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48-604: The Duinger Berg lies in the western part of the Leine Uplands , a northern section of the Lower Saxon Hills . Its highest summit is the Babenstein and it measures some 7.5 km in length. It is situated in the triangle formed by the settlements of Eime , Alfeld and Duingen and also lies between Deinsen and Lübbrechtsen to the north, Rott, Hoyershausen and Lütgenholzen to the east, Brunkensen to

96-588: A bitter taste (though not nearly as bitter as acorns ) and a high tannin content. The most recent classification system of the genus recognizes 14 species in two distinct subgenera, subgenus Englerianae and Fagus . Beech species can be diagnosed by phenotypical and/or genotypical traits. Species of subgenus Engleriana are found only in East Asia, and are notably distinct from species of subgenus Fagus in that these beeches are low-branching trees, often made up of several major trunks with yellowish bark and

144-651: A bitter, astringent, or in some cases, mild and nut-like taste. According to the Roman statesman Pliny the Elder in his work Natural History , beechnut was eaten by the people of Chios when the town was besieged, writing of the fruit: "that of the beech is the sweetest of all; so much so, that, according to Cornelius Alexander, the people of the city of Chios, when besieged, supported themselves wholly on mast". They can also be roasted and pulverized into an adequate coffee substitute . The leaves can be steeped in liquor to give

192-472: A clearly defined landscape in terms of being a natural region but are nevertheless relatively easily delineated. Their extent from south to north is determined by the river that lends them their name and their extent from east to west by high ridges. From north to south the uplands can be broadly divided into a southern half around the wide trough of the River Leine's middle course and a northern half by

240-429: A decorative wood. The timber can be used to build chalets, houses, and log cabins. Beech wood is used for the stocks of military rifles when traditionally preferred woods such as walnut are scarce or unavailable or as a lower-cost alternative. The edible fruit of the beech tree, known as beechnuts or mast, is found in small burrs that drop from the tree in autumn. They are small, roughly triangular, and edible, with

288-399: A letter of the alphabet) is буква ( bukva ), while Serbo-Croatian and Slovene use " bukva " to refer to the tree. The pigment bistre was made from beech wood soot . Beech litter raking as a replacement for straw in animal husbandry was an old non-timber practice in forest management that once occurred in parts of Switzerland in the 17th century. Beech has been listed as one of

336-459: A light green/yellow liqueur. In antiquity, the bark of the beech tree was used by Indo-European people for writing-related purposes, especially in a religious context. Beech wood tablets were a common writing material in Germanic societies before the development of paper . The Old English bōc has the primary sense of "beech" but also a secondary sense of "book", and it is from bōc that

384-490: A long history of cultivation, Bulgaria for example, do not exhibit this pattern, so how much human activity has influenced the spread of beech trees is as yet unclear. The primeval beech forests of the Carpathians are also an example of a singular, complete, and comprehensive forest dominated by a single tree species - the beech tree. Forest dynamics here were allowed to proceed without interruption or interference since

432-687: A naturally growing forest tree, beech marks the important border between the European deciduous forest zone and the northern pine forest zone. This border is important for wildlife and fauna. In Denmark and Scania at the southernmost peak of the Scandinavian peninsula, southwest of the natural spruce boundary, it is the most common forest tree. It grows naturally in Denmark and southern Norway and Sweden up to about 57–59°N. The most northern known naturally growing (not planted) beech trees are found in

480-789: A separate family, the Nothofagaceae (which remains a member of the order Fagales ). They are found throughout the Southern Hemisphere in Australia , New Zealand , New Guinea , New Caledonia , as well as Argentina and Chile (principally Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego ). Species treated in Denk et al. (2024) and listed in Plants of the World Online (POWO) : Erroneously synonymized by some authors (e.g. POWO) with

528-560: A small grove north of Bergen on the west coast of Norway. Near the city of Larvik is the largest naturally occurring beech forest in Norway, Bøkeskogen . Some research suggests that early agriculture patterns supported the spread of beech in continental Europe. Research has linked the establishment of beech stands in Scandinavia and Germany with cultivation and fire disturbance, i.e. early agricultural practices. Other areas which have

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576-578: A substantially different nucleome (nuclear DNA) , especially in noncoding, highly variable gene regions such as the spacers of the nuclear-encoded ribosomal RNA genes (ribosomal DNA) . Further differentiating characteristics include the whitish bloom on the underside of the leaves, the visible tertiary leaf veins, and a long, smooth cupule-peduncle. Originally proposed but not formalized by botanist Chung-Fu Shen in 1992, this group comprised two Japanese species, F. japonica and F. okamotoi, and one Chinese species, F. engleriana . While

