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60-685: The Drachenfels Railway is one of only four rack railways still operational in Germany, along with the Bavarian Zugspitze Railway , the Stuttgart Rack Railway and the Wendelstein Railway . The line is 1.5 km (0.93 mi) long and is single track. There are two terminal stations, Königswinter Drachenfelsbahn and Drachenfels , and a single intermediate station, Drachenburg , which also has

120-457: A distance of 19.0 km. The track gauge is 1,000 mm and the electrification system is 1,500 V D.C. overhead line. The lower section from Garmisch to Eibsee is operated as an adhesion railway with rack assistance (i.e. using a cog-wheel system ) from Grainau to Eibsee. The section above Eibsee is operated as rack only using the Riggenbach system. Passengers travelling

180-625: A fifth identical railcar built by the railway itself in 1979. Although double-ended, the railcars are unusual in that they have doors only on one side, as all platforms are on the same side of the track. They can operate either singly or in pairs. From March to October, trains operate every 30 minutes, with additional trains if the traffic requires it. In November, January and February trains are less frequent, whilst no trains operate in December. The Königswinter Drachenfelsbahn station lies some 750 metres (2,460 ft) from Königswinter station , on

240-449: A large factor in the decision making process. Civil engineers usually use project management techniques for developing a major structure. Understanding the amount of time the project requires, and the amount of labor and materials needed is a crucial part of project planning. The project duration must be identified using a work breakdown structure and critical path method . Also, the land needed for excavation and construction staging, and

300-486: A passing loop. The line has a track gauge of 1,000 mm ( 3 ft  3 + 3 ⁄ 8  in ) and uses the Riggenbach rack design to overcome a height difference of 220 m (722 ft) and a maximum gradient of 20%. The line is electrified, with overhead supply at 750 V DC . The service is operated with a fleet of four four-wheel electric railcars , built in Rastatt between 1955 and 1960, plus

360-467: A pipe jack, with the span of some box jacks in excess of 20 metres (66 ft). A cutting head is normally used at the front of the box being jacked, and spoil removal is normally by excavator from within the box. Recent developments of the Jacked Arch and Jacked deck have enabled longer and larger structures to be installed to close accuracy. There are also several approaches to underwater tunnels,

420-421: A specialized method called clay-kicking for digging tunnels in clay-based soils. The clay-kicker lies on a plank at a 45-degree angle away from the working face and rather than a mattock with his hands, inserts with his feet a tool with a cup-like rounded end, then turns the tool with his hands to extract a section of soil, which is then placed on the waste extract. Clay-kicking is a specialized method developed in

480-434: A tube can be sunk into a body of water, which is called an immersed tunnel. Cut-and-cover is a simple method of construction for shallow tunnels where a trench is excavated and roofed over with an overhead support system strong enough to carry the load of what is to be built above the tunnel. There are two basic forms of cut-and-cover tunnelling: Shallow tunnels are often of the cut-and-cover type (if under water, of

540-747: A tunnel than a sufficiently strong bridge). Some water crossings are a mixture of bridges and tunnels, such as the Denmark to Sweden link and the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel in Virginia . There are particular hazards with tunnels, especially from vehicle fires when combustion gases can asphyxiate users, as happened at the Gotthard Road Tunnel in Switzerland in 2001. One of the worst railway disasters ever,

600-432: A tunnel. Bridges usually require a larger footprint on each shore than tunnels. In areas with expensive real estate, such as Manhattan and urban Hong Kong , this is a strong factor in favor of a tunnel. Boston's Big Dig project replaced elevated roadways with a tunnel system to increase traffic capacity, hide traffic, reclaim land, redecorate, and reunite the city with the waterfront. The 1934 Queensway Tunnel under

660-505: Is intended to carry both the Istanbul metro and a two-level highway, over a length of 6.5 km (4.0 miles). The French A86 Duplex Tunnel  [ fr ] in west Paris consists of two bored tunnel tubes, the eastern one of which has two levels for light motorized vehicles, over a length of 10 km (6.2 miles). Although each level offers a physical height of 2.54 m (8.3 ft), only traffic up to 2 m (6.6 ft) tall

