Defne is a municipality and district of Hatay Province , Turkey . Its area is 155 km, and its population is 165,494 (2022). The district Defne was created in 2013 from parts of the former central district of Hatay and the district of Samandağ . It covers the southwestern part of the agglomeration of Antakya and the adjacent countryside.
106-743: Defne was heavily damaged by powerful earthquakes in February 2023 and subsequent aftershocks. The municipality of Defne was named after the Greek mythological figure of Daphne . Tourist sites in Defne include the Harbiye Hydro Park and Harbiye Waterfall, as well as the historic site of St Simeon's Monastery . There are 37 neighbourhoods in Defne District: This article about a Mediterranean Region of Turkey location
212-405: A decollement . Extensional decollements can grow to great dimensions and form detachment faults , which are low-angle normal faults with regional tectonic significance. Due to the curvature of the fault plane, the horizontal extensional displacement on a listric fault implies a geometric "gap" between the hanging and footwalls of the fault forms when the slip motion occurs. To accommodate into
318-657: A gas pipeline exploded. The building that housed the assembly of Hatay State was destroyed, as was St. Paul's Church and the Habib'i Neccar Mosque , while damage occurred at the Antakya Synagogue and the Hatay Archaeology Museum . Several dozen buildings in Güzelburç district and nearly every house in the central and Cebrail districts collapsed. Most of the squad and coaching staff of
424-860: A plate boundary. This class is related to an offset in a spreading center , such as a mid-ocean ridge , or, less common, within continental lithosphere , such as the Dead Sea Transform in the Middle East or the Alpine Fault in New Zealand. Transform faults are also referred to as "conservative" plate boundaries since the lithosphere is neither created nor destroyed. Dip-slip faults can be either normal (" extensional ") or reverse . The terminology of "normal" and "reverse" comes from coal mining in England, where normal faults are
530-525: A Modified Mercalli intensity of X ( Extreme ). A peak ground acceleration of 1.62 g was recorded by a station at Fevzipaşa . The peak ground acceleration generally exceeded 0.5 g in a large area around the epicenter, near Adiyaman and a large part of Hatay. High pga values of 2 g were recorded in Hatay. The maximum recorded pga was 2.212 g at a station in Pazarcık Belediyesi Parkı, Pazarcık;
636-411: A block 1.3 km (0.50 sq mi). This landslide occurred in a region comprising marl and clay-rich limestone. It produced a 20 m (66 ft) vertical displacement along its scarp. ITV News reported the landslide scarp was up to 1,000 ft (300 m) long and "wider than a football pitch" in some areas. Despite an epicenter 90 km (56 mi) inland, a tsunami was recorded in
742-582: A fault hosting valuable porphyry copper deposits is northern Chile's Domeyko Fault with deposits at Chuquicamata , Collahuasi , El Abra , El Salvador , La Escondida and Potrerillos . Further south in Chile Los Bronces and El Teniente porphyry copper deposit lie each at the intersection of two fault systems. Faults may not always act as conduits to surface. It has been proposed that deep-seated "misoriented" faults may instead be zones where magmas forming porphyry copper stagnate achieving
848-410: A fault often forms a discontinuity that may have a large influence on the mechanical behavior (strength, deformation, etc.) of soil and rock masses in, for example, tunnel , foundation , or slope construction. The level of a fault's activity can be critical for (1) locating buildings, tanks, and pipelines and (2) assessing the seismic shaking and tsunami hazard to infrastructure and people in
954-408: A fault's age by studying soil features seen in shallow excavations and geomorphology seen in aerial photographs. Subsurface clues include shears and their relationships to carbonate nodules , eroded clay, and iron oxide mineralization, in the case of older soil, and lack of such signs in the case of younger soil. Radiocarbon dating of organic material buried next to or over a fault shear
1060-456: A government health facility nearby had limited damage but the surrounding town was devastated. The maximum recorded pga during the M w 7.7 earthquake was 0.59 g at Göksun . According to Kandilli Observatory , the maximum Mercalli intensity (MMI) of the mainshock was estimated to have reached MMI XI–XII ( Extreme ) in Antakya and near the epicenter. MMI XI ( Extreme ) or higher
1166-400: A large fire at the port was reported on 6 February at 17:00, believed to have originated from a container carrying flammable industrial oil, forcing the port's closure and the diversion of many ships. It was extinguished on 6 and 8 February, only for it to reignite the next day each time. It was finally extinguished on 10 February. A total of 3,670 containers were destroyed by the fire and
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#17327874748281272-864: A maximum slip of 11.2 m (37 ft) along Segment 2, beneath Sakarya in Kahramanmaraş Province, northeast of the junction where it meets Segment 1. Another zone of large slip estimated at 4.96 m (16.3 ft) occurred further northeast along Segment 2, northwest of Adıyaman. The USGS source model for the M w 7.7 earthquake which struck nine hours later has three large fault segments with individual lengths, widths, strikes and dips of >70 km (43 mi) × >20 km (12 mi), 276°/80° (Segment 1), >40 km (25 mi) × >20 km (12 mi), 250°/80° (Segment 2) and ~80 km (50 mi) × >20 km (12 mi), 060°/80° (Segment 3). Maximum displacement occurred on Segment 1 at 11.4 m (37 ft). Three segments of