624-440: A tone between those of maple and birch , the two most popular drum woods. The textile modal is a kind of rayon often made wholly from reconstituted cellulose of pulped beech wood. The European species Fagus sylvatica yields a tough, utility timber. It weighs about 720 kg per cubic metre and is widely used for furniture construction, flooring, and engineering purposes, in plywood and household items, but rarely as

672-700: Is a genus of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae , native to subtropical (accessory forest element) and temperate (as dominant element of mesophytic forests) Eurasia and North America . There are 14 accepted species in two distinct subgenera, Englerianae Denk & G.W.Grimm and Fagus . The subgenus Englerianae is found only in East Asia, distinctive for its low branches, often made up of several major trunks with yellowish bark. The better known species of subgenus Fagus are native to Europe , western and eastern Asia and eastern North America. They are high-branching trees with tall, stout trunks and smooth silver-grey bark. The European beech Fagus sylvatica

720-814: Is a region in Germany's Central Uplands which forms a part of the Lower Saxon Hills and lies along the River Leine between Göttingen and Hanover . It borders on the Weser Uplands in the west, the Innerste Uplands in the northeast, the Harz in the east and Untereichsfeld in the southeast. The Leine Uplands, which merge into the Weser Uplands to the east and the Harz to the west, are not

768-439: Is also used to smoke Westphalian ham , andouille sausage, and some cheeses. Beeches are monoecious , bearing both male and female flowers on the same plant. The small flowers are unisexual, the female flowers borne in pairs, the male flowers wind-pollinating catkins . They are produced in spring shortly after the new leaves appear. The fruit of the beech tree, known as beechnuts or mast, is found in small burrs that drop from

816-659: Is found alongside Bunter and Muschelkalk. Immediately north of Einbeck the Hube , an outlier of the Southwest Harz Foreland, reaches the western side of the Leine and "blocks" the Leine trough to the north. West of the trough is the heath landscape of the latter opposite the intensively farmed Solling Foreland . Not counted as part of the Leine Uplands is the extreme east of the Southwest Harz Foreland and

864-428: Is not planted much as an ornamental due to slower growth and less resistance to urban pollution. It most commonly occurs as an overstory component in the northern part of its range with sugar maple, transitioning to other forest types further south such as beech-magnolia. American beech is rarely encountered in developed areas except as a remnant of a forest that was cut down for land development. The dead brown leaves of

912-476: Is smooth and light gray. The fruit is a small, sharply three-angled nut 10–15 mm ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 5 ⁄ 8  in) long, borne singly or in pairs in soft-spined husks 1.5–2.5 cm ( 5 ⁄ 8 –1 in) long, known as cupules. The husk can have a variety of spine- to scale-like appendages, the character of which is, in addition to leaf shape, one of the primary ways beeches are differentiated. The nuts are called beechnuts or beech mast and have

960-426: Is the most commonly cultivated species, yielding a utility timber used for furniture construction, flooring and engineering purposes, in plywood, and household items. The timber can be used to build homes. Beechwood makes excellent firewood . Slats of washed beech wood are spread around the bottom of fermentation tanks for Budweiser beer. Beech logs are burned to dry the malt used in some German smoked beers . Beech

1008-653: The cryptic sister species F. hayatae and F. pashanica ) , two pseudo-cryptic species in eastern North America ( F. grandifolia , F. mexicana ), and a species complex of at least four species ( F. caspica , F. hohenackeriana , F. orientalis , F. sylvatica ) in Western Eurasia . Their genetics are highly complex and include both species-unique alleles as well as alleles and ribosomal DNA spacers that are shared between two or more species. The western Eurasian species are characterized by morphological and genetical gradients. Research suggests that

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1056-636: The American beech remain on the branches until well into the following spring, when the new buds finally push them off. East Asia is home to eight species of Fagus , only one of which ( F. crenata ) is occasionally planted in Western countries. Smaller than F. sylvatica and F. grandifolia , this beech is one of the most common hardwoods in its native range. Beech grows on a wide range of soil types, acidic or basic, provided they are not waterlogged. The tree canopy casts dense shade and thickens

1104-723: The Crimean F. × taurica, from which it differs morphologically and genetically. Numerous species have been named globally from the fossil record spanning from the Cretaceous to the Pleistocene . Fossil species formerly placed in Fagus include: The name of the tree in Latin, fagus (from whence the generic epithet ), is cognate with English "beech" and of Indo-European origin, and played an important role in early debates on

1152-680: The Leine finally leaves the Leine Uplands and, simultaneously, the Central Uplands and enters funnel-shaped basin of the Calenberg Loess Börde which opens out into the North German Plain and which abuts on the Calenberg Uplands in the west and the Innerste Uplands and Hildesheim Forest in the east. The landscape regions of the Leine Uplands are grouped into the following major units, whereby

