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58-563: The Dinaric Alps ( / d ɪ ˈ n ær ɪ k / ), also Dinarides , are a mountain range in Southern and Southcentral Europe, separating the continental Balkan Peninsula from the Adriatic Sea . They stretch from Italy in the northwest through Slovenia , Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Serbia , Montenegro , and Kosovo to Albania in the southeast. The Dinaric Alps extend for approximately 645 kilometres (401 mi) along

116-489: A 1918 publication, Cvijić proposed a cyclical model for karst landscape development. Karst hydrology emerged as a discipline in the late 1950s and the early 1960s in France. Previously, the activities of cave explorers, called speleologists , had been dismissed as more of a sport than a science and so the underground karst caves and their associated watercourses were, from a scientific perspective, understudied. Karst

174-613: A fellow of the Royal Society , London, introduced the word karst to European scholars in 1689 to describe the phenomenon of underground flows of rivers in his account of Lake Cerknica . Jovan Cvijić greatly advanced the knowledge of karst regions to the point where he became known as the "father of karst geomorphology". Primarily discussing the karst regions of the Balkans, Cvijić's 1893 publication Das Karstphänomen describes landforms such as karren, dolines and poljes . In

232-531: A major role in the formation of ancient Lechuguilla Cave in the US state of New Mexico and is presently active in the Frasassi Caves of Italy. The oxidation of sulfides leading to the formation of sulfuric acid can also be one of the corrosion factors in karst formation. As oxygen (O 2 )-rich surface waters seep into deep anoxic karst systems, they bring oxygen, which reacts with sulfide present in

290-843: A variety of rock types . Most geologically young mountain ranges on the Earth's land surface are associated with either the Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide belt . The Pacific Ring of Fire includes the Andes of South America, extends through the North American Cordillera , the Aleutian Range , on through Kamchatka Peninsula , Japan , Taiwan , the Philippines , Papua New Guinea , to New Zealand . The Andes

348-529: A well in a fracture trace or intersection of fracture traces increases the likelihood to encounter good water production. Voids in karst aquifers can be large enough to cause destructive collapse or subsidence of the ground surface that can initiate a catastrophic release of contaminants. Groundwater flow rate in karst aquifers is much more rapid than in porous aquifers. For example, in the Barton Springs Edwards aquifer, dye traces measured

406-722: Is 7,000 kilometres (4,350 mi) long and is often considered the world's longest mountain system. The Alpide belt stretches 15,000 km across southern Eurasia , from Java in Maritime Southeast Asia to the Iberian Peninsula in Western Europe , including the ranges of the Himalayas , Karakoram , Hindu Kush , Alborz , Caucasus , and the Alps . The Himalayas contain the highest mountains in

464-455: Is a topography formed from the dissolution of soluble carbonate rocks such as limestone and dolomite . It is characterized by features like poljes above and drainage systems with sinkholes and caves underground. There is some evidence that karst may occur in more weathering -resistant rocks such as quartzite given the right conditions. Subterranean drainage may limit surface water, with few to no rivers or lakes. In regions where

522-505: Is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Many karst-related terms derive from South Slavic languages , entering scientific vocabulary through early research in the Western Balkan Dinaric Alpine karst. The study of the various aspects of karst regions is called karstology. This includes biological, chemical, ecological, geomorphological, hydrogeological, hydrological, political, socio-economical, and other processes over

580-562: Is a development of karst observed in geological history and preserved within the rock sequence, effectively a fossil karst. There are for example palaeokarst surfaces exposed within the Clydach Valley Subgroup of the Carboniferous Limestone sequence of South Wales which developed as sub-aerial weathering of recently formed limestones took place during periods of non-deposition within the early part of

638-538: Is a karst landscape which is developed beneath a cover of insoluble rocks. Typically this will involve a cover of sandstone overlying limestone strata undergoing solution. In the United Kingdom for example extensive doline fields have developed at Cefn yr Ystrad , Mynydd Llangatwg and Mynydd Llangynidr in South Wales across a cover of Twrch Sandstone which overlies concealed Carboniferous Limestone ,

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696-538: Is at work while the mountains are being uplifted until the mountains are reduced to low hills and plains. The early Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado provides an example. As the uplift was occurring some 10,000 feet (3,000 m) of mostly Mesozoic sedimentary strata were removed by erosion over the core of the mountain range and spread as sand and clays across the Great Plains to

