried with non-Arabs. Ibn Khaldun further stated that Tayyid tribesmen did "not pay any attention to preserving
17346-424: The one whose sound is heard but whose person remains unseen. Now the term al-hatif is used for a telephone. Therefore, the process of tawleed can express the needs of modern civilization in a manner that would appear to be originally Arabic. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their school-taught Standard Arabic as well as their native dialects, which depending on
17493-604: The overhaul of Arabic grammar first proposed by Al-Jahiz 200 years prior. The Maghrebi lexicographer Ibn Manzur compiled Lisān al-ʿArab ( لسان العرب , "Tongue of Arabs"), a major reference dictionary of Arabic, in 1290. Charles Ferguson 's koine theory claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the Islamic conquests; this view has been challenged in recent times. Ahmad al-Jallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on
17640-510: The region had preceded the Muslim conquest and the migration of the Tayy and Kilab, was largely sedentarized , while the Tayy and Kilab, being relative newcomers to the region, were still highly mobile nomadic groups. According to Kamal Salibi , the Tayy's "chief military asset, in fact, was their Bedouin swiftness of movement". Moreover, the durable connections the Tayy of Syria maintained with their north Arabian counterparts in Jabal Tayy made them virtually independent and prone to revolt against
17787-410: The region may be mutually unintelligible. Some of these dialects can be considered to constitute separate languages which may have "sub-dialects" of their own. When educated Arabs of different dialects engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), many speakers code-switch back and forth between the dialectal and standard varieties of the language, sometimes even within
17934-655: The region, with those living among the mountains known as the "al-Jabaliyyun" (the Mountaineers), those on the plain (mostly from Al Jadila) known as "as-Sahiliyyun" (the Plainsmen) and those on the desert sands known as "al-Ramliyyun". The Tayy were so widespread and influential throughout the Syrian Desert that Syriac authors from Mesopotamia used their name, Taienos , Tayenoi , Taiyaya or Tayyaye ( ܛܝܝܐ ), to describe Arab tribesmen in general in much
18081-458: The same sentence. The issue of whether Arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged, in the same way it is for the varieties of Chinese , Hindi and Urdu , Serbian and Croatian , Scots and English, etc. In contrast to speakers of Hindi and Urdu who claim they cannot understand each other even when they can, speakers of the varieties of Arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they cannot. While there
18228-652: The same way " Saracenos " was often used by authors from Byzantine Syria and Egypt as a generic term for Arabs. The Syriac word also entered into the language of the Sasanid Persians as Tâzī ( Middle Persian : tʾcy' )and later Tâzī ( Persian : تازی ), also meaning "Arab". For the Tayy specifically, the Syriac authors would use the word "Tu'aye". The Tayy were subjects of the Sassanid Persians . However, they were also counted as allies by
18375-652: The service of the Muslim states of the region, first with the cadet branches of the Seljuk Empire , beginning with the Burids of Damascus, then their Zengid successors, who came to rule all of Syria and Upper Mesopotamia . At times, the Tayy fought alongside the Crusaders , who had conquered the Syrian coastal regions, including Palestine, in 1098–1100. By the end of the 11th century, the Banu Rabi'ah branch of
18522-591: The setting of Islam's birth. Among their contacts in Mecca were tribesmen from the Quraysh , the tribe of the Islamic prophet and leader, Muhammad . There was a degree of intermarriage between the Tayy and Quraysh. The Tayy also had a level of interaction with the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir , with the father of one of its leading members and enemy of the early Muslims, Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf (died 624), being from Tayy. In
18669-458: The sole example of Medieval linguist Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati – who, while a scholar of the Arabic language, was not ethnically Arab – Medieval scholars of the Arabic language made no efforts at studying comparative linguistics, considering all other languages inferior. In modern times, the educated upper classes in the Arab world have taken a nearly opposite view. Yasir Suleiman wrote in 2011 that "studying and knowing English or French in most of
