65-805: The Brahmaputra is a trans-boundary river which flows through Southwestern China , Northeastern India , and Bangladesh . It is known as Brahmaputra or Luit in Assamese , Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibetan , the Siang/Dihang River in Arunachali , and Jamuna River in Bengali . By itself, it is the 9th largest river in the world by discharge, and the 15th longest . It originates in the Manasarovar Lake region, near Mount Kailash , on
130-686: A braided river and is highly susceptible to channel migration and avulsion . It is also one of the few rivers in the world that exhibits a tidal bore . It is navigable for most of its length. The Brahmaputra drains the Himalayas east of the Indo-Nepal border, south-central portion of the Tibetan plateau above the Ganga basin, south-eastern portion of Tibet, the Patkai hills, the northern slopes of
195-657: A border within a state or an international boundary. Bangladesh has the highest number of these rivers, with at least 58 major rivers that enter the country from the Republic of India , including two of the world's largest rivers, the Brahmaputra and the Ganges . The Naf River is the only river that flows via Bangladesh into Myanmar . The hydrologic and political effects of rivers that cross significant boundaries are enormous. Rivers have positive effects in that they carry
260-524: A deep gorge (the " Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon ") across the eastern extremity of the Himalayas with canyon walls that extend upward for 5,000 m (16,000 ft) and more on each side. During that stretch, the river crosses the China-India line of actual control to enter northern Arunachal Pradesh, where it is known as the Dihang (or Siang) River, and turns more southerly. The Yarlung Tsangpo leaves
325-407: A diversion of the channel into the existing floodplain channel. The Brahmaputra channel is governed by the peak and low flow periods during which its bed undergoes tremendous modification. The Brahmaputra's bank line migration is inconsistent with time. The Brahmaputra river bed has widened significantly since 1916 and appears to be shifting more towards the south than towards the north. Together with
390-515: A significant amount of sediment, which aids in building land in estuarine regions. However, this sediment raises the height of riverbeds, thereby causing flooding. International conventions governing water sharing have led to complex political disputes. Yarlung Tsangpo The Yarlung Tsangpo , also called Yarlung Zangbo ( Tibetan : ཡར་ཀླུངས་གཙང་པོ་ , Wylie : yar kLungs gTsang po , ZYPY : Yarlung Zangbo ) and Yalu Zangbu River ( Chinese : 雅鲁藏布江 ; pinyin : Yǎlǔzàngbù Jiāng )
455-618: Is a natural phenomenon which is ecologically important because it helps maintain the lowland grasslands and associated wildlife. Periodic floods also deposit fresh alluvium, replenishing the fertile soil of the Brahmaputra River Valley. Thus flooding, agriculture, and agricultural practices are closely connected. The effects of flooding can be devastating and cause significant damage to crops and houses, serious bank erosive with consequent loss of homesteads, school and land, and loss of many lives, livestock, and fisheries. During
520-669: Is also called Tsangpo-Brahmaputra and red river of India (when referring to the whole river including the stretch within the Tibet Autonomous Region ). In its Tibetan and Indian names, the river is unusually masculine in gender. The upper reaches of the Brahmaputra River, known as the Yarlung Tsangpo from the Tibetan language, originates on the Angsi Glacier , near Mount Kailash, located on
585-629: Is approximately at 3,200 metres (10,500 ft). Sedimentary sandstone rocks found near the Tibetan capital of Lhasa contain grains of magnetic minerals that record the Earth's alternating magnetic field current. The basin of the Yarlung River, bounded by the Himalayas in the south and Kang Rinpoche and Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains in the north, has less severe climate than the adjacent northern (and higher-altitude) parts of Tibet, and
650-442: Is called Brahmaputra and Doima (mother of water) and Burlung-Buthur by native Bodo tribals, it then enters the state of Assam , and becomes very wide—as wide as 20 km (12 mi) in parts of Assam. The reason for such an unusual course and drastic change is that the river is antecedent to the Himalayas, meaning that it had existed before them and has entrenched itself since they started rising. The Dihang, winding out of
715-529: Is crucial in planning upstream engineering to prevent flooding on the bridge. China had built the Zangmu Dam in the upper course of the Brahmaputra River in the Tibet region and it was operationalised on 13 October 2015. The main tributaries from the mouth: tributary tributary (km) (km) (m/s) ( Sunkosh ) ( Bhareli ) ( Siyom ) (Matsang Tsangpo) Period: 1971–2000 The Kachari group called