1378-1074: A six-story apartment building collapsed. In Nurdağı , nearly 2,500 people died and about 50 percent of the houses were badly damaged or destroyed. An additional 30 percent of its building stock received moderate damage. Mass graves were created to bury the overwhelming number of dead. Gaziantep Oğuzeli Airport was forced to restrict its service to rescue flights. Ninety percent of houses were heavily damaged or destroyed in Sakçagözü , and 256 people died. In İslahiye , there were 1,368 deaths, over 1,500 injuries and more than 200 destroyed apartments. There were over 130 deaths in Sulumağara ; 200 in Altınüzüm ; and 300–400 in Keküklü . In Hatay Province , 13,517 buildings collapsed, 8,162 required demolition and 67,346 were heavily damaged, along with 215,255 houses. The districts of Antakya , Kırıkhan and İskenderun were
1484-423: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . 2023 Turkey%E2%80%93Syria earthquake On 6 February 2023, at 04:17 TRT (01:17 UTC ), a M w 7.8 earthquake struck southern and central Turkey and northern and western Syria . The epicenter was 37 km (23 mi) west–northwest of Gaziantep . The earthquake had a maximum Mercalli intensity of XII ( Extreme ) around
1590-650: Is a potential source of magnitude 7.0 or greater earthquakes. The accumulated slip along this segment is estimated at 3–9 m (9.8–29.5 ft). An earthquake "domino effect" remains plausible along the Dead Sea Transform beginning with the Hacıpaşa Fault, as observed along the North Anatolian Fault, where successive earthquakes have migrated westwards along the fault since 1939. There were 53,537 deaths and 107,213 injured across 11 of
1696-415: Is also the line commonly plotted on geologic maps to represent a fault. A fault zone is a cluster of parallel faults. However, the term is also used for the zone of crushed rock along a single fault. Prolonged motion along closely spaced faults can blur the distinction, as the rock between the faults is converted to fault-bound lenses of rock and then progressively crushed. Due to friction and
1802-471: Is near the border with Syria. The earthquake hypocenter was at a depth of 10.0 km (6 mi) according to USGS and 5 km (3 mi) according to KOERI. The shock had a focal mechanism corresponding to strike-slip faulting . It is one of the strongest ever recorded in Turkey, equivalent in magnitude to the 1939 Erzincan earthquake (M w 7.8). These earthquakes are surpassed only by
1908-543: Is often critical in distinguishing active from inactive faults. From such relationships, paleoseismologists can estimate the sizes of past earthquakes over the past several hundred years, and develop rough projections of future fault activity. Many ore deposits lie on or are associated with faults. This is because the fractured rock associated with fault zones allow for magma ascent or the circulation of mineral-bearing fluids. Intersections of near-vertical faults are often locations of significant ore deposits. An example of
2014-434: Is released in part as seismic waves , forming an earthquake . Strain occurs accumulatively or instantaneously, depending on the liquid state of the rock; the ductile lower crust and mantle accumulate deformation gradually via shearing , whereas the brittle upper crust reacts by fracture – instantaneous stress release – resulting in motion along the fault. A fault in ductile rocks can also release instantaneously when
2120-425: Is the deadliest earthquake in what is now present-day Turkey since the 526 Antioch earthquake and the deadliest natural disaster in its modern history. It is also the deadliest in present-day Syria since the 1822 Aleppo earthquake ; the deadliest worldwide since the 2010 Haiti earthquake ; and the fifth-deadliest of the 21st century . Damages were estimated at US$ 148.8 billion in Turkey, or nine-percent of
2226-523: The 1668 North Anatolia earthquake . It is also one of the strongest earthquakes ever recorded in the Levant . It was felt as far as Egypt and the Black Sea coast of Turkey. There were more than 30,000 aftershocks in the three months that followed. The seismic sequence was the result of shallow strike-slip faulting along segments of the Dead Sea Transform, East Anatolian and Sürgü–Çardak faults. There
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#17327874748282332-632: The Amik Valley , where some 10.5 km (6.5 mi) to its east is the Hacıpaşa Fault, a Dead Sea Transform segment. The rupture was arrested by a stepover that connects the East Anatolian Fault with the Hacıpaşa Fault. Though it did not rupture, the Coulomb stress increased on the Hacıpaşa Fault. With a combination of the increases stress, 600–900 years without major earthquakes, and an annual slip rate of 5 mm (0.20 in), it
2438-463: The Chesapeake Bay impact crater . Ring faults are the result of a series of overlapping normal faults, forming a circular outline. Fractures created by ring faults may be filled by ring dikes . Synthetic and antithetic are terms used to describe minor faults associated with a major fault. Synthetic faults dip in the same direction as the major fault while the antithetic faults dip in
2544-704: The Cyprus arc to the west via the Latakia Ridge . The 700 km-long (430 mi) EAF is subdivided into seven segments, from the northeast; the Karlıova , Ilıca, Palu , Pütürge , Erkenek, Pazarcık and Amanos segments. The Amanos segment is also considered part of the DST by some geologists, or a transitional structure between the EAF and DST by others. A northern strand to the EAF has also been recognized, including
2650-512: The 17 affected provinces of Turkey . About 140 people remain missing; 118 in Hatay Province. At least 15.73 million people and 4 million buildings were affected. More than 2 million residents in the affected provinces were evacuated to nearby provinces including Mersin, Antalya, Mardin, Niğde and Konya. At least 518,009 houses and over 345,000 apartments were destroyed. More than 20 percent of Turkey's agriculture production
2756-512: The 6 February earthquakes. Preliminary analysis based on seismology and observations of surface rupture suggest rupture along a branch of the DST before transitioning onto the EAF where most of the faulting was observed. The initial rupture at the site of the epicenter of the M7.8 shock on the Narlı Fault, the northernmost section of the DST. The fault ruptured unilaterally northwards until it reached