754-742: Is built mostly of Mesozoic limestone and dolomite deposited on top of a huge Bahama-type carbonate platform, while a few kilometers thick carbonate successions have been deformed during the Alpine orogenesis. The main tectonic phase of the Alpine orogenesis in the Dinaric Karst region took place in the Cenozoic Era ( Paleogene ) as a result of the Adriatic microplate (Adria) collision with the Serbo-Macedonian and Rhodope Massifs, and

812-516: Is communication possible across the Karst, and roads and railways tunnel through precipitous cliffs and traverse narrow ledges above roaring torrents. A number of springs and rivers rise in the Dinaric range, including Jadro Spring noted for having been the source of water for Diocletian's Palace at Split. At the same time, the purity of these rocks is such that the rivers are crystal clear, and there

870-468: Is developed in areas where salt is undergoing solution underground. It can lead to surface depressions and collapses which present a geo-hazard. Karst areas tend to have unique types of forests. The karst terrain is difficult for humans to traverse, so that their ecosystems are often relatively undisturbed. The soil tends to have a high pH, which encourages growth of unusual species of orchids, palms, mangroves, and other plants. Paleokarst or palaeokarst

928-531: Is drier, having been stripped of much of its moisture. Often, a rain shadow will affect the leeward side of a range. As a consequence, large mountain ranges, such as the Andes, compartmentalize continents into distinct climate regions . Mountain ranges are constantly subjected to erosional forces which work to tear them down. The basins adjacent to an eroding mountain range are then filled with sediments that are buried and turned into sedimentary rock . Erosion

986-524: Is found in porous karst systems. The English word karst was borrowed from German Karst in the late 19th century, which entered German usage much earlier, to describe a number of geological, geomorphological, and hydrological features found within the range of the Dinaric Alps , stretching from the northeastern corner of Italy above the city of Trieste , across the Balkan peninsula along

1044-636: Is frequently unseen until the roof of a cavern suddenly collapses. Such events have swallowed homes, cattle, cars, and farm machinery. In the United States, sudden collapse of such a cavern-sinkhole swallowed part of the collection of the National Corvette Museum in Bowling Green, Kentucky in 2014. The world's largest limestone karst is Australia's Nullarbor Plain . Slovenia has the world's highest risk of sinkholes, while

1102-476: Is little soil-making residue. Water quality testing of the Jadro River , for example, indicates the low pollutant levels present. Rock faces are often bare of vegetation and glaring white, but what little soil there is may collect in the hollows and support lush lime-tolerant vegetation, or yield narrow strips of cultivation. Ruins of fortresses dot the mountainous landscape, evidence of centuries of war and

1160-534: Is located in Albania. The Dinaric Alps are one of the most rugged and extensive mountainous areas of Europe, alongside the Caucasus Mountains , Alps , Pyrenees , Carpathian Mountains and Scandinavian Mountains . They are formed largely of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks of dolomite , limestone , sandstone and conglomerates formed by seas and lakes that once covered the area. During

1218-402: Is moderate to heavy. This contributes to rapid downward movement of groundwater, which promotes dissolution of the bedrock, whereas standing groundwater becomes saturated with carbonate minerals and ceases to dissolve the bedrock. The carbonic acid that causes karst features is formed as rain passes through Earth's atmosphere picking up carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), which readily dissolves in

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1276-428: Is most strongly developed in dense carbonate rock , such as limestone, that is thinly bedded and highly fractured . Karst is not typically well developed in chalk , because chalk is highly porous rather than dense, so the flow of groundwater is not concentrated along fractures. Karst is also most strongly developed where the water table is relatively low, such as in uplands with entrenched valleys , and where rainfall

1334-579: Is the most important corrosive force , dissolving the limestone by chemical action of its natural acidity. As it percolates down through cracks in the limestone it opens up fissures and channels, often of considerable depth, so that whole systems of underground drainage develop. During subsequent millennia these work deeper, leaving in their wake enormous waterless caverns , sinkholes and grottoes and forming underground labyrinths of channels and shafts. The roofs of some of these caverns may eventually fall in, to produce great perpendicular-sided gorges, exposing

1392-692: The Alpine earth movements that occurred 50 to 100 million years ago, immense lateral pressures folded and overthrust the rocks in a great arc around the old rigid block of the northeast. The main tectonic phase of the orogenesis in the area of the Dinaric Karst took place in Cenozoic Era (Paleogene) as a result of the Adriatic Microplate (Adria) collision with Europe, and the process is still active. The Dinaric Alps were thrown up in more or less parallel ranges, stretching like necklaces from

