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137-409: Depression is a mental state of low mood and aversion to activity. It affects about 3.5% of the global population , or about 280 million people of all ages (as of 2020). Depression affects a person's thoughts , behavior , feelings , and sense of well-being . Experiences that would normally bring a person pleasure or joy gives reduced pleasure or joy, and the afflicted person often experiences

274-427: A seasonal affective disorder . Outside the mood disorders: borderline personality disorder often features an extremely intense depressive mood; adjustment disorder with depressed mood is a psychological response to an identifiable event or stressor, in which the resulting emotional or behavioral symptoms are significant but do not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode; and posttraumatic stress disorder ,

411-542: A "rational response to global conditions", according to Ann Cvetkovich . Psychogeographical depression overlaps somewhat with the theory of "deprejudice", a portmanteau of depression and prejudice proposed by Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon in 2012, who argue for an integrative approach to studying the often comorbid experiences. Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon are concerned with the ways in which social stereotypes are often internalized , creating negative self-stereotypes that then produce depressive symptoms. Unlike

548-446: A cluster of loosely related ideas. Mental states are usually contrasted with physical or material aspects. This contrast is commonly based on the idea that certain features of mental phenomena are not present in the material universe as described by the natural sciences and may even be incompatible with it. Epistemic approaches emphasize that the subject has privileged access to all or at least some of their mental states. It

685-402: A comprehensive account of all forms of rationality but it is more common to find separate treatments of specific forms of rationality that leave the relation to other forms of rationality open. There are various competing definitions of what constitutes rationality but no universally accepted answer. Some accounts focus on the relation between mental states for determining whether a given state

822-527: A conglomeration of mental representations and propositional attitudes. Several theories in philosophy and psychology try to determine the relationship between the agent's mental state and a proposition. Instead of looking into what a mental state is, in itself, clinical psychology and psychiatry determine a person's mental health through a mental status examination . Mental states also include attitudes towards propositions , of which there are at least two— factive and non-factive, both of which entail

959-431: A constricting effect on the bronchi of the lungs, possibly worsening or causing asthma symptoms. Since β 2 adrenergic receptors can cause vascular smooth muscle dilation, beta blockers may cause some vasoconstriction. However, this effect tends to be small because the activity of β 2 receptors is overshadowed by the more dominant vasoconstricting α 1 receptors. By far the greatest effect of beta blockers remains in

1096-454: A decrease in renin secretion, which in turn reduces the heart oxygen demand by lowering the extracellular volume and increasing the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. Heart failure characteristically involves increased catecholamine activity on the heart, which is responsible for several deleterious effects, including increased oxygen demand, propagation of inflammatory mediators, and abnormal cardiac tissue remodeling, all of which decrease

1233-418: A diagnosis of a psychiatric or medical condition which may benefit from treatment. The UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) 2009 guidelines indicate that antidepressants should not be routinely used for the initial treatment of mild depression, because the risk-benefit ratio is poor. Physical activity has a protective effect against the emergence of depression in some people. There

1370-556: A distinction between endogenous (internally caused) and exogenous (externally caused) types. Other psycho-dynamic theories were proposed. Existential and humanistic theories represented a forceful affirmation of individualism. Austrian existential psychiatrist Viktor Frankl connected depression to feelings of futility and meaninglessness . Frankl's logotherapy addressed the filling of an "existential vacuum" associated with such feelings, and may be particularly useful for depressed adolescents. Researchers theorized that depression

1507-577: A feature which non-intentional states lack. A mental state is conscious if it belongs to a phenomenal experience. Unconscious mental states are also part of the mind but they lack this phenomenal dimension. Occurrent mental states are active or causally efficacious within the owner's mind while non-occurrent or standing states exist somewhere in the back of one's mind but do not currently play an active role in any mental processes . Certain mental states are rationally evaluable: they are either rational or irrational depending on whether they obey

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1644-412: A further decrease in ejection fraction, worsening the patient's current symptoms. Beta blockers are known primarily for their reductive effect on heart rate, although this is not the only mechanism of action of importance in congestive heart failure. Beta blockers, in addition to their sympatholytic β 1 activity in the heart, influence the renin–angiotensin system at the kidneys. Beta blockers cause

1781-525: A gradual escalation of the dose. The heart of the patient must adjust to decreasing stimulation by catecholamines and find a new equilibrium at a lower adrenergic drive. Beta blockers are indicated for the treatment of acute myocardial infarctions . During a myocardial infarction, systemic stress causes an increase in circulating catecholamines . This results an increase in heart rate and blood pressure, therefore increasing myocardial oxygen demand. Beta blockers competitively inhibit catecholamines acting on

1918-577: A judgment that this event happened together with a negative evaluation of it. Brentano's distinction between judgments, phenomena of love and hate, and presentations is closely related to the more recent idea of direction of fit between mental state and world, i.e. mind-to-world direction of fit for judgments, the world-to-mind direction of fit for phenomena of love and hate and null direction of fit for mere presentations. Brentano's tripartite system of classification has been modified in various ways by Brentano's students. Alexius Meinong , for example, divides

2055-487: A loss of motivation or interest in those activities. Depressed mood is a symptom of some mood disorders , also categorized and called depression , such as major depressive disorder , bipolar disorder and dysthymia . It is a normal temporary reaction to life events, such as the loss of a loved one; and it is also a symptom of some physical diseases and a side effect of some drugs and medical treatments. It may feature sadness , difficulty in thinking and concentration, or

2192-410: A main symptom. The mood disorders are a group of disorders considered to be primary disturbances of mood. These include major depressive disorder (commonly called major depression or clinical depression) where a person has at least two weeks of depressed mood or a loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities; and dysthymia , a state of chronic depressed mood, the symptoms of which do not meet

2329-432: A medical diagnosis (cancer, HIV, diabetes, etc.), bullying, loss of a loved one, natural disasters, social isolation, rape, relationship troubles, jealousy, separation, or catastrophic injury . Similar depressive symptoms are associated with survivor's guilt . Adolescents may be especially prone to experiencing a depressed mood following social rejection , peer pressure, or bullying. Depression in childhood and adolescence

2466-444: A mental disorder that sometimes follows trauma , is commonly accompanied by depressed mood. Researchers have begun to conceptualize ways in which the historical legacies of racism and colonialism may create depressive conditions. Given the lived experiences of marginalized peoples, ranging from conditions of migration , class stratification , cultural genocide , labor exploitation , and social immobility , depression can be seen as