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#1732766031652780-547: Is home to most of the population of the Tibetan Autonomous Region . The Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon , formed by a horse-shoe bend in the river where it leaves the Tibetan Plateau and flows around Namcha Barwa , is the deepest, and possibly longest canyon in the world. The Yarlung Tsangpo River has three major waterfalls in its course. The largest waterfall of the river, the "Hidden Falls",
845-592: Is located in the Tibet Autonomous Region , China . It is the longest river of Tibet and the fifth longest in China. The upper section is also called Dangque Zangbu meaning "Horse River." Originating at Angsi Glacier in western Tibet, southeast of Mount Kailash and Lake Manasarovar , it later forms the South Tibet Valley and Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon before passing into the state of Arunachal Pradesh , India . Downstream from Arunachal Pradesh,
910-708: Is often called the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra river. The lower reaches are sacred to Hindus . While most rivers on the Indian subcontinent have female names, this river has a rare male name. Brahmaputra means "son of Brahma " in Sanskrit . It is known by various names in different regional languages: Brôhmôputrô in Assamese ; Tibetan : ཡར་ཀླུངས་གཙང་པོ་ , Wylie : yar klung gtsang po Yarlung Tsangpo ; simplified Chinese : 布拉马普特拉河 ; traditional Chinese : 布拉馬普特拉河 ; pinyin : Bùlāmǎpǔtèlā Hé . It
975-520: Is significantly influenced by the melting of snow in the upper part of its catchment area. This increase in river flow, caused by the substantial retreat of snow, leads to a higher downstream discharge. Such a rise in discharge often results in severe catastrophic issues, including flooding and erosion. The Brahmaputra River is characterized by its significant rates of sediment discharge, the large and variable flows, along with its rapid channel aggradations and accelerated rates of basin denudation. Over time,
1040-596: Is when and why the Brahmaputra changed its main course, at the site of the Jamuna and the "Old Brahmaputra" fork that can be seen by comparing modern maps to historic maps before the 1800s. The Brahmaputra likely flowed directly south along its present main channel for much of the time since the last glacial maximum , switching back and forth between the two courses several times throughout the Holocene . One idea about
1105-592: The Ganges , which in Bangladesh is called the Padma . When leaving the Tibetan Plateau , the river forms the world's largest and deepest canyon, Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon . The Yarlung Tsangpo River is the highest major river in the world. Its longest tributary is the Nyang River . Major tributaries of Yarlung Tsangpo include Nyangchu River, Lhasa River , Nyang River , and Parlung Tsangpo . In Tibet
1170-517: The Jamalpur and Mymensingh districts. In an 8.8 magnitude earthquake on 2 April 1762 , however, the main channel of the Brahmaputra at Bhahadurabad point was switched southwards and opened as Jamuna due to the result of tectonic uplift of the Madhupur tract . Rising temperatures significantly contribute to snow melting in the upper Brahmaputra catchment. The discharge of the Brahmaputra River
1235-444: The 1998 flood, over 70% of the land area of Bangladesh was inundated, affecting 31 million people and 1 million homesteads. In the 1998 flood which had an unusually long duration from July to September, claimed 918 human lives and was responsible for damaging 1,600 km (990 mi) of roads and 6,000 km (3,700 mi) embankments, and affecting 6,000 km (2,300 sq mi) of standing crops. The 2004 floods, over 25% of
1300-636: The Bay of Bengal through the Meghna estuary and lesser channels flowing through the delta. The growth of the Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta is dominated by tidal processes. The Ganga Delta , fed by the waters of numerous rivers, including the Ganga and Brahmaputra, is 105,000 km (41,000 sq mi), one of the largest river deltas in the world. The Ganges – Brahmaputra – Meghna system has
1365-645: The Bay of Bengal. This final part of the river is called Meghna. The Brahmaputra enters the plains of Bangladesh after turning south around the Garo Hills below Dhuburi, India. After flowing past Chilmari, Bangladesh, it is joined on its right bank by the Tista River and then follows a 240 km (150 mi) course due south as the Jamuna River. (South of Gaibanda, the Old Brahmaputra leaves