1450-578: The Mithrim Montes and Doom Mons on Titan, and Tenzing Montes and Hillary Montes on Pluto. Some terrestrial planets other than Earth also exhibit rocky mountain ranges, such as Maxwell Montes on Venus taller than any on Earth and Tartarus Montes on Mars . Jupiter's moon Io has mountain ranges formed from tectonic processes including the Boösaule , Dorian, Hi'iaka and Euboea Montes . Karst Karst ( / k ɑːr s t / )

1508-473: The Ocean Ridge forms the longest continuous mountain system on Earth, with a length of 65,000 kilometres (40,400 mi). The position of mountain ranges influences climate, such as rain or snow. When air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools, producing orographic precipitation (rain or snow). As the air descends on the leeward side, it warms again (following the adiabatic lapse rate ) and

1566-546: The Ottoman Empire failed to fully subjugate the mountainous areas of Montenegro . In the 20th century, too, the mountains provided favourable terrain for guerrilla warfare , with Yugoslav Partisans organising one of the most successful Allied resistance movements of World War II . The area remains underpopulated, and forestry and mining remain the chief economic activities in the Dinaric Alps. The people of

1624-488: The Balkans. No permanent ice caps existed, and there is little evidence of extensive glaciation . Only the highest summits of Durmitor , Orjen and Prenj have glacial valleys and moraines as low as 600 m (1,969 ft). However, in the Accursed Mountains ( Serbo-Croatian : Prokletije ), a range on the northern Albanian border that runs east to west (thus breaking the general geographic trend of

1682-459: The Dinaric Alps are on record as being the tallest in the world, with an average male adolescent height of 185.6 cm (6 ft 1.1 in). The people of Bosnia and Herzegovina have the highest recorded average of any single country, with 183.9 cm average for men and 171.8 cm for women. The main mountain passes of the Dinaric Alps are: Major tunnels transversing the Dinaric Alps include: The famous Belgrade–Bar railway crosses

1740-472: The Dinaric system), there is evidence of major glaciation. One geological feature of great importance to the present-day landscape of the Dinarides must be considered in more detail: that of the limestone mountains, often with their attendant faulting. They are hard and slow to erode, and often persist as steep jagged escarpments, through which steep-sided gorges and canyons are cleft by the rivers draining

1798-923: The Julian Alps as far as northern Albania and Kosovo, where the mountainous terrain subsides to make way for the waters of the Drin River and the plains of Kosovo. The Dinarides are named after Mount Dinara (1,831 m), a prominent peak in the center of the mountain range on the border with the Dalmatian part of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Names of the chain in local languages include Albanian : Alpet Dinarike [alpɛt dinaɾikɛ] or Dinaret ; Italian : Alpi Dinariche [alpi dinarike] ; Serbo-Croatian : Динариди , Dinaridi or Динарско горје Dinarsko gorje [dìnarskòː ɡòːrjeː] ; Slovene : Dinarsko gorstvo [dìnarskòː ɡòːrstvòː] . The Dinaric Karst region

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1856-427: The coast of the eastern Adriatic to Kosovo and North Macedonia , where the massif of the Šar Mountains begins. The karst zone is at the northwesternmost section, described in early topographical research as a plateau between Italy and Slovenia . Languages preserving this form include Italian : Carso , German : Karst , and Albanian : karsti . In the local South Slavic languages , all variations of

1914-450: The complexity of karst aquifers, and need to be supplemented with dye traces , measurement of spring discharges, and analysis of water chemistry. U.S. Geological Survey dye tracing has determined that conventional groundwater models that assume a uniform distribution of porosity are not applicable for karst aquifers. Linear alignment of surface features such as straight stream segments and sinkholes develop along fracture traces . Locating

1972-443: The dissolved bedrock is covered (perhaps by debris) or confined by one or more superimposed non-soluble rock strata, distinctive karst features may occur only at subsurface levels and can be totally missing above ground. The study of paleokarst (buried karst in the stratigraphic column ) is important in petroleum geology because as much as 50% of the world's hydrocarbon reserves are hosted in carbonate rock , and much of this

2030-485: The east. This mass of rock was removed as the range was actively undergoing uplift. The removal of such a mass from the core of the range most likely caused further uplift as the region adjusted isostatically in response to the removed weight. Rivers are traditionally believed to be the principal cause of mountain range erosion, by cutting into bedrock and transporting sediment. Computer simulation has shown that as mountain belts change from tectonically active to inactive,

2088-557: The fissures. The enlarged fissures allow a larger quantity of water to enter which leads to a progressive enlargement of openings. Abundant small openings store a large quantity of water. The larger openings form a conduit system that drains the aquifer to springs. Characterization of karst aquifers requires field exploration to locate sinkholes, swallets , sinking streams , and springs in addition to studying geologic maps . Conventional hydrogeologic methods such as aquifer tests and potentiometric mapping are insufficient to characterize