2603-438: A mind-to-world direction of fit : they represent the world as being a certain way and aim at truth. They contrast with desires , which are conative propositional attitudes that have a world-to-mind direction of fit and aim to change the world by representing how it should be. Desires are closely related to agency : they motivate the agent and are thus involved in the formation of intentions . Intentions are plans to which

2740-505: A patient with diabetes mellitus on beta blockers. Abrupt withdrawal can result in a thyroid storm . Unless a pacemaker is present, beta blockers can severely depress conduction in the AV node, resulting in a reduction of heart rate and cardiac output. One should be very cautious with the use of beta blockers in tachycardia patients with Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome, as it can result in life-threatening arrhythmia in certain patients. By slowing

2877-402: A problem without representing it. But some theorists have argued that even these apparent counterexamples should be considered intentional when properly understood. Behaviorist definitions characterize mental states as dispositions to engage in certain publicly observable behavior as a reaction to particular external stimuli. On this view, to ascribe a belief to someone is to describe

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3014-435: A process of self-recognition and identifying familiar stimuli. By maintaining one's personal past and identity, it is a technique that stimulates people to view their lives in a more objective and balanced way, causing them to pay attention to positive information in their life stories, which would successfully reduce depressive mood levels. There is limited evidence that continuing antidepressant medication for one year reduces

3151-471: A result of these factors. It is possible that some early generation beta-blockers induce depression in some patients, though the evidence for this is weak and conflicting. There is strong evidence for a link between alpha interferon therapy and depression. One study found that a third of alpha interferon-treated patients had developed depression after three months of treatment. ( Beta interferon therapy appears to have no effect on rates of depression.) There

3288-506: A significant increase or decrease in appetite and time spent sleeping. People experiencing depression may have feelings of dejection or hopelessness and may experience suicidal thoughts . Depression can either be short term or long term. Adversity in childhood , such as bereavement, neglect, mental abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, or unequal parental treatment of siblings, can contribute to depression in adulthood. Childhood physical or sexual abuse in particular significantly correlates with

3425-577: A specific event or object. Imagination is even further removed from the actual world in that it represents things without aiming to show how they actually are. All the aforementioned states can leave traces in memory that make it possible to relive them at a later time in the form of episodic memory. An important distinction among mental states is between sensory and non-sensory states. Sensory states involve some form of sense impressions like visual perceptions, auditory impressions or bodily pains. Non-sensory states, like thought, rational intuition or

3562-432: A study on academic journal Molecular Psychiatry that depression is not caused by a serotonin imbalance in the human body, unlike what most of the psychiatry community points to, and that therefore anti-depressants do not work against the illness. However, such study was met with criticism from some psychiatrists, who argued the study's methodology used an indirect trace of serotonin, instead of taking direct measurements of

3699-475: A technical level, while some, such as Barry Green, the author of "The Inner Game of Music" and Don Greene, a former Olympic diving coach who teaches Juilliard students to overcome their stage fright naturally, say the performances may be perceived as "soulless and inauthentic". Low certainty evidence indicates that the use of beta blockers around the time of cardiac surgery may decrease the risk of heart dysrhythmias and atrial fibrillation . Starting them around

3836-504: A that-clause. So believing that it will rain today, for example, is a propositional attitude. It has been argued that the contrast between qualitative states and propositional attitudes is misleading since there is some form of subjective feel to certain propositional states like understanding a sentence or suddenly thinking of something. This would suggest that there are also non-sensory qualitative states and some propositional attitudes may be among them. Another problem with this contrast

3973-585: Is a great variety of types of mental states, which can be classified according to various distinctions. These types include perception , belief , desire , intention , emotion and memory . Many of the proposed distinctions for these types have significant overlaps and some may even be identical. Sensory states involve sense impressions, which are absent in non-sensory states . Propositional attitudes are mental states that have propositional contents, in contrast to non-propositional states . Intentional states refer to or are about objects or states of affairs,

4110-441: Is a mental state to which the subject lacks the forms of privileged epistemic access mentioned. One way to respond to this worry is to ascribe a privileged status to conscious mental states. On such a consciousness-based approach , conscious mental states are non-derivative constituents of the mind while unconscious states somehow depend on their conscious counterparts for their existence. An influential example of this position

4247-713: Is also commonly associated with orthostatic hypotension . Carvedilol therapy is commonly associated with edema . Due to the high penetration across the blood–brain barrier , lipophilic beta blockers, such as propranolol and metoprolol , are more likely than other less lipophilic beta blockers to cause sleep disturbances, such as insomnia, vivid dreams and nightmares. Adverse effects associated with β 2 -adrenergic receptor antagonist activity (bronchospasm, peripheral vasoconstriction, alteration of glucose and lipid metabolism) are less common with β 1 -selective (often termed "cardioselective") agents, but receptor selectivity diminishes at higher doses. Beta blockade, especially of

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4384-443: Is associated with low extraversion , and people who have high levels of neuroticism are more likely to experience depressive symptoms and are more likely to receive a diagnosis of a depressive disorder. Additionally, depression is associated with low conscientiousness. Some factors that may arise from low conscientiousness include disorganization and dissatisfaction with life. Individuals may be more exposed to stress and depression as

4521-471: Is available for reasoning and guiding behavior, even if it is not associated with any subjective feel characterizing the concurrent phenomenal experience. Being an access-conscious state is similar but not identical to being an occurrent mental state, the topic of the next section. A mental state is occurrent if it is active or causally efficacious within the owner's mind. Non-occurrent states are called standing or dispositional states. They exist somewhere in

4658-470: Is avoided by functionalist approaches, which define mental states through their causal roles but allow both external and internal events in their causal network. On this view, the definition of pain-state may include aspects such as being in a state that "tends to be caused by bodily injury, to produce the belief that something is wrong with the body and ... to cause wincing or moaning". One important aspect of both behaviorist and functionalist approaches

4795-497: Is crucial for the access of treatments. The mhGAP adopted its approach of improving detection rates of depression by training general practitioners. However, there is still weak evidence supporting this training. According to 2011 study, people who are high in hypercompetitive traits are also likely to measure higher for depression and anxiety. The term depression was derived from the Latin verb deprimere , "to press down". From

4932-418: Is due to John Searle , who holds that unconscious mental states have to be accessible to consciousness to count as "mental" at all. They can be understood as dispositions to bring about conscious states. This position denies that the so-called "deep unconscious", i.e. mental contents inaccessible to consciousness, exists. Another problem for consciousness-based approaches , besides the issue of accounting for