2862-552: The Afrin, Sermada, Armanaz, Hacıpaşa, Yesemek, Sakçagöz and Narlı segments. The EAF has produced large or damaging earthquakes in the past few hundred years along various segments, including the 1789 (M 7.2, Palu), 1795 (M 7.0, Pazarcık), 1866 (M 7.2 Karlıova) , 1872 (M 7.2, Amanos) , 1874 (M 7.1, Palu), 1875 (M 6.7, Palu), 1893 (M 7.1, Erkenek) , 1971 (M6.6, Karlıova) and 2020 (M 6.8, Pütürge) events. Other large historical earthquakes have been tentatively assigned to segments of
2968-673: The Amik Valley. The westernmost part of Hatay Airport was damaged by surface ruptures but cracks in the runway were attributed to ground deformation. A major canal was damaged and lead to flooding in parts of the Amik Valley which was formerly Lake Amik . Field observations indicate a maximum displacement of 7.3 m (24 ft) on the surface. Geologists traced a 15 km (9.3 mi) surface rupture trending south from Pazarcık with an offset of 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in). From Golbasi to Nurdağı ground displacements were up to 5 m (16 ft). The surface rupture observed during
3074-728: The DST truncates at the East Anatolian Fault (EAF), another major left-lateral strike-slip fault zone that accommodates the overall westward movement of the Anatolian plate as it is extruded in that direction by the northward movement of the Arabian plate. The DST and EAF meet at the Marash triple junction . The EAF continues west of the triple junction , forming the boundary between the African and Anatolian plates, linking into
3180-436: The EAF rupture. Supershear rupture occurred along the northernmost section of the Narlı Fault where it meets the EAF. The rupture transitioned onto the EAF and propagated northeast at supershear velocity until its termination near Malatya. Rupture towards the southwest was mostly subshear, but at the southern termination in Hatay, where the fault has multiple branches and kinks, supershear was likely observed. Supershear rupture at
3286-504: The EAF were involved in the M w 7.8 rupture; the Amanos, Pazarcık and Erkenek segments. The earthquake ruptured ~370 km (230 mi) of the EAF, producing a maximum slip of up to ~12 m (39 ft) along the Pazarcık segment. The northern end of the rupture was about 20–30 km (12–19 mi) south of the M w 6.8 earthquake that struck in 2020. This section of
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3392-524: The EAF, such as the 1114 and 1513 Marash earthquakes , both thought to have ruptured the Pazarcık segment. The Palu and Pütürge segments in the east display a recurrence interval of about 150 years for M 6.8–7.0 earthquakes. The Pazarcık and Amanos segments in the west have recurrence intervals of 237–772 years and 414–917 years, respectively, for M 7.0–7.4 earthquakes. A research paper published by Earth and Planetary Science Letters in 2002 studied stress accumulation and increased seismic hazard along
3498-455: The EAF, the Pütürge segment, between both earthquakes, may represent a seismic gap . The southern segment of the EAF rupture was at its termination, near Antakya. Slip peaked at 12 m (39 ft) from the surface to 7 km (4.3 mi) depth during the M w 7.7 earthquake; slip was 11 m (36 ft) at the surface. Slip along the fault was compact—mostly confined to within
3604-400: The EAF. The M w 7.7 earthquake triggered its own aftershock sequence, including two mb 6.0 aftershocks. Aftershocks of the second earthquake continued through at least 9 February. Thousands of aftershocks associated with this earthquake were distributed along an east–west trend corresponding to the Çardak Fault for about 170 km (110 mi). A source model for
3710-502: The East Anatolian Fault. The study concluded two sections of the fault with a considerably high potential for future earthquakes. One of these sections was in Elazığ and Bingöl, located between the rupture zones of the 1874 and 1971 earthquakes. The seismic gap ruptured during a M w 6.1 earthquake in 2010. The 2020 M w 6.8 earthquake ruptured to the southwest between the 1893/1905 and 1874 earthquakes. Another seismic gap
3816-519: The Hatay Fault. The focal mechanism indicated normal faulting along a northeast–southwest striking fault. The extent of surface ruptures associated with the M7.8 and M7.7 earthquakes have been mapped using a mixture of satellite imagery and ground observations. Pixel matching on images captured by Sentinel-1 before and after the earthquakes showed sharp discontinuities in displacement, revealing two separate zones of surface rupture . The longer of
3922-543: The M ww 7.8 earthquake produced by the USGS from observed seismic waves, taking into account preliminary rupture mapping from satellite data, uses three fault segments with individual lengths, widths, strikes and dips of >40 km (25 mi) × 30 km (19 mi), 028°/85° (Segment 1), >175 km (109 mi) × 30 km (19 mi), 060°/85° (Segment 2) and >160 km (99 mi) × 20 km (12 mi), 025°/75° (Segment 3). The mainshock produced
4028-552: The M7.8 earthquake was unusually large, comparable to that during the 1906 San Francisco earthquake along the San Andreas Fault . Large surface offsets of 6–8 m (20–26 ft) were observed along the Sürgü-Çardak Fault. Along a road west of Gözpınar [ ce ; tr ; tt ; vi ] , the rupture displaced the road left-laterally for 8.6 m (28 ft). The largest maximum surface offset
4134-461: The M7.8 event. It had a depth of 7.4 km (5 mi) according to the USGS, 5 km (3 mi) by KOERI, and 13 km (8 mi) by Geoscope. The shock was also the result of strike-slip faulting; it had an epicenter north of the previous large earthquake. A reevaluation of the earthquakes using long-period coda moment magnitude obtained M w 7.95 ± 0.013 and M w 7.86 ± 0.012, respectively. These earthquakes were some of
4240-636: The Mediterranean Sea. It was the first recorded tsunami in the eastern Mediterranean Sea region since the one produced by the 1953 M L 6.2 earthquake in Cyprus . The largest wave measured 40 cm (16 in) along the Mediterranean coast of Turkey. Although no underwater surveys results have been made available to identify the sources of these tsunamis, they were likely produced by landsliding at Iskenderun Port and liquefaction on