2146-466: The global demand for drinkable water. Farming in karst areas must take into account the lack of surface water. The soils may be fertile enough, and rainfall may be adequate, but rainwater quickly moves through the crevices into the ground, sometimes leaving the surface soil parched between rains. The karst topography also poses peculiar difficulties for human inhabitants. Sinkholes can develop gradually as surface openings enlarge, but progressive erosion

2204-558: The higher slopes. The partially submerged western Dinaric Alps form the numerous islands and harbors along the Croatian coast. The most extensive example of limestone mountains in Europe are those of the Karst of the Dinaric Alps. Here, all the characteristic features are encountered again and again as one travels through this wild and thinly populated country. Limestone is a very porous rock, yet very hard and resistant to erosion . Water

2262-456: The karst groundwater flow rates from 0.5 to 7 miles per day (0.8 to 11.3 km/d). The rapid groundwater flow rates make karst aquifers much more sensitive to groundwater contamination than porous aquifers. Groundwater in karst areas is also just as easily polluted as surface streams, because Karst formations are cavernous and highly permeable, resulting in reduced opportunity for contaminant filtration. Well water may also be unsafe as

2320-562: The last-named locality having been declared a site of special scientific interest in respect of it. Kegelkarst is a type of tropical karst terrain with numerous cone-like hills, formed by cockpits, mogotes , and poljes and without strong fluvial erosion processes. This terrain is found in Cuba, Jamaica, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, southern China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. Salt karst (or 'halite karst')

2378-647: The most dramatic of these formations can be seen in Thailand 's Phangnga Bay and at Halong Bay in Vietnam . Calcium carbonate dissolved into water may precipitate out where the water discharges some of its dissolved carbon dioxide. Rivers which emerge from springs may produce tufa terraces, consisting of layers of calcite deposited over extended periods of time. In caves, a variety of features collectively called speleothems are formed by deposition of calcium carbonate and other dissolved minerals. Interstratal karst

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2436-510: The mountains. The mountains and plateaus within the Dinarides are found in the following regions: Mountain range Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys . Individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology . They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes , for example thrust sheets , uplifted blocks , fold mountains, and volcanic landforms resulting in

2494-709: The period. Sedimentation resumed and further limestone strata were deposited on an irregular karst surface, the cycle recurring several times in connection with fluctuating sea levels over prolonged periods. Pseudokarsts are similar in form or appearance to karst features but are created by different mechanisms. Examples include lava caves and granite tors —for example, Labertouche Cave in Victoria, Australia —and paleocollapse features. Mud Caves are an example of pseudokarst. Karst formations have unique hydrology, resulting in many unusual features. A karst fenster (karst window) occurs when an underground stream emerges onto

2552-560: The process is still active. The Mesozoic limestone forms a very distinctive region of the Balkans , notable for features such as the Karst Plateau , which has given its name to all such terrains of limestone eroded by groundwater. The Dinarides are known for being composed of karst – limestone rocks – as is Dinara , the mountain for which they were named. The Quaternary ice ages had relatively little direct geologic influence on

2610-627: The rate of erosion drops because there are fewer abrasive particles in the water and fewer landslides. Mountains on other planets and natural satellites of the Solar System, including the Moon , are often isolated and formed mainly by processes such as impacts, though there are examples of mountain ranges (or "Montes") somewhat similar to those on Earth. Saturn 's moon Titan and Pluto , in particular, exhibit large mountain ranges in chains composed mainly of ices rather than rock. Examples include

2668-561: The refuge the Dinaric Alps have provided to various armed forces. During the Roman period, the Dinarides provided shelter to the Illyrians resisting Roman conquest of the Balkans, which began with the conquest of the eastern Adriatic coast in the 3rd century BC. Rome conquered the whole of Illyria in 168 BC, but these mountains sheltered Illyrian resistance forces for many years until the area's complete subjugation by 14 AD. More recently,

2726-780: The river flows into a cave in a formation known as the Madison Limestone and then rises again 800 m ( 1 ⁄ 2  mi) down the canyon in a placid pool. A turlough is a unique type of seasonal lake found in Irish karst areas which are formed through the annual welling-up of water from the underground water system. Main Article Aquifer#Karst Karst aquifers typically develop in limestone . Surface water containing natural carbonic acid moves down into small fissures in limestone. This carbonic acid gradually dissolves limestone thereby enlarging