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720-539: Is one of four rack railways still working in Germany, along with the Wendelstein Railway , the Drachenfels Railway and the Stuttgart Rack Railway . The metre gauge line runs from Garmisch in the centre of Garmisch-Partenkirchen to the Zugspitzplatt , approximately 300 metres below Zugspitze , the highest mountain in Germany. The line culminates at 2,650 metres above sea level, which makes it

780-494: Is relatively long and narrow; the length is often much greater than twice the diameter , although similar shorter excavations can be constructed, such as cross passages between tunnels. The definition of what constitutes a tunnel can vary widely from source to source. For example, in the United Kingdom, a road tunnel is defined as "a subsurface highway structure enclosed for a length of 150 metres (490 ft) or more." In

840-401: Is sometimes necessary during the excavation of a tunnel. They are usually circular and go straight down until they reach the level at which the tunnel is going to be built. A shaft normally has concrete walls and is usually built to be permanent. Once the access shafts are complete, TBMs are lowered to the bottom and excavation can start. Shafts are the main entrance in and out of the tunnel until

900-515: Is that the open building pit is muted after tunnel construction; no roof is placed. Some tunnels are double-deck, for example, the two major segments of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge (completed in 1936) are linked by a 160-metre (540 ft) double-deck tunnel section through Yerba Buena Island , the largest-diameter bored tunnel in the world. At construction this was a combination bidirectional rail and truck pathway on

960-698: Is the Siloam Tunnel , built in Jerusalem by the kings of Judah around the 8th century BC. Another tunnel excavated from both ends, maybe the second known, is the Tunnel of Eupalinos , which is a tunnel aqueduct 1,036 m (3,400 ft) long running through Mount Kastro in Samos , Greece. It was built in the 6th century BC to serve as an aqueduct . In Ethiopia , the Siqurto foot tunnel , hand-hewn in

1020-569: The Balvano train disaster , was caused by a train stalling in the Armi tunnel in Italy in 1944, killing 426 passengers. Designers try to reduce these risks by installing emergency ventilation systems or isolated emergency escape tunnels parallel to the main passage. Government funds are often required for the creation of tunnels. When a tunnel is being planned or constructed, economics and politics play

1080-713: The Petersberg Railway that linked Königswinter to the Petersberg mountain peak. Although separately constructed and never physically connected, the two railways used the same track gauge and rack equipment, and were under common management from then until the Petersberg Railway closed in 1958. Rolling stock was occasionally transferred between the two lines. The Drachenfels Railway was converted to electric traction in 1953, with steam trains retained for use in times of peak traffic. On September 14, 1958

1140-471: The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was not aware of this bill and had not asked for a grant for such a project. Increased taxes to finance a large project may cause opposition. Tunnels are dug in types of materials varying from soft clay to hard rock. The method of tunnel construction depends on such factors as the ground conditions, the groundwater conditions, the length and diameter of

1200-848: The Queens-Midtown Tunnel between Manhattan and the borough of Queens on Long Island ; the Detroit-Windsor Tunnel between Michigan and Ontario ; and the Elizabeth River tunnels between Norfolk and Portsmouth, Virginia ; the 1934 River Mersey road Queensway Tunnel ; the Western Scheldt Tunnel , Zeeland, Netherlands; and the North Shore Connector tunnel in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania . The Sydney Harbour Tunnel

1260-683: The Rhine East Bank Railway , and 650 metres (2,130 ft) from the Königswinter Fähre stop of line 66 of the Bonn Stadtbahn . A steam-outline road train links the Drachenfels Railway with the town centre, railway stations and Rhine promenade. The line opened, with trains propelled by steam locomotives , on July 13, 1883. In 1913 the line was purchased by Ferdinand Mülhens , who also owned