18816-752: The son of Mulla Yahya. As a result, he turned to the Soran ruler, Muhammad Kor . During that time, Muhammad Kor had become the most powerful and independent ruler in Kurdistan . He had begun minting his own coins and declared independence from the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile the Ottomans were preoccupied with the rebellion of Muhammad Ali Pasha in Egypt, who had declared independence from the Ottoman Empire, Muhammad Pasha had annexed several neighboring Kurdish principalities to his domains and also intended to seize
18963-563: The standardization of these new terms throughout the Arabic-speaking world, and toward the development of Arabic as a world language . This gave rise to what Western scholars call Modern Standard Arabic. From the 1950s, Arabization became a postcolonial nationalist policy in countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Sudan. Arabic usually refers to Standard Arabic, which Western linguists divide into Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic. It could also refer to any of
19110-629: The time of Mufarrij's death, the Jarrahids had restored their dominant position in Palestine. Mufarrij's son, Hassan, maintained relations with the Fatimids under Caliph al-Hakim , but when the latter disappeared, Hassan's relations with his successor deteriorated. In 1021, the Banu Nabhan led by Hamad ibn Uday besieged the Khurasani pilgrim caravan in Fayd near Jabal Tayy despite being paid off by
19257-501: The towns where the inscriptions were discovered (Dadanitic, Taymanitic, Hismaic, Safaitic). However, most arguments for a single ANA language or language family were based on the shape of the definite article, a prefixed h-. It has been argued that the h- is an archaism and not a shared innovation, and thus unsuitable for language classification, rendering the hypothesis of an ANA language family untenable. Safaitic and Hismaic, previously considered ANA, should be considered Old Arabic due to
19404-455: The traditional homeland of the tribe until the present day. They later established relations with the Sasanian and Byzantine empires. Though traditionally allied with the Sasanian client state of the Lakhmids , the Tayy supplanted them as the rulers of al-Hirah in the 610s. In the late sixth century, the Fasad War split the Tayy, with members of its Jadila branch converting to Christianity and migrating to Syria where they became allied with
19551-466: The tribe, but had adopted the tribe as his own. Abbasid authority in Syria and Iraq eroded considerably after the beginning of the " Anarchy at Samarra " in 861, which left the vast expanse of the Syrian and Arabian deserts without governmental oversight. During this period, the Tayy dominated the southern part of the Syrian Desert, the Banu Kilab dominated the northern part and the Banu Kalb dominated central Syria. The latter tribe, whose presence in
19698-615: The tribe. The Ghassanid king al-Harith ibn Jabalah brokered a peace between the Tayy factions, ending the Fasad War. Afterward, the Tayy's relations with the Ghassanids, which had previously been checkered, were much improved. The Al Jadila converted to Christianity, the religion adopted decades earlier by the Ghassanids. Some other clans of the Banu Tayy remained pagan, worshiping the deities of Ruda and al-Fils. Those who converted to Christianity apparently embraced their new faith zealously and produced two well-known priests, named in Syriac sources as Abraham and Daniel. Sometime during
19845-401: The various Muslim states in Syria and Iraq. The Tayy made their abode in Transjordan and the Bilad al-Sharat mountains between Transjordan and the Hejaz. Here they first received attention in 883 when they launched a revolt that spanned southern Syria and the northern Hejaz. The Tayy's revolt prevented the passage of the annual Hajj caravan from Damascus to Mecca until it was quashed by
19992-520: The victorious Ottomans after the Battle of Chaldiran and was famed for his diplomatic and political expertise. His son, Hussein Beg , succeeded him after his death in 1534. Despite the persecution and the brutal rule over the Muslims of Soran, the Yezidis were able to maintain a large political, military power under the short-lived, but prosperous leadership of Hussein Beg and enjoy a rare period of peace and freedom from persecution. The Muslims of Soran opposed Hussein Beg's rule, and attempted to overthrow
20139-455: The wali of Baghdad, who upon hearing the Mullah's grievances sent a letter to Muhammad Pasha and urged him to punish Yezidis for their misdeeds, to the Mullah directly visiting Muhammad Pasha, with whom he was on very friendly terms. Muhammad Kor prepared an army of 40,000 to 50,000 against the Yezidis, he divided his force into two groups, one led by his brother, Rasul, and the other one led by himself. These forces marched in March 1832, crossing