5069-471: Is engaged in her favorite computer game, she still believes that dogs have four legs and desires to get a pet dog on her next birthday. But these two states play no active role in her current state of mind. Another example comes from dreamless sleep when most or all of our mental states are standing states. Certain mental states, like beliefs and intentions , are rationally evaluable: they are either rational or irrational depending on whether they obey

5206-509: Is given in virtue of the coherence among the different mental states of a subject. This involves an holistic outlook that is less concerned with the rationality of individual mental states and more with the rationality of the person as a whole. Other accounts focus not on the relation between two or several mental states but on responding correctly to external reasons. Reasons are usually understood as facts that count in favor or against something. On this account, Scarlet's aforementioned belief

5343-401: Is limited evidence suggesting yoga may help some people with depressive disorders or elevated levels of depression, but more research is needed. Reminiscence of old and fond memories is another alternative form of treatment, especially for the elderly who have lived longer and have more experiences in life. It is a method that causes a person to recollect memories of their own life, leading to

5480-791: Is moderately strong evidence that finasteride when used in the treatment of alopecia increases depressive symptoms in some patients. Evidence linking isotretinoin , an acne treatment, to depression is strong. Other medicines that seem to increase the risk of depression include anticonvulsants , antimigraine drugs , antipsychotics and hormonal agents such as gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist . Several drugs of abuse can cause or exacerbate depression, whether in intoxication, withdrawal, and from chronic use. These include alcohol, sedatives (including prescription benzodiazepines ), opioids (including prescription pain killers and illicit drugs such as heroin), stimulants (such as cocaine and amphetamines), hallucinogens, and inhalants . Depressed mood can be

5617-422: Is presented but in mode or how it is presented. The most basic kind is presentation , which is involved in every mental state. Pure presentations, as in imagination, just show their object without any additional information about the veridical or evaluative aspects of their object. A judgment , on the other hand, is an attitude directed at a presentation that asserts that its presentation is either true or false, as

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5754-473: Is rational because it responds correctly to the external fact that it is raining, which constitutes a reason for holding this belief. An influential classification of mental states is due to Franz Brentano . He argues that there are three basic kinds: presentations , judgments , and phenomena of love and hate . All mental states either belong to one of these kinds or are constituted by combinations of them. These different types differ not in content or what

5891-482: Is rational. In one view, a state is rational if it is well-grounded in another state that acts as its source of justification. For example, Scarlet's belief that it is raining in Manchester is rational because it is grounded in her perceptual experience of the rain while the same belief would be irrational for Frank since he lacks such a perceptual ground. A different version of such an approach holds that rationality

6028-655: Is shown to be lower than those who do not. Likewise, those from smaller towns and rural areas tend to have higher rates of depression, anxiety, and psychological unwellness. Studies have consistently shown that physicians have had the highest depression and suicide rates compared to people in many other lines of work—for suicide, 40% higher for male physicians and 130% higher for female physicians. Life events and changes that may cause depressed mood includes, but are not limited to, childbirth, menopause, financial difficulties, unemployment, stress (such as from work, education, military service, family, living conditions, marriage, etc.),

6165-539: Is similar to adult major depressive disorder, although young sufferers may exhibit increased irritability or behavioral dyscontrol instead of the more common sad, empty, or hopeless feelings seen with adults. Children who are under stress, experiencing loss, or have other underlying disorders are at a higher risk for depression. Childhood depression is often comorbid with mental disorders outside of other mood disorders; most commonly anxiety disorder and conduct disorder . Depression also tends to run in families. Depression

6302-447: Is somehow derivative in relation to the intentionality of mental entities. For example, a map of Addis Ababa may be said to represent Addis Ababa not intrinsically but only extrinsically because people interpret it as a representation. Another difficulty is that not all mental states seem to be intentional. So while beliefs and desires are forms of representation, this seems not to be the case for pains and itches, which may indicate

6439-402: Is something it is like for a subject to be in these states. Opponents of consciousness-based approaches often point out that despite these attempts, it is still very unclear what the term "phenomenal consciousness" is supposed to mean. This is important because not much would be gained theoretically by defining one ill-understood term in terms of another. Another objection to this type of approach

6576-461: Is sometimes claimed that this access is direct , private and infallible . Direct access refers to non-inferential knowledge. When someone is in pain, for example, they know directly that they are in pain, they do not need to infer it from other indicators like a body part being swollen or their tendency to scream when it is touched. But we arguably also have non-inferential knowledge of external objects, like trees or cats, through perception, which

6713-412: Is sometimes held that all sensory states lack intentionality. But such a view ignores that certain sensory states, like perceptions, can be intentional at the same time. It is usually accepted that all propositional attitudes are intentional. But while the paradigmatic cases of intentionality are all propositional as well, there may be some intentional attitudes that are non-propositional. This could be

6850-433: Is that minds represent the world around them, which is not the case for regular physical objects. So a person who believes that there is ice cream in the fridge represents the world as being a certain way. The ice cream can be represented but it does not itself represent the world. This is why a mind is ascribed to the person but not to the ice cream, according to the intentional approach. One advantage of it in comparison to

6987-490: Is that some states are both sensory and propositional. This is the case for perception, for example, which involves sensory impressions that represent what the world is like. This representational aspect is usually understood as involving a propositional attitude. Closely related to these distinctions is the concept of intentionality . Intentionality is usually defined as the characteristic of mental states to refer to or be about objects or states of affairs. The belief that

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7124-427: Is that, according to them, the mind is multiply realizable . This means that it does not depend on the exact constitution of an entity for whether it has a mind or not. Instead, only its behavioral dispositions or its role in the causal network matter. The entity in question may be a human, an animal, a silicon-based alien or a robot. Functionalists sometimes draw an analogy to the software-hardware distinction where

7261-399: Is the case in regular perception. Phenomena of love and hate involve an evaluative attitude towards their presentation: they show how things ought to be, and the presented object is seen as either good or bad. This happens, for example, in desires. More complex types can be built up through combinations of these basic types. To be disappointed about an event, for example, can be construed as

7398-472: Is the study of how epigenetics (heritable characteristics that do not involve changes in DNA sequence) contribute to depression. Behavioral theories of depression explain the etiology of depression with behavioral science ; adherents promote the use of behavioral therapies for treatment. Evolutionary approaches to depression are attempts by evolutionary psychologists and evolutionary psychiatrists to use