4346-438: The Pazarcık segment of the East Anatolian Fault. Ruptures then continued bilaterally to the northeast and southwest along this segment. This subevent on the Narlı Fault corresponded to a M w 7.0 earthquake which ruptured for 20 seconds. It had a focal mechanism corresponding to oblique-normal faulting. A preliminary analysis of near-field (within 1 km (0.62 mi) of the fault rupture) seismic records indicates that
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4452-504: The Sürgü, Çardak, Savrun, Çokak, Toprakkale, Yumurtalık, Karataş, Yakapınar and Düziçi–İskenderun segments. The estimated slip rate on the main strand of the EAF system decreases south-westwards from 10 mm (0.39 in) per year on the Karlıova segment down to 2.9 mm (0.11 in) per year on the Amanos segment. On the northern strand, a slip rate of 2.5 mm (0.098 in) per year
4558-647: The Turkish government revealed at least 61,722 buildings had to be demolished including 11,900 in Gaziantep Province, 10,900 in Hatay Province, 10,800 in Kahramanmaraş Province and 36,046 in Malatya Province. Broad fissures appeared on roads. During recovery efforts, body parts were often found in the rubble. In Adana , 12 buildings collapsed in the city center, 23 were badly damaged and 120 were moderately damaged. Three apartments were among
4664-496: The USGS had reported at least 54 aftershocks of 4.3 or greater magnitude, while the Turkish Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency (AFAD) recorded at least 120 total aftershocks. A M ww 6.3 aftershock struck near Uzunbağ in Hatay Province on 20 February; the earthquake was the result of oblique-normal faulting. The M w 7.8 earthquake had aftershocks distributed along ~350 km (220 mi) of
4770-420: The building said they adhered to building regulations but those were not enough against the earthquake. The 13-storey apartment block consists of three closely spaced buildings linked externally, but not structurally; when the collapse occurred, all three buildings separated. The basement, two-storey parking space was considered the "strongest part" of the complex as it had more concrete walls than other parts of
4876-462: The buildings that collapsed in the city. Across Adana Province , damage assessments revealed 59 buildings, 1,274 apartments and 2,952 houses were destroyed, severely damaged or required demolition. At least 300 buildings were razed in Malatya . Sixty percent of the city's buildings received damage. Nearly every neighborhood of the city was affected by collapsed buildings. Out of the 968 mosques in
4982-1511: The city and over 12,000 were injured. In Erzin District , 31 buildings collapsed and 897 were heavily damaged or had to be demolished. However, there were no collapses or major damage in Erzin , the largest town in the district. Multiple factors including strict building codes prevented destruction. An estimated 20,000 people fled to Erzin, increasing its population by about 50 percent. In Samandağ , 670 buildings collapsed, 9,212 were badly damaged or required demolition and 7,850 people died. At least 1,046 buildings collapsed and 3,452 others were severely damaged or had to be demolished in Hassa District . In Altınözü , 838 buildings were destroyed, 3,892 others were badly damaged and 650 others required demolition. There were 213 collapsed buildings and 1,453 others had been severely damaged or had to be demolished in Yayladağı . At least 139 buildings collapsed, 755 others were badly damaged and 87 others had to be demolished in Belen . In Dörtyol , 115 buildings were destroyed and 2,030 others had to be demolished or were severely damaged. Mass burials occurred in Kahramanmaraş for more than 5,000 bodies. A city official said
5088-499: The city of Adıyaman , four neighborhoods were razed. Many buildings along Atatürk Boulevard collapsed. The city hall, a 6th-century mosque and Gölbaşı District 's state hospital were also destroyed. Isias Hotel , the largest hotel in the city, also collapsed, killing 65 people. Up to 10 percent of Adıyaman's population perished. The mayor of Kömür said the Karapınar and Bahçelievler neighborhoods were nearly destroyed. Destruction
5194-414: The city was observed after the earthquakes. Earlier flooding may be attributed to liquefaction while subsequent occurrences may be due to damage to the coast and water infrastructure. The sea inundated parts of the city by as much as 200 m (660 ft). Large areas of the coast and sections of piers were flooded due to lateral spreading. Large waves from bad weather and a tsunami may have contributed to
5300-617: The city, 25 were destroyed and 420 others were damaged. Two hotels collapsed in Malatya, causing many casualties. The ceiling of Malatya Erhaç Airport experienced a partial collapse, as did the historic Yeni Camii mosque . Damage was also reported at the Arslantepe Mound . In Akçadağ , 11 people died, including four attributed to the second earthquake. At least 263 deaths were reported in Doğanşehir . In Gaziantep , many of
5406-514: The coastal flatlands of Antakya. Small tsunami waves were recorded off the coast of Famagusta , Cyprus, without damage. The tsunami measured 0.17 m (6.7 in), and tsunami waves were recorded at 0.12 m (4.7 in) at İskenderun and 0.13 m (5.1 in) at Erdemli . Tsunami warnings were issued for the southern Turkish coast, southern and eastern Italian coasts and the whole eastern Mediterranean Sea area, but later withdrawn. The earthquake rupture terminated near Suvatlı in
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#17327874748285512-423: The core concrete columns which housed the elevator systems were situated along the north side which left the south side vulnerable without adequate support. Another reason was that beams emerging from either side of the building were misaligned and did not connect to each other. These features may have contributed to the building overturning onto its south side. In İskenderun , an industrial city in Hatay Province,