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#17327660316521430-480: The Brahmaputra a course worthy of her immense power, and the rivers to right and left silted up. In Renault's Altas they very much resemble the rivers of Jessore, which dried up after the hundred-mouthed Ganga had cut her new channel to join the Meghna at the south of the Munshiganj subdivision. Trans-boundary river A transboundary river is a river that crosses at least one political border , either
1495-610: The Brahmaputra and south through Bangladesh as the Jamuna (not to be confused with the Yamuna of India). In the vast Ganges Delta , it merges with the Ganges , popularly known as the Padma in Bangladesh, and becomes the Meghna and ultimately empties into the Bay of Bengal . At 3,000 km (1,900 mi) long, the Brahmaputra is an important river for irrigation and transportation in
1560-655: The Brahmaputra as a first step towards securing a more direct course to the sea by leaving the Mahdupur Jungle to the east began to send a considerable volume of water down the Jinai or Jabuna from Jamalpur into the Monash and Salangi. These rivers gradually coalesced and kept shifting to the west till they met the Daokoba, which was showing an equally rapid tendency to cut towards the east. The junction of these rivers gave
1625-458: The Brahmaputra at Pandu was 72,726 m/s (2,568,300 cu ft/s) August 1962 while the lowest was 1,757 m/s (62,000 cu ft/s) in February 1968. The increased rates of snow and glacial melt are likely to increase summer flows in some river systems for a few decades, followed by a reduction in flow as the glaciers disappear and snowfall diminishes. This is particularly true for
1690-656: The Himalayas to the south and the Kailas Range to the north. In Tibet, the Tsangpo receives a number of tributaries. The most important left-bank tributaries are the Raka Zangbo (Raka Tsangpo), which joins the river west of Xigazê (Shigatse), and the Lhasa (Kyi), which flows past the Tibetan capital of Lhasa and joins the Tsangpo at Qüxü . The Nyang River joins the Tsangpo from the north at Zela (Tsela Dzong). On
1755-589: The Meghalaya hills, the Assam plains, and northern Bangladesh. The basin, especially south of Tibet, is characterized by high levels of rainfall. Kangchenjunga (8,586 m) is the only peak above 8,000 m and hence is the highest point within the Brahmaputra basin. The Brahmaputra's upper course was long unknown, and its identity with the Yarlung Tsangpo was only established by exploration in 1884–86. The river
1820-560: The adjacent floodplain. Lastly, flood basins are often formed between the levees of adjacent rivers. During the monsoon season (June–October), floods are a very common occurrence. Deforestation in the Brahmaputra watershed has resulted in increased siltation levels, flash floods, and soil erosion in critical downstream habitat, such as the Kaziranga National Park in middle Assam. Occasionally, massive flooding causes huge losses to crops, life, and property. Periodic flooding
1885-705: The ancient pilgrimage centre of Hajo , the Brahmaputra cuts through the rocks of the Shillong Plateau , and is at its narrowest at 1 km (1,100 yd) bank-to-bank. The terrain of this area made it logistically ideal for the Battle of Saraighat , the military confrontation between the Mughal Empire and the Ahom Kingdom in March 1671. The first combined railroad/roadway bridge across the Brahmaputra
1950-625: The capital of Bangladesh, and joins the Meghna River above Munshiganj. The Jamuna joins with the Ganga north of Goalundo Ghat, below which, as the Padma, their combined waters flow to the southeast for a distance of about 120 km (75 mi). After several smaller channels branch off to feed the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta to the south, the main body of the Padma reaches its confluence with the Meghna River near Chandpur and then enters
2015-650: The construction of Brahmaputra Express Highways. The course of the Brahmaputra River has changed dramatically over the past 250 years, with evidence of large-scale avulsion, in the period 1776–1850, of 80 km (50 mi) from east of the Madhupur tract to the west of it. Prior to 1843, the Brahmaputra flowed within the channel now termed the "Old Brahmaputra" . The banks of the river are mostly weakly cohesive sand and silts, which usually erodes through large scale slab failure, where previously deposited materials undergo scour and bank erosion during flood periods. Presently,
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2080-443: The contemporary slow migration of the river, the left bank is being eroded away faster than the right bank. The Brahmaputra River experiences high levels of bank erosion (usually via slab failure) and channel migration caused by its strong current, lack of riverbank vegetation, and loose sand and silt which compose its banks. It is thus difficult to build permanent structures on the river, and protective structures designed to limit