7535-430: Is to be defined but also on which states count as mental. Mental states encompass a diverse group of aspects of an entity, like this entity's beliefs, desires, intentions, or pain experiences. The different approaches often result in a satisfactory characterization of only some of them. This has prompted some philosophers to doubt that there is a unifying mark of the mental and instead see the term "mental" as referring to

7672-435: Is to deny that the conscious mind has a privileged status in relation to the unconscious mind, for example, by insisting that the deep unconscious exists. Intentionality-based approaches see intentionality as the mark of the mental . The originator of this approach is Franz Brentano , who defined intentionality as the characteristic of mental states to refer to or be about objects. One central idea for this approach

7809-542: Is used particularly with beta blockers that can show both agonism and antagonism at a given beta receptor, depending on the concentration of the agent (beta blocker) and the concentration of the antagonized agent (usually an endogenous compound, such as norepinephrine). See partial agonist for a more general description. Some beta blockers (e.g. oxprenolol , pindolol , penbutolol , labetalol and acebutolol ) exhibit intrinsic sympathomimetic activity (ISA). These agents are capable of exerting low-level agonist activity at

7946-478: Is usually reserved for patients unresponsive to pharmacological therapy . People experiencing bronchospasm due to the β 2 receptor-blocking effects of nonselective beta blockers may be treated with anticholinergic drugs, such as ipratropium , which are safer than beta agonists in patients with cardiovascular disease . Other antidotes for beta blocker poisoning are salbutamol and isoprenaline . Also referred to as intrinsic sympathomimetic effect, this term

8083-684: Is why this criterion by itself is not sufficient. Another epistemic privilege often mentioned is that mental states are private in contrast to public external facts. For example, the fallen tree lying on a person's leg is directly open to perception by the bystanders while the victim's pain is private: only they know it directly while the bystanders have to infer it from their screams. It was traditionally often claimed that we have infallible knowledge of our own mental states, i.e. that we cannot be wrong about them when we have them. So when someone has an itching sensation, for example, they cannot be wrong about having this sensation. They can only be wrong about

8220-512: The Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). Both of these measures are psychological tests that ask personal questions of the participant, and have mostly been used to measure the severity of depression. The Beck Depression Inventory is a self-report scale that helps a therapist identify the patterns of depression symptoms and monitor recovery. The responses on this scale can be discussed in therapy to devise interventions for

8357-433: The epistemic approach is that it has no problems to account for unconscious mental states: they can be intentional just like conscious mental states and thereby qualify as constituents of the mind. But a problem for this approach is that there are also some non-mental entities that have intentionality, like maps or linguistic expressions. One response to this problem is to hold that the intentionality of non-mental entities

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8494-416: The heart muscles, smooth muscles , airways , arteries , kidneys , and other tissues that are part of the sympathetic nervous system and lead to stress responses, especially when they are stimulated by epinephrine (adrenaline). Beta blockers interfere with the binding to the receptor of epinephrine and other stress hormones and weaken the effects of stress hormones. In 1964, James Black synthesized

8631-413: The liver and skeletal muscle . Stimulation of β 3 receptors induces lipolysis . Beta blockers inhibit these normal epinephrine- and norepinephrine-mediated sympathetic actions, but have minimal effect on resting subjects. That is, they reduce the effect of excitement or physical exertion on heart rate and force of contraction, and also tremor, and breakdown of glycogen. Beta blockers can have

8768-413: The nonselective β-blocker-induced worsening asthma and/or COPD. Epinephrine signals early warning of the upcoming hypoglycemia . Beta blockers' inhibition on epinephrine's effect can somewhat exacerbate hypoglycemia by interfering with glycogenolysis and mask signs of hypoglycemia such as tachycardia, palpitations, diaphoresis , and tremors. Diligent blood glucose level monitoring is necessary for

8905-473: The renin–angiotensin system (e.g., ACE inhibitors ), or calcium channel blockers . Beta blockers are utilized in the treatment of various conditions related to the heart and vascular system, as well as several other medical conditions. Common heart-related conditions for which beta blockers are well-established include angina pectoris, acute coronary syndromes, hypertension, and arrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation and heart failure. They are also used in

9042-502: The 14th century, "to depress" meant to subjugate or to bring down in spirits. It was used in 1665 in English author Richard Baker's Chronicle to refer to someone having "a great depression of spirit", and by English author Samuel Johnson in a similar sense in 1753. In Ancient Greece, disease was thought due to an imbalance in the four basic bodily fluids, or humors . Personality types were similarly thought to be determined by

9179-403: The agent is committed and which may guide actions. Intention-formation is sometimes preceded by deliberation and decision , in which the advantages and disadvantages of different courses of action are considered before committing oneself to one course. It is commonly held that pleasure plays a central role in these considerations. "Pleasure" refers to experience that feels good, that involves

9316-460: The agent's behavior while remaining unconscious, which would be an example of an unconscious occurring mental state. The distinction between occurrent and standing is especially relevant for beliefs and desires . At any moment, there seems to be a great number of things we believe or things we want that are not relevant to our current situation. These states remain inactive in the back of one's head even though one has them. For example, while Ann

9453-471: The alpha-adrenergic system stimulation unopposed. Beta blockers with lipophilic properties and CNS penetration such as metoprolol and labetalol may be useful for treating CNS and cardiovascular toxicity from a methamphetamine overdose. The mixed alpha- and beta blocker labetalol is especially useful for treatment of concomitant tachycardia and hypertension induced by methamphetamine. The phenomenon of "unopposed alpha stimulation" has not been reported with

9590-478: The back of one's mind but currently play no active role in any mental processes. This distinction is sometimes identified with the distinction between phenomenally conscious and unconscious mental states. It seems to be the case that the two distinctions overlap but do not fully match despite the fact that all conscious states are occurrent. This is the case because unconscious states may become causally active while remaining unconscious. A repressed desire may affect

9727-482: The belief that the moon is closer to the earth than to the sun. When considered, this belief becomes conscious, but it is unconscious most of the time otherwise. The relation between conscious and unconscious states is a controversial topic. It is often held that conscious states are in some sense more basic with unconscious mental states depending on them. One such approach states that unconscious states have to be accessible to consciousness, that they are dispositions of

9864-550: The beta-1 receptor at the macula densa , inhibits renin release, thus decreasing the release of aldosterone . This causes hyponatremia and hyperkalemia . Hypoglycemia can occur with beta blockade because β 2 -adrenoceptors normally stimulate glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis) in the liver and pancreatic release of the hormone glucagon , which work together to increase plasma glucose. Therefore, blocking β 2 -adrenoceptors lowers plasma glucose. β 1 -blockers have fewer metabolic side effects in diabetic patients; however,