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1320-472: The River Mersey at Liverpool was chosen over a massively high bridge partly for defense reasons; it was feared that aircraft could destroy a bridge in times of war, not merely impairing road traffic but blocking the river to navigation. Maintenance costs of a massive bridge to allow the world's largest ships to navigate under were considered higher than for a tunnel. Similar conclusions were reached for

1380-641: The Sonn-Alpin Restaurant is the new Glacier Station ( Gletscher-Bahnhof ) in the middle of the ski area. The overall length of the Zugspitze Railway was extended from 18.6 kilometres (11.6 mi) to its current 19.0 kilometres (11.8 mi). For five years, both termini were worked in parallel, but since November 1992 the old route to the Schneefernerhausis is no longer routinely worked. The Zugspitze Railway starts in

1440-679: The United Kingdom of digging tunnels in strong clay-based soil structures. This method of cut and cover construction required relatively little disturbance of property during the renewal of the United Kingdom's then ancient sewerage systems. It was also used during the First World War by Royal Engineer tunnelling companies placing mines beneath German lines, because it was almost silent and so not susceptible to listening methods of detection. Tunnel boring machines (TBMs) and associated back-up systems are used to highly automate

1500-610: The canton of Glarus . The borehole has a diameter of 8.03 metres (26.3 ft). The four TBMs used for excavating the 57-kilometre (35 mi) Gotthard Base Tunnel , in Switzerland , had a diameter of about 9 metres (30 ft). A larger TBM was built to bore the Green Heart Tunnel (Dutch: Tunnel Groene Hart) as part of the HSL-Zuid in the Netherlands, with a diameter of 14.87 metres (48.8 ft). This in turn

1560-489: The water table . This pressurizes the ground ahead of the TBM cutter head to balance the water pressure. The operators work in normal air pressure behind the pressurized compartment, but may occasionally have to enter that compartment to renew or repair the cutters. This requires special precautions, such as local ground treatment or halting the TBM at a position free from water. Despite these difficulties, TBMs are now preferred over

1620-689: The 16th century as a metaphor for a narrow, confined space like the inside of a cask. Some of the earliest tunnels used by humans were paleoburrows excavated by prehistoric mammals. Much of the early technology of tunneling evolved from mining and military engineering . The etymology of the terms "mining" (for mineral extraction or for siege attacks ), " military engineering ", and " civil engineering " reveals these deep historic connections. Predecessors of modern tunnels were adits that transported water for irrigation , drinking, or sewerage . The first qanats are known from before 2000 BC. The earliest tunnel known to have been excavated from both ends

1680-638: The 1960s. The main idea of this method is to use the geological stress of the surrounding rock mass to stabilize the tunnel, by allowing a measured relaxation and stress reassignment into the surrounding rock to prevent full loads becoming imposed on the supports. Based on geotechnical measurements, an optimal cross section is computed. The excavation is protected by a layer of sprayed concrete, commonly referred to as shotcrete . Other support measures can include steel arches, rock bolts, and mesh. Technological developments in sprayed concrete technology have resulted in steel and polypropylene fibers being added to

1740-716: The 1971 Kingsway Tunnel under the Mersey. In Hampton Roads, Virginia , tunnels were chosen over bridges for strategic considerations; in the event of damage, bridges might prevent US Navy vessels from leaving Naval Station Norfolk . Water-crossing tunnels built instead of bridges include the Seikan Tunnel in Japan; the Holland Tunnel and Lincoln Tunnel between New Jersey and Manhattan in New York City ;

1800-709: The Middle Ages, crosses a mountain ridge. In the Gaza Strip , the network of tunnels was used by Jewish strategists as rock-cut shelters, in first links to Judean resistance against Roman rule in the Bar Kokhba revolt during the 2nd century AD. A major tunnel project must start with a comprehensive investigation of ground conditions by collecting samples from boreholes and by other geophysical techniques. An informed choice can then be made of machinery and methods for excavation and ground support, which will reduce

1860-599: The United States, the NFPA definition of a tunnel is "An underground structure with a design length greater than 23 m (75 ft) and a diameter greater than 1,800 millimetres (5.9 ft)." The word "tunnel" comes from the Middle English tonnelle , meaning "a net", derived from Old French tonnel , a diminutive of tonne ("cask"). The modern meaning, referring to an underground passageway, evolved in