2784-649: The surface between layers of rock, cascades some distance, and then disappears back down, often into a sinkhole. Rivers in karst areas may disappear underground a number of times and spring up again in different places, even under a different name, like Ljubljanica , the "river of seven names". Another example of this is the Popo Agie River in Fremont County, Wyoming , where, at a site named "The Sinks" in Sinks Canyon State Park ,

2842-1135: The surface to the water once more. The Dinaric rivers carved many canyons characteristic for Dinaric Alps, and in particular karst. Among the largest and most well known are the Neretva , the Rakitnica , the Prača , the Drina , the Sutjeska , the Vrbas , the Ugar , the Piva , the Tara , the Komarnica , the Morača , the Cem/Ciijevna , the Lim , and the Drin . Only along the Dinaric gorges

2900-415: The surface, complex underground drainage systems (such as karst aquifers ) and extensive caves and cavern systems may form. Erosion along limestone shores, notably in the tropics , produces karst topography that includes a sharp makatea surface above the normal reach of the sea, and undercuts that are mostly the result of biological activity or bioerosion at or a little above mean sea level . Some of

2958-1002: The system ( pyrite or hydrogen sulfide ) to form sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ). Sulfuric acid then reacts with calcium carbonate, causing increased erosion within the limestone formation. This chain of reactions is: This reaction chain forms gypsum . The karstification of a landscape may result in a variety of large- or small-scale features both on the surface and beneath. On exposed surfaces, small features may include solution flutes (or rillenkarren), runnels , limestone pavement (clints and grikes), kamenitzas collectively called karren or lapiez. Medium-sized surface features may include sinkholes or cenotes (closed basins), vertical shafts, foibe (inverted funnel shaped sinkholes), disappearing streams, and reappearing springs . Large-scale features may include limestone pavements , poljes , and karst valleys. Mature karst landscapes, where more bedrock has been removed than remains, may result in karst towers , or haystack/eggbox landscapes. Beneath

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3016-461: The water may have run unimpeded from a sinkhole in a cattle pasture, bypassing the normal filtering that occurs in a porous aquifer . Sinkholes have often been used as farmstead or community trash dumps . Overloaded or malfunctioning septic tanks in karst landscapes may dump raw sewage directly into underground channels. Geologists are concerned with these negative effects of human activity on karst hydrology which, as of 2007 , supplied about 25% of

3074-417: The water. Once the rain reaches the ground, it may pass through soil that provides additional CO 2 produced by soil respiration . Some of the dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with the water to form a weak carbonic acid solution, which dissolves calcium carbonate . The primary reaction sequence in limestone dissolution is the following: In very rare conditions, oxidation can play a role. Oxidation played

3132-515: The western Highland Rim in the eastern United States is at the second-highest risk of karst sinkholes. In Canada, Wood Buffalo National Park , Northwest Territories contains areas of karst sinkholes. Mexico hosts important karst regions in the Yucatán Peninsula and Chiapas . The West of Ireland is home to The Burren , a karst limestone area. The South China Karst in the provinces of Guizhou , Guangxi , and Yunnan provinces

3190-466: The western Balkan Peninsula from the Julian Alps of the northeast Italy, downwards to the Šar and Korab massif , where their direction changes. The Accursed Mountains are the highest section of the entire Dinaric Alps; this section stretches from Albania to Kosovo and eastern Montenegro . Maja Jezercë , standing at 2,694 metres (8,839 ft) above the Adriatic , is the highest peak and

3248-454: The word are derived from a Romanized Illyrian base (yielding Latin : carsus , Dalmatian : carsus ), later metathesized from the reconstructed form * korsъ into forms such as Slovene : kras and Serbo-Croatian : krš , kras , first attested in the 18th century, and the adjective form kraški in the 16th century. As a proper noun, the Slovene form Grast

3306-543: The world, including Mount Everest , which is 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) high. Mountain ranges outside these two systems include the Arctic Cordillera , Appalachians , Great Dividing Range , East Siberians , Altais , Scandinavians , Qinling , Western Ghats , Vindhyas , Byrrangas , and the Annamite Range . If the definition of a mountain range is stretched to include underwater mountains, then

3364-589: Was first attested in 1177. Ultimately, the word is of Mediterranean origin. It has also been suggested that the word may derive from the Proto-Indo-European root karra- 'rock'. The name may also be connected to the oronym Kar(u)sádios oros cited by Ptolemy , and perhaps also to Latin Carusardius . Johann Weikhard von Valvasor , a pioneer of the study of karst in Slovenia and

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