10001-474: The case when an intentional attitude is directed only at an object. In this view, Elsie's fear of snakes is a non-propositional intentional attitude while Joseph's fear that he will be bitten by snakes is a propositional intentional attitude. A mental state is conscious if it belongs to phenomenal experience . The subject is aware of the conscious mental states it is in: there is some subjective feeling to having them. Unconscious mental states are also part of

10138-439: The category of phenomena of love and hate into two distinct categories: feelings and desires. Uriah Kriegel is a contemporary defender of Brentano's approach to the classification of mental phenomena. Discussions about mental states can be found in many areas of study. In cognitive psychology and the philosophy of mind , a mental state is a kind of hypothetical state that corresponds to thinking and feeling, and consists of

10275-553: The chance of death by suicide by two to three times. In 2017, the British Medical Association found that 49% of UK chronic pain patients also had depression. As many as 1/3 of stroke survivors will later develop post-stroke depression . Because strokes may cause damage to the parts of the brain involved in processing emotions, reward, and cognition, stroke may be considered a direct cause of depression. A number of psychiatric syndromes feature depressed mood as

10412-553: The conduction through the AV node, preferential conduction through the accessory pathway is favored. If the patient happens to develop atrial flutter, this could lead to a 1:1 conduction with very fast ventricular rate, or worse, ventricular fibrillation in the case of atrial fibrillation. Glucagon , used in the treatment of overdose, increases the strength of heart contractions, increases intracellular cAMP , and decreases renal vascular resistance . It is, therefore, useful in patients with beta blocker cardiotoxicity. Cardiac pacing

10549-491: The dominant humor in a particular person. Derived from the Ancient Greek melas , "black", and kholé , "bile", melancholia was described as a distinct disease with particular mental and physical symptoms by Hippocrates in his Aphorisms , where he characterized all "fears and despondencies, if they last a long time" as being symptomatic of the ailment. During the 18th century, the humoral theory of melancholia

10686-405: The efficiency of cardiac contraction and contribute to the low ejection fraction. Beta blockers counter this inappropriately high sympathetic activity, eventually leading to an improved ejection fraction, despite an initial reduction in ejection fraction. Trials have shown beta blockers reduce the absolute risk of death by 4.5% over a 13-month period. In addition to reducing the risk of mortality,

10823-468: The enjoyment of something. The topic of emotions is closely intertwined with that of agency and pleasure. Emotions are evaluative responses to external or internal stimuli that are associated with a feeling of pleasure or displeasure and motivate various behavioral reactions. Emotions are quite similar to moods , some differences being that moods tend to arise for longer durations at a time and that moods are usually not clearly triggered by or directed at

10960-569: The fast heart rate that serves as a warning sign for insulin-induced low blood sugar may be masked, resulting in hypoglycemia unawareness . This is termed beta blocker-induced hypoglycemia unawareness . Therefore, beta blockers are to be used cautiously in diabetics. A 2007 study revealed diuretics and beta blockers used for hypertension increase a patient's risk of developing diabetes mellitus , while ACE inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor antagonists (angiotensin receptor blockers) actually decrease

11097-488: The feeling of familiarity, lack sensory contents. Sensory states are sometimes equated with qualitative states and contrasted with propositional attitude states . Qualitative states involve qualia , which constitute the subjective feeling of having the state in question or what it is like to be in it. Propositional attitudes, on the other hand, are relations a subject has to a proposition. They are usually expressed by verbs like believe , desire , fear or hope together with

11234-451: The first choice for initial treatment of most people. Beta blockers are competitive antagonists that block the receptor sites for the endogenous catecholamines epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) on adrenergic beta receptors , of the sympathetic nervous system , which mediates the fight-or-flight response . Some block activation of all types of β-adrenergic receptors and others are selective for one of

11371-571: The first clinically significant beta blockers— propranolol and pronethalol ; it revolutionized the medical management of angina pectoris and is considered by many to be one of the most important contributions to clinical medicine and pharmacology of the 20th century. For the treatment of primary hypertension, meta-analyses of studies which mostly used atenolol have shown that although beta blockers are more effective than placebo in preventing stroke and total cardiovascular events, they are not as effective as diuretics , medications inhibiting

11508-401: The genetic reverberations for subsequent generations. Likewise, research by scientists at Emory University suggests that memories of trauma can be inherited, rendering offspring vulnerable to psychological predispositions for stress disorders , schizophrenia , and PTSD . Measures of depression include, but are not limited to: Beck Depression Inventory-11 and the 9-item depression scale in

11645-1035: The global population has depression, according to a report released by the UN World Health Organization (WHO), which shows an 18 percent increase in the number of people living with depression between 2005 and 2015. Depression is a major mental-health cause of disease burden . Its consequences further lead to significant burden in public health , including a higher risk of dementia , premature mortality arising from physical disorders, and maternal depression impacts on child growth and development. Approximately 76% to 85% of depressed people in low- and middle-income countries do not receive treatment; barriers to treatment include: inaccurate assessment, lack of trained health-care providers, social stigma and lack of resources. The stigma comes from misguided societal views that people with mental illness are different from everyone else, and they can choose to get better only if they wanted to. Due to this more than half of

11782-431: The heart. Newer, third-generation beta blockers can cause vasodilation through blockade of alpha-adrenergic receptors. Accordingly, nonselective beta blockers are expected to have antihypertensive effects. The primary antihypertensive mechanism of beta blockers is unclear, but may involve reduction in cardiac output (due to negative chronotropic and inotropic effects). It may also be due to reduction in renin release from

11919-493: The individual mental states listed above but also to a more global assessment of a person's mental health. Various competing theories have been proposed about what the essential features of all mental states are, sometimes referred to as the search for the "mark of the mental". These theories can roughly be divided into epistemic approaches , consciousness-based approaches , intentionality-based approaches and functionalism . These approaches disagree not just on how mentality

12056-555: The likelihood of experiencing depression over the survivor's lifetime. People who have experienced four or more adverse childhood experiences are 3.2 to 4.0 times more likely to suffer from depression. Poor housing quality, non-functionality, lack of green spaces , and exposure to noise and air pollution are linked to depressive moods, emphasizing the need for consideration in planning to prevent such outcomes. Locality has also been linked to depression and other negative moods. The rate of depression among those who reside in large urban areas