20286-449: The word ṭawā , which in Arabic means "to plaster". He received the name because he was said to have been "the first to have plastered the walls of a well", according to al-Tabari. Julhumah's ancestry was traced to Kahlan ibn Saba ibn Ya'rub , great-grandson of Qahtan , the semi-legendary, common ancestor of the Arab tribes of southern Arabia. Julhumah was a direct descendant of Kahlan via Julhumah's father Zayd ibn Yashjub, who in turn
20433-451: The world have classes that teach Arabic as part of their foreign languages , Middle Eastern studies , and religious studies courses. Arabic language schools exist to assist students to learn Arabic outside the academic world. There are many Arabic language schools in the Arab world and other Muslim countries. Because the Quran is written in Arabic and all Islamic terms are in Arabic, millions of Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) study
20580-483: Was Mir of Sheikhan at the time, joined a rebellion against the Prince of Amadiya, Ismail Pasha. Bedagh Beg eventually got captured and fined, and 16 years later, his son and successor, Jolo Beg, was involved in another rebellion, but had to later retreat. In 1789-1790, Jolo still maintained the title of Mir and was involved in battles against the Tayy Arabs, who were raiding Sheikhan, but in the following year, Jolo and his brother were executed by Ismail Pasha, who appointed
20727-399: Was a direct descendant of 'Arib ibn Zayd ibn Kahlan. The two main branches of Tayy were Al al-Ghawth and Al Jadilah. The former was named after al-Ghawth, a son of Julhumah. The immediate offspring of al-Ghawth's son, 'Amr, were Thu'al, Aswadan (commonly known as Nabhan), Hani, Bawlan and Salaman. The offspring of Thu'al (Banu Thu'al) and Aswadan (Banu Nabhan) became leading sub-branches of
20874-405: Was a member of the Tayy, Qahtaba ibn Shabib . The tribe fared well during Abbasid rule. A prominent akhbari (transmitter of hadith ) in the early 9th century was a Tayyid named al-Haytham ibn Adi (died 822). Two major poets from the Tayy also emerged in the 9th century: Abu Tammam and al-Buhturi . The former, who authored the Hamasah anthology, may not have been an actual member of
21021-545: Was captured. The Tayyid clans that remained in Jabal Tayy, including Banu Ma'n, Banu Aja, Banu Juwayn and Banu Mu'awiya, converted to Islam. Meanwhile, Adi's sister beckoned Muhammad to release her, which he did after learning that her father was Hatim ibn Abdullah. Out of respect for the latter's honorable reputation, Muhammad gave her good clothes and money and had her escorted to her family in Syria. Impressed by Muhammad's treatment of his sister, Adi met Muhammad and converted to Islam, along with most of his kinsmen. In 630–31,
21168-591: Was centered in Sheikhan. Ruled from 900s-1832. When it was conquered by the Soran Emirate . The Yazidis call themselves Dāsin, Dasnī, Dasenī, plurally as Dawāsīn, duāsin, dawāšim, the origin of the name probably comes from an old Nestorian diocese . yazidis are called Dasnāyē or Dasnîyê in Syriac . the name of Dâsin (plur. Dawâsin) is derived from old Iranic language *daêvaysna which means " Daeva worshippers". Sharafkhan Bidlisi called them as Akrad-e Yezidi and Korde-ye radde-ye Yezidi, which means "Yazidi Kurds". According to 14th century historian, Ibn Fadlallah ,
21315-438: Was married to two Tayyid women, and he was ultimately killed by the Sassanids in 602. A Tayyid chief, Iyas ibn Qabisah al-Ta'i , subsequently migrated to al-Hirah with some of his tribesmen and became its governor, ruling from 602 to 611 CE. The Banu Bakr ibn Wa'il tribe opposed the rule of Iyas and began raiding Sassanid territory in southern Mesopotamia. In response, Iyas commanded pro-Sassanid Arab and Persian troops against
21462-414: Was the source of his independent power. The Tayyid-dominated region was the location of the overland routes connecting Egypt , Syria, Iraq and Arabia. This gave Mufarrij significant leverage with the Fatimids, who thus could not afford alienating him and risk him switching allegiance to the Fatimids' rivals in Iraq, the Buwayhids . In 981–82, relations between the Jarrahids and the Fatimids collapsed and
21609-547: Was widely lauded by Muhammad's companions. It is apparent that Adi's traditional rivals within the Tayy from the Banu Nabhan (led by Zayd's son Muhalhil) and Banu La'm (led by Thumama ibn Aws), or at least some of their members, joined Tulayha in Buzakha (in northern Najd ), while their other members also defected but remained in Jabal Tayy. Adi persuaded the latter to return to Islam, which they agreed to. However, they refused to abandon their tribesmen in Buzakha, fearing Tulayha would hold them hostage if he discovered they joined
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