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1920-400: The blocky nature of rocks, the exact location of fault zones, or the stand-up times of softer ground. This may be a particular concern in large-diameter tunnels. To give more information, a pilot tunnel (or "drift tunnel") may be driven ahead of the main excavation. This smaller tunnel is less likely to collapse catastrophically should unexpected conditions be met, and it can be incorporated into

1980-502: The concrete mix to improve lining strength. This creates a natural load-bearing ring, which minimizes the rock's deformation . By special monitoring the NATM method is flexible, even at surprising changes of the geomechanical rock consistency during the tunneling work. The measured rock properties lead to appropriate tools for tunnel strengthening . In pipe jacking , hydraulic jacks are used to push specially made pipes through

2040-409: The entire tunnelling process, reducing tunnelling costs. In certain predominantly urban applications, tunnel boring is viewed as a quick and cost-effective alternative to laying surface rails and roads. Expensive compulsory purchase of buildings and land, with potentially lengthy planning inquiries, is eliminated. Disadvantages of TBMs arise from their usually large size – the difficulty of transporting

2100-441: The final tunnel or used as a backup or emergency escape passage. Alternatively, horizontal boreholes may sometimes be drilled ahead of the advancing tunnel face. Other key geotechnical factors: For water crossings, a tunnel is generally more costly to construct than a bridge. However, both navigational and traffic considerations may limit the use of high bridges or drawbridges intersecting with shipping channels, necessitating

2160-405: The ground behind a TBM or shield. This method is commonly used to create tunnels under existing structures, such as roads or railways. Tunnels constructed by pipe jacking are normally small diameter bores with a maximum size of around 3.2 metres (10 ft). Box jacking is similar to pipe jacking, but instead of jacking tubes, a box-shaped tunnel is used. Jacked boxes can be a much larger span than

2220-710: The halt of Riffelriss. Immediately after the halt is the entrance to the Zugspitze Tunnel, which together with the Rosi Tunnel takes trains to the current terminus at Zugspitzplatt. About a kilometre before it reaches the terminus, the underground section of the line passes almost exactly below the summit of the Zugspitze, and a few metres away from the border with the Austrian state of Tyrol . The Zugspitzbahn runs from Garmisch-Partenkirchen to Zugspitzplatt,

2280-646: The highest railway in Germany and the third highest in Europe . It is also the railway in Europe with the biggest height difference: 1,945 metres (6,381 feet), the lower half being open-air and the upper half being underground . The line is operated by the Bayerische Zugspitzbahn Bergbahn AG ( BZB ), whose majority owner is the Garmisch-Partenkirchen Municipal Works. In 2007 the Zugspitze Railway

2340-640: The immersed-tube type), while deep tunnels are excavated, often using a tunnelling shield . For intermediate levels, both methods are possible. Large cut-and-cover boxes are often used for underground metro stations, such as Canary Wharf tube station in London. This construction form generally has two levels, which allows economical arrangements for ticket hall, station platforms, passenger access and emergency egress, ventilation and smoke control, staff rooms, and equipment rooms. The interior of Canary Wharf station has been likened to an underground cathedral, owing to

2400-435: The inevitable smoke and steam. A major disadvantage of cut-and-cover is the widespread disruption generated at the surface level during construction. This, and the availability of electric traction, brought about London Underground's switch to bored tunnels at a deeper level towards the end of the 19th century. Prior to the replacement of manual excavation by the use of boring machines, Victorian tunnel excavators developed

2460-468: The large TBM to the site of tunnel construction, or (alternatively) the high cost of assembling the TBM on-site, often within the confines of the tunnel being constructed. There are a variety of TBM designs that can operate in a variety of conditions, from hard rock to soft water-bearing ground. Some TBMs, the bentonite slurry and earth-pressure balance types, have pressurized compartments at the front end, allowing them to be used in difficult conditions below