12193-461: The management of angina and tachyarrhythmia . Stimulation of β 1 receptors by epinephrine and norepinephrine induces a positive chronotropic and inotropic effect on the heart and increases cardiac conduction velocity and automaticity. Stimulation of β 1 receptors on the kidney causes renin release. Stimulation of β 2 receptors induces smooth muscle relaxation, induces tremor in skeletal muscle , and increases glycogenolysis in

12330-414: The management of other heart diseases, such as hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy, mitral valve stenosis or prolapse, and dissecting aneurysm. Additionally, beta blockers find applications in vascular surgery, the treatment of anxiety states, cases of thyrotoxicosis, glaucoma, migraines, and esophageal varices. Although beta blockers were once contraindicated in congestive heart failure , as they have

12467-514: The mechanism of action is not known. The physiological symptoms of the fight-or-flight response (pounding heart, cold/clammy hands, increased respiration, sweating, etc.) are significantly reduced, thus enabling anxious individuals to concentrate on the task at hand. Musicians, public speakers, actors, and professional dancers have been known to use beta blockers to avoid performance anxiety , stage fright , and tremor during both auditions and public performances. The application to stage fright

12604-550: The mental state of acquaintance. To be acquainted with a proposition is to understand its meaning and be able to entertain it. The proposition can be true or false, and acquaintance requires no specific attitude towards that truth or falsity. Factive attitudes include those mental states that are attached to the truth of the proposition—i.e. the proposition entails truth. Some factive mental states include "perceiving that", "remembering that", "regretting that", and (more controversially) "knowing that". Non-factive attitudes do not entail

12741-428: The mind but they lack this phenomenal dimension. So it is possible for a subject to be in an unconscious mental state, like a repressed desire, without knowing about it. It is usually held that some types of mental states, like sensations or pains, can only occur as conscious mental states. But there are also other types, like beliefs and desires, that can be both conscious and unconscious. For example, many people share

12878-436: The mind emphasized by consciousness-based approaches . It may be true that pains are caused by bodily injuries and themselves produce certain beliefs and moaning behavior. But the causal profile of pain remains silent on the intrinsic unpleasantness of the painful experience itself. Some states that are not painful to the subject at all may even fit these characterizations. Theories under the umbrella of externalism emphasize

13015-415: The mind is likened to a certain type of software that can be installed on different forms of hardware. Closely linked to this analogy is the thesis of computationalism , which defines the mind as an information processing system that is physically implemented by the neural activity of the brain. One problem for all of these views is that they seem to be unable to account for the phenomenal consciousness of

13152-555: The mind's dependency on the environment. According to this view, mental states and their contents are at least partially determined by external circumstances. For example, some forms of content externalism hold that it can depend on external circumstances whether a belief refers to one object or another. The extended mind thesis states that external circumstances not only affect the mind but are part of it. The closely related view of enactivism holds that mental processes involve an interaction between organism and environment. There

13289-412: The molecule. Moncrieff said that, despite her study's conclusions, no one should interrupt their treatment if they are taking any anti-depressant. Mental state Mental states are usually contrasted with physical or material aspects. For (non-eliminative) physicalists , they are a kind of high-level property that can be understood in terms of fine-grained neural activity. Property dualists , on

13426-546: The moon has a circumference of 10921 km, for example, is a mental state that is intentional in virtue of being about the moon and its circumference. It is sometimes held that all mental states are intentional, i.e. that intentionality is the "mark of the mental". This thesis is known as intentionalism . But this view has various opponents, who distinguish between intentional and non-intentional states. Putative examples of non-intentional states include various bodily experiences like pains and itches. Because of this association, it

13563-557: The most distressing symptoms of depression. There are multiple schools of depression theory. Beck's cognitive triad theorizes that an individual with depression has "automatic, spontaneous, and seemingly uncontrollable negative thoughts" about the self, the world or environment, and the future. The Tripartite Model of Anxiety and Depression helps to explain the common comorbidity of anxiety and depression by separating symptoms into three groups: negative affect, positive affect, and physiological hyperarousal. The epigenetics of depression

13700-442: The non-mental causes, e.g. whether it is the consequence of bug bites or of a fungal infection. But various counterexamples have been presented to claims of infallibility, which is why this criterion is usually not accepted in contemporary philosophy. One problem for all epistemic approaches to the mark of the mental is that they focus mainly on conscious states but exclude unconscious states. A repressed desire , for example,

13837-473: The norms of rationality. But other states, like urges, experiences of dizziness or hunger, are arational: they are outside the domain of rationality and can be neither rational nor irrational. An important distinction within rationality concerns the difference between theoretical and practical rationality . Theoretical rationality covers beliefs and their degrees while practical rationality focuses on desires, intentions and actions. Some theorists aim to provide

13974-636: The norms of rationality. But other states are arational : they are outside the domain of rationality. A well-known classification is due to Franz Brentano, who distinguishes three basic categories of mental states: presentations , judgments , and phenomena of love and hate . There is a great variety of types of mental states including perception , bodily awareness , thought , belief , desire , motivation , intention , deliberation , decision , pleasure , emotion , mood , imagination and memory . Some of these types are precisely contrasted with each other while other types may overlap. Perception involves

14111-430: The numbers of hospital visits and hospitalizations were also reduced in the trials. A 2020 Cochrane review found minimal evidence to support the use of beta blockers in congestive heart failure in children, however did identify that from the data available, that they may be of benefit. Therapeutic administration of beta blockers for congestive heart failure ought to begin at very low doses ( 1 ⁄ 8 of target) with

14248-416: The other hand, claim that no such reductive explanation is possible. Eliminativists may reject the existence of mental properties, or at least of those corresponding to folk psychological categories such as thought and memory. Mental states play an important role in various fields, including philosophy of mind , epistemology and cognitive science . In psychology , the term is used not just to refer to

14385-453: The people with depression do not receive help with their disorders. The stigma leads to a strong preference for privacy. An analysis of 40,350 undergraduates from 70 institutions by Posselt and Lipson found that undergraduates who perceived their classroom environments as highly competitive had a 37% higher chance of developing depression and a 69% higher chance of developing anxiety. Several studies have suggested that unemployment roughly doubles

14522-539: The perceiver. Perception is usually considered to be reliable but our perceptual experiences may present false information at times and can thereby mislead us. The information received in perception is often further considered in thought , in which information is mentally represented and processed. Both perceptions and thoughts often result in the formation of new or the change of existing beliefs . Beliefs may amount to knowledge if they are justified and true. They are non-sensory cognitive propositional attitudes that have