5618-516: The country's GDP, and US$ 14.8 billion in Syria. Damaged roads, winter storms, and disruption to communications hampered the Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency 's rescue and relief effort, which included a 60,000-strong search-and-rescue force, 5,000 health workers and 30,000 volunteers. Following Turkey's call for international help, more than 141,000 people from 94 countries joined
5724-414: The crust. A thrust fault has the same sense of motion as a reverse fault, but with the dip of the fault plane at less than 45°. Thrust faults typically form ramps, flats and fault-bend (hanging wall and footwall) folds. A section of a hanging wall or foot wall where a thrust fault formed along a relatively weak bedding plane is known as a flat and a section where the thrust fault cut upward through
5830-433: The direction of extension or shortening changes during the deformation but the earlier formed faults remain active. The hade angle is defined as the complement of the dip angle; it is the angle between the fault plane and a vertical plane that strikes parallel to the fault. Ring faults , also known as caldera faults , are faults that occur within collapsed volcanic calderas and the sites of bolide strikes, such as
5936-403: The effects observed at İskenderun. Both earthquakes caused shaking levels (≥0.12 g ) sufficient for landslide-triggering across a 90,000 km (35,000 sq mi) area. About 3,673 earthquake-triggered landslides were identified using satellite imagery, aerial photos, and one field survey of the area. Landslides mainly occurred in the northern region of the affected area. Rockslides were
6042-401: The effects of stress changes caused by the M7.8 earthquake on the Çardak–Sürgü Fault, based on the USGS fault model, indicated up to 3 bars of added stress near the epicenter of the M7.7 shock, sufficient to trigger rupture on that zone, assuming that it was already close to failure. Stress on the Hatay Fault, source of the 20 February M w 6.4 aftershock, increased by 1 bar following
6148-434: The epicenter and in Antakya . It was followed by a M w 7.7 earthquake at 13:24. This earthquake was centered 95 km (59 mi) north-northeast from the first. There was widespread damage and tens of thousands of fatalities. The M w 7.8 earthquake is the largest in Turkey since the 1939 Erzincan earthquake of the same magnitude, and jointly the second-largest in the country, after larger estimates for
6254-409: The fault (called a piercing point ). In practice, it is usually only possible to find the slip direction of faults, and an approximation of the heave and throw vector. The two sides of a non-vertical fault are known as the hanging wall and footwall . The hanging wall occurs above the fault plane and the footwall occurs below it. This terminology comes from mining: when working a tabular ore body,
6360-437: The fault is low—the only associated earthquake was a M 6.8 event in 1544. The northern part of the DST is subdivided into several segments, although there is some disagreement between scientists as to which faults should be assigned to the DST and which to the EAF, at the northernmost end of the structure. Following the 2013 "Active Fault Map of Turkey", seven DST segments are recognized in Turkey and neighbouring parts of Syria;
6466-459: The fault is the horizontal component, as in "Throw up and heave out". The vector of slip can be qualitatively assessed by studying any drag folding of strata, which may be visible on either side of the fault. Drag folding is a zone of folding close to a fault that likely arises from frictional resistance to movement on the fault. The direction and magnitude of heave and throw can be measured only by finding common intersection points on either side of
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#17327874748286572-465: The fault movement. Faults are mainly classified in terms of the angle that the fault plane makes with the Earth's surface, known as the dip , and the direction of slip along the fault plane. Based on the direction of slip, faults can be categorized as: In a strike-slip fault (also known as a wrench fault , tear fault or transcurrent fault ), the fault surface (plane) is usually near vertical, and
6678-428: The footwall moves laterally either left or right with very little vertical motion. Strike-slip faults with left-lateral motion are also known as sinistral faults and those with right-lateral motion as dextral faults. Each is defined by the direction of movement of the ground as would be seen by an observer on the opposite side of the fault. A special class of strike-slip fault is the transform fault when it forms
6784-531: The footwall. The dip of most normal faults is at least 60 degrees but some normal faults dip at less than 45 degrees. A downthrown block between two normal faults dipping towards each other is a graben . A block stranded between two grabens, and therefore two normal faults dipping away from each other, is a horst . A sequence of grabens and horsts on the surface of the Earth produces a characteristic basin and range topography . Normal faults can evolve into listric faults, with their plane dip being steeper near
6890-429: The geometric gap, and depending on its rheology , the hanging wall might fold and slide downwards into the gap and produce rollover folding , or break into further faults and blocks which fil in the gap. If faults form, imbrication fans or domino faulting may form. A reverse fault is the opposite of a normal fault—the hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall. Reverse faults indicate compressive shortening of
6996-406: The historical sites were severely damaged, such as Gaziantep Castle , Şirvani Mosque and Liberation Mosque . The city recorded 16,211 collapses and buildings which were severely damaged or required demolition. In the city center, at least 154 people died after a four-story building collapsed; four other collapsed buildings left another 102 dead. In Nizip , at least 51 people were killed when