1200-521: The bottom of fermentation tanks for Budweiser beer. This provides a complex surface on which the yeast can settle, so that it does not pile up, preventing yeast autolysis which would contribute off-flavours to the beer. Beech logs are burned to dry the malt used in German smoked beers . Beech is also used to smoke Westphalian ham , traditional andouille (an offal sausage) from Normandy, and some cheeses. Some drums are made from beech, which has

1248-578: The disease has become widespread in Connecticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island, and in portions of coastal New Hampshire and coastal and central Maine. The beech most commonly grown as an ornamental tree is the European beech ( Fagus sylvatica ), widely cultivated in North America as well as its native Europe. Many varieties are in cultivation, notably the weeping beech F. sylvatica 'Pendula', several varieties of copper or purple beech,

1296-821: The eastern United States and southeastern Canada, with a disjunct sister species in Mexico ( F. mexicana ). There are the only extant (surviving) Fagus species in the Western Hemisphere. Before the Pleistocene Ice Age, it is believed to have spanned the entire width of the continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific but now is confined to the east of the Great Plains. F. grandifolia tolerates hotter climates than European species but

1344-662: The exception of the Western Eurasian and North American species. Fagus is the first diverging lineage in the evolution of the Fagaceae family, which also includes oaks and chestnuts . The oldest fossils that can be assigned to the beech lineage are 81–82 million years old pollen from the Late Cretaceous of Wyoming , United States. The southern beeches (genus Nothofagus ) historically thought closely related to beeches, are treated as members of

1392-706: The extreme northwest of the Solling Foreland around the Vogler . After the Leine trough has been blocked and flows around the Hube, it runs through the Alfeld Uplands ( Alfelder Bergland ), also called the Ith-Hils Upland ( Ith-Hils-Bergland ), which is characterised by a succession of closely spaced ridges and finger valleys running in a northwest-southeast direction. East of the massifs that give

1440-728: The fern-leaved beech F. sylvatica 'Asplenifolia', and the tricolour beech F. sylvatica 'Roseomarginata'. The columnar Dawyck beech ( F. sylvatica 'Dawyck') occurs in green, gold, and purple forms, named after Dawyck Botanic Garden in the Scottish Borders, one of the four garden sites of the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh . Beech wood is an excellent firewood , easily split and burning for many hours with bright but calm flames. Slats of beech wood are washed in caustic soda to leach out any flavour or aroma characteristics and are spread around

1488-759: The first representatives of the modern-day genus were already present in the Paleocene of Arctic North America (western Greenland ) and quickly radiated across the high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere , with a first diversity peak in the Miocene of northeastern Asia . The contemporary species are the product of past, repeated reticulate evolutionary processes ( outbreeding , introgression , hybridization ). As far as studied, heterozygosity and intragenomic variation are common in beech species, and their chloroplast genomes are nonspecific with

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1536-491: The geographical origins of the Indo-European people , the beech argument . Greek φηγός (figós) is from the same root, but the word was transferred to the oak tree (e.g. Iliad 16.767) as a result of the absence of beech trees in southern Greece . Fagus sylvatica was a late entrant to Great Britain after the last glaciation, and may have been restricted to basic soils in the south of England. Some suggest that it

1584-479: The ground with leaf litter . In North America, they can form beech-maple climax forests by partnering with the sugar maple . The beech blight aphid ( Grylloprociphilus imbricator ) is a common pest of American beech trees. Beeches are also used as food plants by some species of Lepidoptera . Beech bark is extremely thin and scars easily. Since the beech tree has such delicate bark, carvings, such as lovers' initials and other forms of graffiti, remain because

1632-906: The knife-edge of the Ith , part of which lies within the Weser Uplands-Schaumburg-Hamelin Nature Park . The valley of the Glene, a southwestern tributary of the Leine leads to the Reuberg. The B 240 runs past the Duinger Berg to the northwest. The B 3 runs by to the east. Numerous forest tracks run over the Duinger Berg. One hiking trail runs over the crest of the ridge from Marienhagen to Brunkensen. Leine Uplands The Leine Uplands ( German : Leinebergland , German pronunciation )

1680-572: The last ice age. Nowadays, they are amongst the last pure beech forests in Europe to document the undisturbed postglacial repopulation of the species, which also includes the unbroken existence of typical animals and plants. These virgin beech forests and similar forests across 12 countries in continental Europe were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2007. The American beech ( Fagus grandifolia ) occurs across much of

1728-477: The lower reaches of the same river. The River Leine flows from Friedland via Göttingen and Northeim to Einbeck through the Leine trough ( Leine-Ilm Basin ), an important north-south orientated geological rift valley . On the hilltops along the valley of the Leine there are many castles that controlled the north-south road network in the valley during the Middle Ages and could also block it entirely. In

1776-429: The modern word derives. In modern German, the word for "book" is Buch, with Buche meaning "beech tree". In modern Dutch, the word for "book" is boek, with beuk meaning "beech tree". In Swedish, these words are the same, bok meaning both "beech tree" and "book". There is a similar relationship in some Slavic languages. In Russian and Bulgarian , the word for beech is бук ( buk ), while that for "letter" (as in