14659-607: The possibility of "unopposed α-stimulation" with selective beta blockers. Because they promote lower heart rates and reduce tremors, beta blockers have been used in professional sports where high accuracy is required, including archery , shooting , golf and snooker . Beta blockers are banned in some sports by the International Olympic Committee . In the 2008 Summer Olympics , 50-metre pistol silver medalist and 10-metre air pistol bronze medalist Kim Jong-su tested positive for propranolol and

14796-609: The potential to worsen the condition due to their effect of decreasing cardiac contractility, studies in the late 1990s showed their efficacy at reducing morbidity and mortality. Bisoprolol , carvedilol , and sustained-release metoprolol are specifically indicated as adjuncts to standard ACE inhibitor and diuretic therapy in congestive heart failure, although at doses typically much lower than those indicated for other conditions. Beta blockers are only indicated in cases of compensated, stable congestive heart failure; in cases of acute decompensated heart failure, beta blockers will cause

14933-511: The presumed truth of the proposition (whether or not it is so), making it and other non-factive attitudes different from a mere acquaintance. Beta-blocker Beta blockers , also spelled β-blockers , are a class of medications that are predominantly used to manage abnormal heart rhythms ( arrhythmia ), and to protect the heart from a second heart attack after a first heart attack ( secondary prevention ). They are also widely used to treat high blood pressure , although they are no longer

15070-440: The resources available to a population to seek comfort, health, stability, and sense of security. The historical memory of this trauma conditions the psychological health of future generations, making psychogeographical depression an intergenerational experience as well. This work is supported by recent studies in genetic science which has demonstrated an epigenetic link between the trauma suffered by Holocaust survivors and

15207-594: The result of a number of infectious diseases, nutritional deficiencies , neurological conditions, and physiological problems, including hypoandrogenism (in men), Addison's disease , Cushing's syndrome , pernicious anemia , hypothyroidism , hyperparathyroidism , Lyme disease , multiple sclerosis , Parkinson's disease , celiac disease , chronic pain, stroke, diabetes, cancer, and HIV. Studies have found that anywhere from 30 to 85 percent of patients suffering from chronic pain are also clinically depressed. A 2014 study by Hooley et al. concluded that chronic pain increased

15344-416: The risk of bradycardia. A 2014 Cochrane review investigated the use of beta blockers in the maintenance of chronic type B thoracic aortic aneurysm in comparison to other anti hypertensive medications. The review found no suitable evidence to support the current guidelines recommending its use. A 2017 Cochrane review on the use of beta blockers to prevent aortic dissections in people with Marfan syndrome

15481-494: The risk of depression recurrence with no additional harm. Recommendations for psychological treatments or combination treatments in preventing recurrence are not clear. Depression is the leading cause of disability worldwide, the United Nations (UN) health agency reported, estimating that it affects more than 300 million people worldwide – the majority of them women, young people and the elderly. An estimated 4.4 percent of

15618-775: The risk of developing depression. The World Health Organization has constructed guidelines – known as The Mental Health Gap Action Programme (mhGAP) – aiming to increase services for people with mental, neurological and substance-use disorders. Depression is listed as one of conditions prioritized by the programme. Trials conducted show possibilities for the implementation of the programme in low-resource primary-care settings dependent on primary-care practitioners and lay health-workers. Examples of mhGAP-endorsed therapies targeting depression include Group Interpersonal Therapy as group treatment for depression and "Thinking Health", which utilizes cognitive behavioral therapy to tackle perinatal depression. Furthermore, effective screening in primary care

15755-614: The risk of diabetes. Clinical guidelines in Great Britain, but not in the United States, call for avoiding diuretics and beta blockers as first-line treatment of hypertension due to the risk of diabetes. Beta blockers must not be used in the treatment of selective alpha-adrenergic agonist overdose. The blockade of only beta receptors increases blood pressure , reduces coronary blood flow, left ventricular function , and cardiac output and tissue perfusion by means of leaving

15892-473: The severity of a major depressive episode . Another mood disorder, bipolar disorder , features one or more episodes of abnormally elevated mood, cognition , and energy levels, but may also involve one or more episodes of depression. Individuals with bipolar depression are often misdiagnosed with unipolar depression. When the course of depressive episodes follows a seasonal pattern, the disorder (major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, etc.) may be described as

16029-403: The subject to enter their corresponding conscious counterparts. On this position there can be no "deep unconscious", i.e. unconscious mental states that can not become conscious. The term "consciousness" is sometimes used not in the sense of phenomenal consciousness , as above, but in the sense of access consciousness . A mental state is conscious in this sense if the information it carries

16166-404: The tendency of this person to behave in certain ways. Such an ascription does not involve any claims about the internal states of this person, it only talks about behavioral tendencies. A strong motivation for such a position comes from empiricist considerations stressing the importance of observation and the lack thereof in the case of private internal mental states. This is sometimes combined with

16303-523: The theory of evolution to further understand mood disorders . The biology of depression is the attempt to identify a biochemical origin of depression, as opposed to theories that emphasize psychological or situational causes. Depressed mood may not require professional treatment, and may be a normal temporary reaction to life events, a symptom of some medical condition, or a side effect of some drugs or medical treatments. A prolonged depressed mood, especially in combination with other symptoms, may lead to

16440-557: The theory of "deprejudice", a psychogeographical theory of depression attempts to broaden study of the subject beyond an individual experience to one produced on a societal scale, seeing particular manifestations of depression as rooted in dispossession; historical legacies of genocide , slavery , and colonialism are productive of segregation, both material and psychic material deprivation, and concomitant circumstances of violence, systemic exclusion, and lack of access to legal protections. The demands of navigating these circumstances compromise

16577-405: The thesis that we could not even learn how to use mental terms without reference to the behavior associated with them. One problem for behaviorism is that the same entity often behaves differently despite being in the same situation as before. This suggests that explanation needs to make reference to the internal states of the entity that mediate the link between stimulus and response. This problem

16714-417: The three known types of beta receptors, designated β 1 , β 2 and β 3 receptors. β 1 -adrenergic receptors are located mainly in the heart and in the kidneys. β 2 -adrenergic receptors are located mainly in the lungs, gastrointestinal tract, liver, uterus, vascular smooth muscle, and skeletal muscle. β 3 -adrenergic receptors are located in fat cells. Beta receptors are found on cells of