2145-645: The deepening of the Bengal Basin caused by erosion will result in the increase in hydraulic radius, and hence allowing for the huge accumulation of sediments fed from the Himalayan erosion by efficient sediment transportation. The thickness of the sediment accumulated above the Precambrian basement has increased over the years from a few hundred meters to over 18 km (11 mi) in the Bengal fore-deep to
2210-471: The dry season when water availability is crucial for the irrigation systems. The course of the Brahmaputra River has changed drastically in the past two and a half centuries, moving its river course westwards for a distance of about 80 km (50 mi), leaving its old river course, appropriately named the old Brahmaputra river, behind. In the past, the floodplain of the old river course had soils which were more properly formed compared to graded sediments on
2275-567: The flood problem remains unsolved. At least a third of the land of Majuli Island has been eroded by the river. Recently, it is suggested that a highway protected by concrete mat along the river bank and excavation of the river bed can curb this menace. This project, named the Brahmaputra River Restoration Project, is yet to be implemented by the government. Recently the Central Government approved
2340-496: The gorge from 1973 on, had already taken pictures of the falls in 1987 from a helicopter. Since the 1990s the Yarlung Tsangpo River has been the destination of a number of teams that engage in exploration and whitewater kayaking . The river has been called the "Everest of Rivers" because of the extreme conditions of the river. The first attempt to run was made in 1993 by a Japanese group who lost one member on
2405-588: The left bank of the mainstream and flows past Jamalpur and Mymensingh to join the Meghna River at Bhairab Bazar.) Before its confluence with the Ganga, the Jamuna receives the combined waters of the Baral , Atrai , and Hurasagar Rivers on its right bank and becomes the point of departure of the large Dhaleswari River on its left bank. A tributary of the Dhaleswari, the Buriganga ("Old Ganga"), flows past Dhaka,
2470-399: The levee top and the surrounding floodplains is typically 1 m (3 ft) along small channels and 2–3 m (7–10 ft) along major channels. Crevasse splay, a sedimentary fluvial deposit which forms when a stream breaks its natural or artificial levees and deposits sediment on a floodplain, are often formed due to a breach in the levee, forming a lobe of sediments which progrades onto
2535-519: The majority of the river's flow, continues due south as the Jamuna ( Jomuna ) to merge with the lower Ganga, called the Padma River ( Pôdma ). The eastern branch, formerly the larger, but now much smaller, is called the lower or Old Brahmaputra ( Brommoputro ). It curves southeast to join the Meghna River near Dhaka . The Padma and Meghna converge near Chandpur and flow out into
2600-731: The most recent avulsion is that the change in the course of the main waters of the Brahmaputra took place suddenly in 1787, the year of the heavy flooding of the river Tista. In the middle of the 18th century, at least three fair-sized streams flowed between the Rajshahi and Dhaka Divisions, viz., the Daokoba, a branch of the Tista, the Monash or Konai, and the Salangi. The Lahajang and the Elengjany were also important rivers. In Renault's time,
2665-508: The mountains, and one in late summer caused by runoff from monsoon rains. The river flow is strongly influenced by snow and ice melting of the glaciers, which are located mainly on the eastern Himalaya regions in the upstream parts of the basin. The snow and glacier melt contribution to the total annual runoff is about 27%, while the annual rainfall contributes to about 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) and 22,000 m/s (780,000 cu ft/s) of discharge. The highest recorded daily discharge in
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2730-528: The mountains, turns towards the southeast and descends into a low-lying basin as it enters northeastern Assam state. Just west of the town of Sadiya, the river again turns to the southwest and is joined by two mountain streams, the Lohit, and the Dibang. Below that confluence, about 1,450 km (900 mi) from the Bay of Bengal, the river becomes known conventionally as the Brahmaputra ("Son of Brahma"). In Assam,
2795-743: The northern side of the Himalayas in Burang County of Tibet where it is known as the Yarlung Tsangpo River . The Brahmaputra flows along southern Tibet to break through the Himalayas in great gorges (including the Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon ) and into Arunachal Pradesh. It enters India near the village of Gelling in Arunachal Pradesh and flows southwest through the Assam Valley as