7102-491: The implied mechanism of deformation. A fault that passes through different levels of the lithosphere will have many different types of fault rock developed along its surface. Continued dip-slip displacement tends to juxtapose fault rocks characteristic of different crustal levels, with varying degrees of overprinting. This effect is particularly clear in the case of detachment faults and major thrust faults . The main types of fault rock include: In geotechnical engineering ,
7208-492: The initial rupture speed transitioned to supershear after propagating about 19.5 km (12.1 mi) away from the epicenter along the Narlı Fault before it reached the EAF. Back projection suggests the total rupture length was ~560 km (350 mi). The rupture continued northeast onto the Ekernek segment and to the southwest onto the Amanos segment. The northeastern rupture ceased 55 seconds after initiation while
7314-513: The larger estimates for the 1668 North Anatolia earthquake . Globally it was the strongest recorded since August 2021 . Both earthquakes are the largest and only observed to occur on land within a short span of time. At 10:24 UTC, an earthquake measuring M ww 7.5 according to USGS, M w 7.6 according to KOERI, or M w 7.7 according to Geoscope and the GCMT, struck with an epicenter near Ekinözü , 95 km northeast of
7420-423: The largest Turkish earthquakes in over 2,000 years. Over 570 aftershocks were recorded within 24 hours of the M w 7.8 earthquake and over 30,000 recorded by May 2023. An aftershock measuring M ww 6.7 occurred about 11 minutes after the mainshock . There were 25 aftershocks M w 4.0 or greater recorded within six hours of the main tremor, according to the USGS. More than 12 hours later,
7526-464: The largest faults on Earth and give rise to the largest earthquakes. A fault which has a component of dip-slip and a component of strike-slip is termed an oblique-slip fault . Nearly all faults have some component of both dip-slip and strike-slip; hence, defining a fault as oblique requires both dip and strike components to be measurable and significant. Some oblique faults occur within transtensional and transpressional regimes, and others occur where
7632-1088: The local football club Hatayspor were initially trapped in the collapse of their headquarters in Antakya before being rescued, with player Christian Atsu and sporting director Taner Savut dying. In Kırıkhan District , 1,886 buildings collapsed and 7,190 others were severely damaged or required demolition. At least 982 buildings were destroyed, 8,894 others were badly damaged and 943 had to be demolished in Defne . In Reyhanlı , 318 buildings collapsed and 1,661 others were severely damaged or required demolition. At least 187 buildings collapsed, 2,176 others were badly damaged and 194 others had to be demolished in Arsuz . In Kumlu , 131 buildings were destroyed, 738 others were severely damaged and 84 others required demolition. At least 58 buildings collapsed and 669 others were badly damaged or had to be demolished in Payas . The collapse of
7738-422: The luxury Rönesans Rezidans apartment trapped an estimated 800 people, killing at least 269 and leaving 46 missing as presumed dead. In May 2023, an investigation by The New York Times found that inadequate design and safety lapses may have contributed to its collapse. An engineer revealed to the newspaper; "the building violated the basic tenets of engineering," after inspecting its blueprints. Contractors of
7844-499: The mass grave would eventually be the burial ground for 10,000 bodies. Around 75 percent of the city's buildings were damaged or destroyed. In Elbistan , 924 people died and 1,825 were injured. An estimated 2,000 buildings were destroyed. At Ordekdede, a village in Pazarcik District, almost all single-story buildings were decimated. None of the 140 houses in the village were structurally stable. Thirty-four people died in
7950-418: The megathrust faults of subduction zones or transform faults . Energy release associated with rapid movement on active faults is the cause of most earthquakes . Faults may also displace slowly, by aseismic creep . A fault plane is the plane that represents the fracture surface of a fault. A fault trace or fault line is a place where the fault can be seen or mapped on the surface. A fault trace
8056-408: The miner stood with the footwall under his feet and with the hanging wall above him. These terms are important for distinguishing different dip-slip fault types: reverse faults and normal faults. In a reverse fault, the hanging wall displaces upward, while in a normal fault the hanging wall displaces downward. Distinguishing between these two fault types is important for determining the stress regime of
8162-407: The most affected. In Antakya, 70 percent of homes and 6,369 buildings collapsed, 3,734 had to be demolished and 21,830 were badly damaged. The runway at Hatay Airport was split and uplifted, causing flight cancellations. The Ankara Metropolitan Municipality completed repairs on the airport on 12 February, allowing its reopening. Two provincial hospitals and a police station were destroyed, and
8268-435: The most common. With the passage of time, a regional reversal between tensional and compressional stresses (or vice-versa) might occur, and faults may be reactivated with their relative block movement inverted in opposite directions to the original movement (fault inversion). In such a way, a normal fault may therefore become a reverse fault and vice versa. In a normal fault, the hanging wall moves downward, relative to
8374-428: The most commonly observed; there were also many bedrock rotational landslides, translational slides and lateral spreads. Surface ruptures propagating through hillsides also triggered landslides. These landslides blocked roads and river channels, destroyed or seriously damaged buildings and caused many deaths. One of the largest landslides occurred near Tepehan village, Hatay Province; a translational slide which detached
8480-494: The opposite direction. These faults may be accompanied by rollover anticlines (e.g. the Niger Delta Structural Style). All faults have a measurable thickness, made up of deformed rock characteristic of the level in the crust where the faulting happened, of the rock types affected by the fault and of the presence and nature of any mineralising fluids . Fault rocks are classified by their textures and