16851-457: The time of other types of surgery, however, may worsen outcomes. For non-cardiac surgery, the use of beta blockers to prevent adverse effects may reduce the risk of atrial fibrillation and myocardial infarctions (very low certainty evidence), however, there is moderate certainty evidence that this approach may increase the risk of hypotension. Low-certainty evidence suggests that beta blockers used perioperatively in non-cardiac surgeries may increase

16988-431: The treatment of hypertension. A 2014 Cochrane review found that in individuals with mild-to-moderate hypertension, non-selective beta blockers led to a reduction of -10/-7mmHg (systolic/diastolic) without increased rates of adverse events. At higher doses, it was found to increase the rate of adverse effects such as a reduction in heart rate, without a corresponding reduction in blood pressure. A 2017 Cochrane review on

17125-442: The truth of the propositions to which they are attached. That is, one can be in one of these mental states and the proposition can be false. An example of a non-factive attitude is believing—people can believe a false proposition and people can believe a true proposition. Since there is the possibility of both, such mental states do not entail truth, and therefore, are not factive. However, belief does entail an attitude of assent toward

17262-411: The unconscious mind, is to elucidate the nature of consciousness itself. Consciousness-based approaches are usually interested in phenomenal consciousness , i.e. in qualitative experience, rather than access consciousness , which refers to information being available for reasoning and guiding behavior. Conscious mental states are normally characterized as qualitative and subjective, i.e. that there

17399-507: The use of beta blockers for treatment of methamphetamine toxicity. Other appropriate antihypertensive drugs to administer during hypertensive crisis resulting from stimulant overdose are vasodilators such as nitroglycerin , diuretics such as furosemide , and alpha blockers such as phentolamine . Relative contraindications, or contraindications specific to certain beta-blockers: Cautions: The 2007 National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute ( NHLBI ) asthma guidelines recommend against

17536-462: The use of beta blockers in hypertension found a modest reduction in cardiovascular disease but little to no change in mortality It suggested that the effects of beta blockers are inferior to other anti-hypertensive medications. Officially, beta blockers are not approved for anxiolytic use by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration . However, many controlled trials in the past 25 years indicate beta blockers are effective in anxiety disorders , though

17673-430: The use of non-selective beta blockers in asthmatics, while allowing for the use of cardio selective beta blockers. Cardio selective beta blocker (β 1 blockers) can be prescribed at the least possible dose to those with mild to moderate respiratory symptoms. β2-agonists can somewhat mitigate β-blocker-induced bronchospasm where it exerts greater efficacy on reversing selective β-blocker-induced bronchospasm than

17810-449: The use of senses, like sight, touch, hearing, smell and taste, to acquire information about material objects and events in the external world. It contrasts with bodily awareness in this sense, which is about the internal ongoings in our body and which does not present its contents as independent objects. The objects given in perception, on the other hand, are directly (i.e. non-inferentially) presented as existing out there independently of

17947-556: The β 1 -adrenergic receptors, thus reducing these detrimental effects and resulting in reduced myocardial oxygen consumption and demand. A 2019 Cochrane review compared beta blockers with placebo or no intervention, it found that beta blockers probably reduced the short-term risk of reinfarction and the long-term risk of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular mortality. The review identified that beta blockers likely had little to no impact on short-term all-cause mortality and cardiovascular mortality. Beta blockers are widely used for

18084-400: The β-adrenergic receptor while simultaneously acting as a receptor site antagonist . These agents, therefore, may be useful in individuals exhibiting excessive bradycardia with sustained beta blocker therapy. Agents with ISA should not be used for patients with any kind of angina as it can aggravate or after myocardial infarctions. They may also be less effective than other beta blockers in

18221-635: Was caused by a chemical imbalance in neurotransmitters in the brain, a theory based on observations made in the 1950s of the effects of reserpine and isoniazid in altering monoamine neurotransmitter levels and affecting depressive symptoms. During the 1960s and 70s, manic-depression came to refer to just one type of mood disorder (now most commonly known as bipolar disorder ) which was distinguished from (unipolar) depression. The terms unipolar and bipolar had been coined by German psychiatrist Karl Kleist . In July 2022, British psychiatrist Joanna Moncrieff , also psychiatrist Mark Horowtiz and others proposed in

18358-565: Was first recognized in The Lancet in 1976, and by 1987, a survey conducted by the International Conference of Symphony Orchestra Musicians , representing the 51 largest orchestras in the United States, revealed 27% of its musicians had used beta blockers and 70% obtained them from friends, not physicians. Beta blockers are inexpensive, said to be relatively safe, and on one hand, seem to improve musicians' performances on

18495-676: Was increasingly being challenged by mechanical and electrical explanations; references to dark and gloomy states gave way to ideas of slowed circulation and depleted energy. German physician Johann Christian Heinroth , however, argued melancholia was a disturbance of the soul due to moral conflict within the patient. In the 20th century, the German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin distinguished manic depression. The influential system put forward by Kraepelin unified nearly all types of mood disorder into manic–depressive insanity . Kraepelin worked from an assumption of underlying brain pathology, but also promoted

18632-680: Was stripped of his medals. For similar reasons, beta blockers have also been used by surgeons. Classical musicians have commonly used beta blockers since the 1970s to reduce stage fright . Adverse drug reactions associated with the use of beta blockers include: nausea , diarrhea , bronchospasm , dyspnea , cold extremities, exacerbation of Raynaud's syndrome , bradycardia , hypotension , heart failure , heart block , fatigue , dizziness , alopecia (hair loss), abnormal vision, hallucinations , insomnia , nightmares , sexual dysfunction , erectile dysfunction , alteration of glucose and lipid metabolism . Mixed α 1 /β-antagonist therapy

18769-939: Was unable to draw definitive conclusions due to lack of evidence. Adrenergic antagonists are mostly used for cardiovascular disease . The adrenergic antagonists are widely used for lowering blood pressure and relieving hypertension . These antagonists have a been proven to relieve the pain caused by myocardial infarction , and also the infarction size, which correlates with heart rate. There are few non-cardiovascular uses for adrenergic antagonists. Alpha-adrenergic antagonists are also used for treatment of ureteric stones , pain and panic disorders , withdrawal , and anesthesia . Beta blockers are used to treat acute cardiovascular toxicity (e.g. in overdose ) caused by sympathomimetics , for instance caused by amphetamine , methamphetamine , cocaine , ephedrine , and other drugs. Combined α 1 and beta blockers like labetalol and carvedilol may be more favorable for such purposes due to

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