2860-406: The northern side of the Himalayas in Burang County of Tibet . The source of the river was earlier thought to be on the Chemayungdung glacier, which covers the slopes of the Himalayas about 60 mi (97 km) southeast of Lake Manasarovar in southwestern Tibet. From its source, the river runs for nearly 1,100 km (680 mi) in a generally easterly direction between the main range of
2925-409: The only bridge to span the river's major distributary, the Jamuna , was thus opened in June 1998. Constructed at a narrow braid belt of the river, it is 4.8 km (3.0 mi) long with a platform 18.5 m (61 ft) wide, and it is used to carry railroad traffic as well as gas, power and telecommunication lines. Due to the variable nature of the river, the prediction of the river's future course
2990-534: The operating Jamuna river. This change of river course resulted in modifications to the soil-forming process, which include acidification, the breakdown of clays and buildup of organic matter, with the soils showing an increasing amount of biotic homogenization, mottling, the coating around Peds and maturing soil arrangement, shape and pattern. In the future, the consequences of local ground subsidence coupled with flood prevention propositions, for instance, localised breakwaters, that increase flood-plain water depths outside
3055-405: The part of Tibet to enter Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh , where the river is called Siang. It makes a very rapid descent from its original height in Tibet and finally appears in the plains, where it is called Dihang. It flows for about 35 km (22 mi) southward after which, it is joined by the Dibang River and the Lohit River at the head of the Assam Valley. Below the Lohit, the river
3120-407: The plateau to the south are the Burhi Dihing, the Disang, the Dikhu, and the Kopili. Between Dibrugarh and Lakhimpur Districts , the river divides into two channels—the northern Kherkutia channel and the southern Brahmaputra channel. The two channels join again about 100 km (62 mi) downstream, forming the Majuli island, which is the largest river island in the world. At Guwahati , near
3185-511: The population of Bangladesh or 36 million people, were affected by the floods; 800 people died; 952 000 houses were destroyed and 1.4 million were badly damaged; 24 000 educational institutions were affected including the destruction of 1200 primary schools, 2 million governments and private tube wells were affected, over 3 million latrines were damaged or washed away, this increases the risks of waterborne diseases including diarrhea and cholera. Also, 1.1 million ha (2.7 million acres) of
3250-417: The region. The average depth of the river is 30 m (100 ft) and its maximum depth is 135 m (440 ft) (at Sadiya ). The river is prone to catastrophic flooding in the spring when the Himalayan snow melts. The average discharge of the Brahmaputra is about ~22,000 m/s (780,000 cu ft/s), and floods reach about 103,000 m/s (3,600,000 cu ft/s). It is a classic example of
3315-430: The rice crop was submerged and lost before it could be harvested, with 7% of the yearly aus (early season) rice crop lost; 270,000 ha (670,000 acres) of grazing land was affected, 5600 livestock perished together with 254 00 poultry and 63 million tonnes (69 million short tons) of lost fish production. Flood-control measures are taken by the water resource department and the Brahmaputra Board, but until now
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#17327660316523380-408: The right bank, a second river called the Nyang Qu (Nyang Chu) meets the Tsangpo at Xigazê. After passing Pi (Pe) in Tibet, the river turns suddenly to the north and northeast and cuts a course through a succession of great narrow gorges between the mountainous massifs of Gyala Peri and Namcha Barwa in a series of rapids and cascades. Thereafter, the river turns south and southwest and flows through
3445-429: The river "Dilao", "Tilao". Early Greek accounts of Curtius and Strabo give its name as Dyardanes ( Ancient greek Δυαρδάνης) and Oidanes. In the past, the course of the lower Brahmaputra was different and passed through the Jamalpur and Mymensingh districts. Some water still flows through that course, now called the Old Brahmaputra, as a distributary of the main channel. A question about the river system in Bangladesh
3510-430: The river becomes far wider and is called the Siang. After reaching Assam , the river is known as the Brahmaputra . From Assam, the river enters Bangladesh at Ramnabazar. From there until about 200 years ago it used to flow eastward and joined the Meghna River near Bhairab Upazila . This old channel has been gradually dying. At present the main channel of the river is called Jamuna River , which flows southward to meet