8586-784: The pair, produced by the first earthquake, measured 320 km (200 mi) while the second earthquake produced 150 km (93 mi) of surface rupture. These observations were backed up with direct imaging of the ruptures using other satellite data, such as from the DigitalGlobe 's WorldView-1 , 2 & 3 and GeoEye-1 , and by field work. Remote sensing using satellite imagery indicated 30 km (19 mi) of surface rupture with large normal faulting component. The zone of surface rupture extended from north of Antakya, Hatay Province towards Pazarcık , Kahramanmaraş Province and Gölbaşı , Adıyaman Province. Surface ruptures continued north of these cities. Surface rupture occurred in
8692-602: The port managing authority said it would take three months for operations to resume. The city saw 534 buildings collapse, 337 requiring demolition and 4,622 receiving severe damage. Flooding occurred along the city shoreline, inundating streets up to 200 m (660 ft) inland. The Cathedral of the Annunciation , seat of the Roman Catholic Apostolic Vicariate of Anatolia , was almost completely destroyed. At least 3,109 people died in
8798-503: The rescue effort. Central southern Turkey and northwestern Syria are affected by the interaction between three tectonic plates ; the African plate , Arabian plate and Anatolian sub-plate . The boundary between the African and Arabian plates is represented by the Dead Sea Transform (DST)—a major zone of left-lateral strike-slip fault—it accommodates the relative northward movement of Arabia with respect to Africa. The northern end of
8904-412: The right time for—and type of— igneous differentiation . At a given time differentiated magmas would burst violently out of the fault-traps and head to shallower places in the crust where porphyry copper deposits would be formed. As faults are zones of weakness, they facilitate the interaction of water with the surrounding rock and enhance chemical weathering . The enhanced chemical weathering increases
9010-423: The rigidity of the constituent rocks, the two sides of a fault cannot always glide or flow past each other easily, and so occasionally all movement stops. The regions of higher friction along a fault plane, where it becomes locked, are called asperities . Stress builds up when a fault is locked, and when it reaches a level that exceeds the strength threshold, the fault ruptures and the accumulated strain energy
9116-408: The sequence struck at 01:17 UTC. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) and Global Centroid Moment Tensor (GCMT) measured it at M ww 7.8 and M w 7.8, respectively. GEOSCOPE reported M w 8.0 and Kandilli Observatory (KOERI) reported M w 7.7 and M L 7.4. It had an epicenter 34 km (21 mi) west of Gaziantep in Gaziantep Province, which
9222-478: The southern termination contributed to the intense ground motion in Antakya. The second M>7 earthquake initiated on a separate fault known as the Çardak– Sürgü Fault Zone, part of the northern strand of the East Anatolian Fault. The rupture propagated bilaterally along the Çardak segment, continuing eastwards onto the Sürgü segment before continuing eastwards to Malatya along the northeast–southwest trending Doğanşehir Fault Zone. Rupture also propagated towards
9328-441: The southwest along the Çardak segment. The total rupture length was estimated at 160 km (99 mi). The westward-propagating rupture occurred at supershear velocity (maximum 4.8 km (3.0 mi) per second) while the eastward-propagating rupture occurred at subshear velocity (maximum 2.8 km (1.7 mi) per second). The rupture lasted about 35 seconds. The M w 6.4 aftershock on 20 February occurred along
9434-531: The southwestern rupture ceased near Antakya about 80 seconds later. A M w 6.8 aftershock occurring 11 minutes later and west of the first M>7 epicenter may have ruptured along the Sakçagöz Fault, the next segment of the DST to the south. Rupture along the EAF during the event occurred at subshear velocity (maximum 3.2 km (2.0 mi) per second). An analysis of near-field seismic data revealed transient supershear rupture episodes throughout
9540-404: The strain rate is too great. Slip is defined as the relative movement of geological features present on either side of a fault plane. A fault's sense of slip is defined as the relative motion of the rock on each side of the fault concerning the other side. In measuring the horizontal or vertical separation, the throw of the fault is the vertical component of the separation and the heave of
9646-416: The stratigraphic sequence is known as a ramp . Typically, thrust faults move within formations by forming flats and climbing up sections with ramps. This results in the hanging wall flat (or a portion thereof) lying atop the foot wall ramp as shown in the fault-bend fold diagram. Thrust faults form nappes and klippen in the large thrust belts. Subduction zones are a special class of thrusts that form
9752-429: The structure. The building's exterior walls and those that separated units and rooms consisted of heavy masonry which may have prevented the structure from swaying and possibly held the building mostly intact despite toppling. The building was considered a soft story structure as the ground floor had fewer masonry walls which meant it was at greater risk of damage from seismic ground motion . Among other factors were that
9858-400: The surface, then shallower with increased depth, with the fault plane curving into the Earth. They can also form where the hanging wall is absent (such as on a cliff), where the footwall may slump in a manner that creates multiple listric faults. The fault panes of listric faults can further flatten and evolve into a horizontal or near-horizontal plane, where slip progresses horizontally along