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2520-969: The length. A pipeline differs significantly from a tunnel, though some recent tunnels have used immersed tube construction techniques rather than traditional tunnel boring methods. A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic , for rail traffic, or for a canal . The central portions of a rapid transit network are usually in the tunnel. Some tunnels are used as sewers or aqueducts to supply water for consumption or for hydroelectric stations. Utility tunnels are used for routing steam, chilled water, electrical power or telecommunication cables, as well as connecting buildings for convenient passage of people and equipment. Secret tunnels are built for military purposes, or by civilians for smuggling of weapons , contraband , or people . Special tunnels, such as wildlife crossings , are built to allow wildlife to cross human-made barriers safely. Tunnels can be connected together in tunnel networks . A tunnel

2580-629: The lower deck with automobiles above, now converted to one-way road vehicle traffic on each deck. In Turkey, the Eurasia Tunnel under the Bosphorus , opened in 2016, has at its core a 5.4 km (3.4 miles) two-deck road tunnel with two lanes on each deck. Additionally, in 2015 the Turkish government announced that it will build three -level tunnel, also under the Bosporus. The tunnel

2640-483: The older method of tunnelling in compressed air, with an airlock/decompression chamber some way back from the TBM, which required operators to work in high pressure and go through decompression procedures at the end of their shifts, much like deep-sea divers . In February 2010, Aker Wirth delivered a TBM to Switzerland, for the expansion of the Linth–Limmern Power Stations located south of Linthal in

2700-540: The operation of empty and loaded trains at the same time. The temporary way is replaced by the permanent way at completion, thus explaining the term " Perway ". The vehicles or traffic using a tunnel can outgrow it, requiring replacement or enlargement: An open building pit consists of a horizontal and a vertical boundary that keeps groundwater and soil out of the pit. There are several potential alternatives and combinations for (horizontal and vertical) building pit boundaries. The most important difference with cut-and-cover

2760-522: The project is completed. If a tunnel is going to be long, multiple shafts at various locations may be bored so that entrance to the tunnel is closer to the unexcavated area. Once construction is complete, construction access shafts are often used as ventilation shafts , and may also be used as emergency exits. The New Austrian Tunnelling method (NATM)—also referred to as the Sequential Excavation Method (SEM) —was developed in

2820-490: The proper machinery must be selected. Large infrastructure projects require millions or even billions of dollars, involving long-term financing, usually through issuance of bonds . The costs and benefits for an infrastructure such as a tunnel must be identified. Political disputes can occur, as in 2005 when the US House of Representatives approved a $ 100 million federal grant to build a tunnel under New York Harbor. However,

2880-569: The quarter of Garmisch at a height of 705 metres (2,313 ft). Here the BZB runs its own terminal station which is operationally entirely separate from the adjacent standard gauge station of the Deutsche Bahn AG . Moreover, it is still just called Garmisch, whereas the DB station bears the double-barrelled name of Garmisch-Partenkirchen, reflecting the contentious merger, formally in 1935, of

2940-707: The railway suffered a serious accident when a steam train derailed, resulting in 17 deaths and ending the use of steam on the line. One of the line's former steam locomotives is displayed outside the lower station. Between 1998 and 1999, the line's railcars were modernised by SLM . Between 2004 and 2005, the lower station was rebuilt, in conjunction with the city of Königswinter, as a combined railway station, tourist information centre and exhibition centre. 50°40′27″N 7°11′55″E  /  50.674257°N 7.198513°E  / 50.674257; 7.198513 Bavarian Zugspitze Railway The Bavarian Zugspitze Railway ( German : Bayerische Zugspitzbahn )

3000-482: The risk of encountering unforeseen ground conditions. In planning the route, the horizontal and vertical alignments can be selected to make use of the best ground and water conditions. It is common practice to locate a tunnel deeper than otherwise would be required, in order to excavate through solid rock or other material that is easier to support during construction. Conventional desk and preliminary site studies may yield insufficient information to assess such factors as