3575-448: The river flows through the South Tibet Valley, which is approximately 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) long and 300 kilometres (190 mi) wide. The valley descends from 4,500 metres (14,800 ft) above sea level to 3,000 metres (9,800 ft). As it descends, the surrounding vegetation changes from cold desert to arid steppe to deciduous scrub vegetation. It ultimately changes into conifer and rhododendron forest. The tree line
3640-411: The river is mighty, even in the dry season, and during the rains, its banks are more than 8 km (5.0 mi) apart. As the river follows its braided 700 km (430 mi) course through the valley, it receives several rapidly flowing Himalayan streams, including the Subansiri, Kameng, Bhareli, Dhansiri, Manas, Champamati, Saralbhanga, and Sankosh Rivers. The main tributaries from the hills and from
3705-449: The river's erosion rate has decreased to 30 m (98 ft) per year as compared to 150 m (490 ft) per year from 1973 to 1992. This erosion has, however, destroyed so much land that it has caused 0.7 million people to become homeless due to loss of land. Several studies have discussed the reasons for the avulsion of the river into its present course, and have suggested a number of reasons including tectonic activity, switches in
3770-419: The river's erosional effects often face numerous issues during and after construction. In fact, a 2004 report by the Bangladesh Disaster and Emergency Sub-Group (BDER) has stated that several of such protective systems have 'just failed'. However, some progress has been made in the form of construction works which stabilize sections of the river, albeit with the need for heavy maintenance. The Bangabandhu Bridge ,
3835-459: The river. In October 1998, a kayaking expedition sponsored by the National Geographic Society attempted to navigate the Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon . Troubled by unanticipated high water levels, the expedition ended in tragedy with the death of expert kayaker Doug Gordon . In January–February 2002, an international group consisting of Scott Lindgren, Steve Fisher, Mike Abbott, Allan Ellard, Dustin Knapp, and Johnnie and Willie Kern, completed
3900-401: The second-greatest average discharge of the world's rivers—roughly ~44,000 m/s (1,600,000 cu ft/s), and the river Brahmaputra alone supplies about 50% of the total discharge. The rivers' combined suspended sediment load of about 1.87 billion tonnes (1.84 billion tons) per year is the world's highest. In the past, the lower course of the Brahmaputra was different and passed through
3965-504: The south. The ongoing subsidence of the Bengal Basin and the high rate of Himalayan uplift continues to contribute to the large water and sediment discharges of fine sand and silt, with 1% clay, in the Brahmaputra River. Climatic change plays a crucial role in affecting the basin hydrology. Throughout the year, there is a significant rise in hydrograph, with a broad peak between July and September. The Brahmaputra River experiences two high-water seasons, one in early summer caused by snowmelt in
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#17327660316524030-402: The upstream course of the Teesta River, the influence of increased discharge, catastrophic floods and river capture into an old river course. From an analysis of maps of the river between 1776 and 1843, it was concluded in a study that the river avulsion was more likely gradual than catastrophic and sudden, and may have been generated by bank erosion, perhaps around a large mid-channel bar, causing
4095-441: The water breakers, may alter the water levels of the floodplains. Throughout the years, bars, scroll bars, and sand dunes are formed at the edge of the flood plain by deposition. The height difference of the channel topography is often not more than 1–2 m (3–7 ft). Furthermore, flooding over the history of the river has caused the formation of river levees due to deposition from the overbank flow. The height difference between
4160-433: Was constructed at Saraighat . It was opened to traffic in April 1962. The environment of the Brahmaputra floodplains in Assam have been described as the Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests ecoregion . In Bangladesh, the Brahmaputra is joined by the Teesta River (or Tista), one of its largest tributaries. Below the Tista, the Brahmaputra splits into two distributary branches. The western branch, which contains
4225-434: Was not publicized in the West until 1998, when its sighting by Westerners was briefly hailed as a "discovery." They were even portrayed as the discovery of the great falls which had been the topic of stories told to early westerners by Tibetan hunters and Buddhist monks , but which had never been found by Western explorers at the time. The Chinese authorities contradicted, however, saying that Chinese geographers, who explored
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