9964-465: The town itself. In Kâhta , at least 55 people died. Strike-slip In geology , a fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock across which there has been significant displacement as a result of rock-mass movements. Large faults within Earth 's crust result from the action of plate tectonic forces, with the largest forming the boundaries between the plates, such as
10070-582: The vicinity. In California, for example, new building construction has been prohibited directly on or near faults that have moved within the Holocene Epoch (the last 11,700 years) of the Earth's geological history. Also, faults that have shown movement during the Holocene plus Pleistocene Epochs (the last 2.6 million years) may receive consideration, especially for critical structures such as power plants, dams, hospitals, and schools. Geologists assess
10176-767: The village. At least 11 people died, 107 houses were destroyed and 70 percent of the building stock were damaged in Ekinözü . In Afşin , at least 180 people died. At least 335 buildings including 90 in the city center were destroyed. The Afşin-Elbistan Thermal Power Plant was also damaged. In Ericek [ ce ; tr ; vi ] , a village in Göksun , 95 percent of homes were affected and 152 died. In Nurhak , there were around 200 deaths and all houses were severely damaged. In Türkoğlu , 1,171 buildings collapsed and 4,500 others required demolition. In Adıyaman Province , over 20,000 buildings and 56,256 houses were destroyed. In
10282-491: The Çardak Fault; it was also shallower—attenuating from 8–12 km (5.0–7.5 mi). Slip during the M w 7.8 event extended to 18 km (11 mi) and 12 km (7.5 mi) for the M w 7.7 event. The M w 6.4 aftershock that struck Antakya on 20 February had a rupture area of 25 km (16 mi) × 25 km (16 mi) and produced a peak slip of 0.93 m (3 ft 1 in) at 8.3 km (5.2 mi) depth. Preliminary analysis of
10388-497: Was 10.0–12.6 m (32.8–41.3 ft); one of the largest surface offset ever observed from an earthquake. Ground acceleration values recorded in some areas near the fault rupture were in excess of 1 g . Three USGS seismic installations, two at Antakya and one at Hassa , recorded large ground accelerations and velocities. The town of Hassa recorded 0.9082 g in ground acceleration (pga) and 215.34 cm/s (84.78 in/s) in ground velocity. The station data corresponded to
10494-846: Was affected. The United Nations said crops, livestock, fisheries, aquaculture and rural infrastructure were heavily damaged. At least 516 university buildings were affected, of which 106 were heavily damaged. By 23 February 2023, the Ministry of Environment, Urbanization and Climate Change conducted damage inspections for 1.25 million buildings; revealing 164,000 buildings were either destroyed or severely damaged. Another inspection carried out in March revealed that 1,411,304 housing units sustained light to moderate damage. Over 150,000 commercial infrastructure were at least moderately damaged. The International Organization for Migration estimated over 2.7 million people were made homeless. A damage assessment by
10600-486: Was also observed in Samandağ . At Lake Gölbaşı, Adıyaman Province, lateral spreading occurred along the northern, eastern and southern coast. Parts of the lakeshore were also submerged. Gölbaşı was also damaged by liquefaction and lateral spreading. Subsidence due to lateral spreading caused extensive damage in İskenderun. Liquefaction produced sand ejecta that buried Atatürk Boulevard in Çay District. Regular flooding in
10706-652: Was also observed in Barbaros, Çelikhan , Sümerevler and Karapınar districts. In Harmanlı, a village in Gölbaşı District , 80–90 percent of it was destroyed. The second earthquake destroyed three buildings in the province. In Gölbaşı , 71 percent of the town's infrastructure was damaged or destroyed and 695 people were killed with over 400 injured, including 286 deaths in the town center. There were also 410 deaths in Besni District , about 90 percent of them in
10812-479: Was estimated on the Çardak segment. The Sürgü-Çardak Fault is an east–west striking 160 km (99 mi) long fault that runs north of the EAF. It branches away from the EAF west of Çelikhan and extends westwards to Göksun. Comprising two segments; the Sürgü Fault runs 70 km (43 mi) between Çelikhan and Nurhak; the Çardak Fault runs 90 km (56 mi) between Nurhak and Göksun. Seismicity on
10918-557: Was identified via satellite and remote sensing along the southern portion of the M w 7.8 rupture on the East Anatolian Fault from Antakya to Golbasi. Liquefaction and lateral spreading were observed at and near coastal areas, fluvial valleys and drained lake or swamp areas, covered by Holocene sediments . These effects were widespread in the Amik Valley and Orontes River plain, north of Antakya, Hatay Province. Limited observations were made in high-elevation areas due to snow cover and lack of satellite observations. Liquefaction
11024-490: Was located in Kahramanmaraş—this 103 km (64 mi) long section—according to the study, believed to last rupture in 1513 has the potential to produce magnitude 7.3 earthquakes. Large earthquakes on the northern part of the DST include events in 115 , 526, 587, 1138 , 1170 and 1822, which resulted in several tens of thousands to several hundreds of thousands of fatalities. The first and largest earthquake in
11130-541: Was observed along the fault rupture from the epicenter to Antakya. The MMI also reached IX–X ( Violent – Extreme ) in Kahramanmaraş and İskenderun , VIII–IX ( Severe – Violent ) in Malatya and Adıyaman , VII–VIII ( Very strong – Severe ) in Gaziantep , Kilis , Idlib and Aleppo , and VI–VII ( Strong – Very strong ) in Adana and Şanlıurfa . The maximum MMI of the second earthquake was X ( Extreme ). Liquefaction
11236-492: Was widespread damage in an area of about 350,000 km (140,000 sq mi), about the size of Germany. An estimated 14 million people, or 16 percent of Turkey's population, were affected. Development experts from the United Nations estimated that about 1.5 million people were left homeless. The confirmed death toll in Turkey was 53,537; estimates of the number of dead in Syria were between 5,951 and 8,476. It
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