3060-434: The route of the railway in the summit area was changed and the 975 metres (3,199 ft) long "Rosi Tunnel" opened. The tunnel was named after the skier, Rosi Mittermaier , who was the tunnel patroness ( Tunnelpatin ) at the time. The tunnel branches from the 1930-built Zugspitze Tunnel about three-quarters of the way along it, and runs to the somewhat lower Zugspitzplatt plateau at 2,588 metres (8,491 ft). Here, below

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3120-542: The sheer size of the excavation. This contrasts with many traditional stations on London Underground , where bored tunnels were used for stations and passenger access. Nevertheless, the original parts of the London Underground network, the Metropolitan and District Railways, were constructed using cut-and-cover. These lines pre-dated electric traction and the proximity to the surface was useful to ventilate

3180-400: The tunnel drive, the depth of the tunnel, the logistics of supporting the tunnel excavation, the final use and the shape of the tunnel and appropriate risk management. There are three basic types of tunnel construction in common use. Cut-and-cover tunnels are constructed in a shallow trench and then covered over. Bored tunnels are constructed in situ, without removing the ground above. Finally,

3240-428: The two most common being bored tunnels or immersed tubes , examples are Bjørvika Tunnel and Marmaray . Submerged floating tunnels are a novel approach under consideration; however, no such tunnels have been constructed to date. During construction of a tunnel it is often convenient to install a temporary railway, particularly to remove excavated spoil , often narrow gauge so that it can be double track to allow

3300-608: The two municipalities. For the first 7.5 kilometres (4.7 mi), as far as Grainau , the Zugspitze Railway runs as an adhesion line . Of this section, the first 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) run parallel to the Ausserfern Railway , built in 1913. The mountain section begins in Grainau station, is equipped with a Riggenbach rack system , and is 11.5 kilometres (7.1 mi) long. The railway climbs steeply uphill from Grainau, passes Eibsee station and finally arrives at

3360-493: The whole line from Garmisch to Zugspitzplatt stay on the same train. 47°29′30″N 11°05′49″E  /  47.491785°N 11.097019°E  / 47.491785; 11.097019 Tunnel A tunnel is an underground or undersea passageway. It is dug through surrounding soil, earth or rock, or laid under water, and is usually completely enclosed except for the two portals common at each end, though there may be access and ventilation openings at various points along

3420-575: Was constructed to provide a second harbour crossing and to alleviate traffic congestion on the Sydney Harbour Bridge , without spoiling the iconic view. Other reasons for choosing a tunnel instead of a bridge include avoiding difficulties with tides, weather, and shipping during construction (as in the 51.5-kilometre or 32.0-mile Channel Tunnel ), aesthetic reasons (preserving the above-ground view, landscape, and scenery), and also for weight capacity reasons (it may be more feasible to build

3480-557: Was followed by the 7.5 kilometres (4.7 mi) long section between Garmisch and Grainau, including the important tourist connexion to the main railway network of the Deutsche Reichsbahn . On 8 July 1930 the last 7.9 kilometres (4.9 mi) long section between the Eibsee and the – now closed – summit station of Schneefernerhaus was opened, including the final 4,466 metres (14,652 ft) long Zugspitze Tunnel . In 1987

3540-578: Was nominated for a Historic landmarks of civil engineering in Germany  [ de ] award. The Zugspitze is accessible via the Seilbahn Zugspitze from Eibsee Lake or Tyrolean Zugspitze Cable Car . The railway was built between 1928 and 1930 and opened in three stages. The first was the 3.2 kilometres (2.0 mi) long centre section between Grainau and the Eibsee which went into operation on 19 February 1929. On 19 December 1929 it

3600-732: Was superseded by the Madrid M30 ringroad , Spain, and the Chong Ming tunnels in Shanghai , China. All of these machines were built at least partly by Herrenknecht . As of August 2013 , the world's largest TBM was " Big Bertha ", a 17.5-metre (57.5 ft) diameter machine built by Hitachi Zosen Corporation , which dug the Alaskan Way Viaduct replacement tunnel in Seattle, Washington (US). A temporary access shaft

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