1824-573: The narrowest places in the ravine-like rocky valleys between the Leine and the Eichsfeld. In an area about 30 km long and 6 to 10 km wide around 1600 abris have been discovered. The woods (largely beech forests) are utilised by the forestry industry. To the north this landscape transitions into the equally thickly wooded escarpments and fault-block landscape of the Southwest Harz Foreland , in which Jurassic limestone

1872-619: The numbers not prefixed by the letter D represent the old categorisation into major unit groups (double figures) and major units (triple figures), whilst the new major unit group, D 36, contains the two older groups. The following hills are counted as part of the Leine Uplands (roughly north to south ): Towns in the Leine valley (from north to south): other towns in the Leine Uplands: 51°58′0″N 9°49′0″E  /  51.96667°N 9.81667°E  / 51.96667; 9.81667 Beech See text Beech ( Fagus )

1920-611: The region its alternative name, the Ith and the Hils , which are up to 480 m high, the ridges fall steeply on both sides of the Leine into the valley and are dissected by various tributaries. Beech woods dominate the heights whilst the valleys are used for arable farming. Large areas of the countryside are protected. On the ridges east of the Leine, besides the mesophilic beech and ravine woods, there are xeric grasslands, dry bushlands, mesophilic grasslands and dry chalk hillside forests that are particularly worthy of conservation. Near Gronau

1968-634: The southeast, Coppengrave to the south, Duingen to the southwest and Weenzen and Marienhagen to the northwest. The main summit of the Duinger Berg is the Babenstein ( 331 m above NN ). A little further southeast is the Kikedal ( 319 m above NN ). Northwest of the Duinger Berg is the ridge of the Thüster Berg , to the east is the Külf , southeast the Reuberg and west

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2016-490: The southeastern part of the Leine Uplands, east of the valley, is the plateau of the Göttingen-Northeim Forest which is founded on Bunter sandstone and Muschelkalk . The western edge of the forest (in a northerly direction) reaches from Friedland via Göttingen and Nörten-Hardenberg to Northeim . It is here that the largest group of abris in central Europe may be found. They are often located in

2064-793: The status of F. okamotoi remains uncertain, the most recent systematic treatment based on morphological and genetic data confirmed a third species, F. multinervis, endemic to Ulleungdo , a South Korean island in the Sea of Japan . The beeches of Ulleungdo have been traditionally treated as a subspecies of F. engleriana, to which they are phenotypically identical, or as a variety of F. japonica. The differ from their siblings by their unique nuclear and plastid genotypes. The better known subgenus Fagus beeches are high-branching with tall, stout trunks and smooth silver-gray bark. This group includes five extant species in continental and insular East Asia ( F. crenata , F. longipetiolata , F. lucida , and

2112-453: The tree in autumn. They are small, roughly triangular, and edible, with a bitter, astringent, or mild and nut-like taste. The European beech ( Fagus sylvatica ) is the most commonly cultivated, although few important differences are seen between species aside from detail elements such as leaf shape. The leaves of beech trees are entire or sparsely toothed, from 5–15 centimetres (2–6 inches) long and 4–10 cm (2–4 in) broad. The bark

2160-622: The tree is unable to heal itself. Beech bark disease is a fungal infection that attacks the American beech through damage caused by scale insects. Infection can lead to the death of the tree. Beech leaf disease is a disease that affects American beeches spread by the newly discovered nematode, Litylenchus crenatae mccannii . This disease was first discovered in Lake County, Ohio, in 2012 and has now spread to over 41 counties in Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, and Ontario, Canada. As of 2024,

2208-583: The world (according to Guinness World Records ) is the Meikleour Beech Hedge in Meikleour , Perth and Kinross , Scotland. Fagus sylvatica is one of the most common hardwood trees in north-central Europe, in France constituting alone about 15% of all nonconifers. The Balkans are also home to the lesser-known oriental beech ( F. orientalis ) and Crimean beech ( F. taurica ). As

2256-513: Was designated for its beech woodlands, which are believed to be on the western edge of their natural range in this steep limestone gorge. Beech is not native to Ireland; however, it was widely planted in the 18th century and can become a problem shading out the native woodland understory. Beech is widely planted for hedging and in deciduous woodlands, and mature, regenerating stands occur throughout mainland Britain at elevations below about 650 m (2,100 ft). The tallest and longest hedge in

2304-459: Was introduced by Neolithic tribes who planted the trees for their edible nuts. The beech is classified as a native in the south of England and as a non-native in the north where it is often removed from 'native' woods. Large areas of the Chilterns are covered with beech woods, which are habitat to the common bluebell and other flora. The Cwm Clydach National Nature Reserve in southeast Wales

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