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32-895: Duralumin was developed in 1909 in Germany. Duralumin is known for its strength and hardness, making it suitable for various applications, especially in the aviation and aerospace industry. However, it is susceptible to corrosion, which can be mitigated by using alclad-duralum materials. Duralumin was developed by the German metallurgist Alfred Wilm at private military-industrial laboratory Zentralstelle für wissenschaftlich-technische Untersuchungen  [ de ] (Center for Scientific-Technical Research) in Neubabelsberg . In 1903, Wilm discovered that after quenching , an aluminium alloy containing 4% copper would harden when left at room temperature for several days. Further improvements led to

64-580: A cantilever wing design with virtually no external bracing, the Junkers F 13 of 1919 (the world's first all-metal passenger aircraft), the Junkers W 33 (which made the first successful heavier-than-air east-to-west crossing of the Atlantic Ocean), the Junkers G.38 "flying wing", and the Junkers Ju 52 , affectionately nicknamed "Tante Ju", one of the most famous airliners of the 1930s. When

96-697: A tankless heater . In 1895, he founded Junkers & Co. to utilize his inventions. From 1897, he was offered a professorship of mechanical engineering at Aachen, where he lectured until 1912. Working as an engineer at the same time, Junkers taking substantial gains of Junkers & Co. devised, patented, and exploited calorimeters, domestic appliances (gas stoves), pressure regulators, gas oil engines, fan heaters , and other inventions. Junkers' aeronautical work began in earnest at age 50 when he worked with engineer Hans Reissner in Aachen. Reissner had developed an all-metal aircraft, on which work first started in 1909 at

128-426: A German aircraft engineer and aircraft designer who pioneered the design of all-metal airplanes and flying wings. His company, Junkers Flugzeug- und Motorenwerke AG (Junkers Aircraft and Motor Works), was one of the mainstays of the German aircraft industry in the years between World War I and World War II . His multi-engined, all-metal passenger- and freight planes helped establish airlines in Germany and around

160-624: A crucial role in determining the mechanical properties of duralumin. Optimal aging conditions lead to the formation of finely dispersed precipitates, resulting in peak strength and hardness. Aluminium alloyed with copper (Al-Cu alloys), which can be precipitation hardened , are designated by the International Alloy Designation System as the 2000 series. Typical uses for wrought Al-Cu alloys include: German scientific literature openly published information about duralumin, its composition and heat treatment, before

192-566: A heavier-than-air aircraft structure occurred in 1916, when Hugo Junkers first introduced its use in the airframe of the Junkers J 3 , a single-engined monoplane "technology demonstrator" that marked the first use of the Junkers trademark duralumin corrugated skinning. The Junkers company completed only the covered wings and tubular fuselage framework of the J 3 before abandoning its development. The slightly later, solely IdFlieg -designated Junkers J.I armoured sesquiplane of 1917, known to

224-664: A manufacturing plant in Fili , a suburb of Moscow, in the Soviet Union in the 1920s) with a similar armored fuselage design. As this design philosophy for such combat aircraft had proven to be a good idea, it was once again broadly reused for the 1970s-premiered American Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II "Warthog" twin- turbofan powered attack aircraft, also having its pilot enveloped in an armoured titanium bathtub. By 1918, Junkers' firm, with its previously demonstrated preference for monoplane -pattern airframe designs, had created

256-623: A “Duralinox” model that became an instant classic among cyclists. The Vitus 979 was the first production aluminium frameset whose thin-wall 5083/5086 tubing was slip-fit and then glued together using a dry heat-activated epoxy. The result was an extremely lightweight but very durable frameset. Production of the Vitus 979 continued until 1992. In 2011, BBS Automotive made the RI-D, the world's first production automobile wheel made of duralumin. The company has since made other wheels of duralumin also, such as

288-450: Is relatively soft and ductile. Solution Annealing: Duralumin undergoes solution annealing, a high-temperature heat treatment process that dissolves the alloying elements into the aluminium matrix, creating a homogeneous solid solution. Quenching: Rapid cooling (quenching) after solution annealing freezes the high-temperature solid solution, preventing the precipitation of strengthening phases. Aging (Precipitation Hardening): During aging,

320-535: The Brand Heath, equipped with corrugated iron wings built by Junkers & Co. in Dessau. The iron wings were patented one year later. Junkers had a wind tunnel built and invented a hydraulic brake . He had far-sighted ideas of metal aeroplanes and flying wings , but the necessities of the war held him back. During World War I , the government forced him to focus on aircraft production. In 1915, he developed

352-531: The German Empire during World War I , later in minor association with Anthony Fokker , as well as civil aircraft designs during the "interwar period" produced by Junkers Flugzeugwerke (Junkers Aircraft Works). Junkers died in 1935, on his 76th birthday. The earliest all-metal post-World War I aircraft designs of both Andrei Tupolev — with his Tupolev ANT-2 two-passenger small aircraft of 1924 — and William Bushnell Stout 's initial all-metal design,

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384-466: The Stout ST twin-engine torpedo bomber of 1922, were both based directly on the pioneering work of Junkers, with each engineer (one Soviet, one American) separately developing examples of aircraft like Tupolev's enormous, 63 meter wingspan, eight-engined Maksim Gorki — the largest aircraft built anywhere in the world in the early 1930s — and Stout's popular Ford Trimotor airliner. In 1976, Junkers

416-712: The "Great Airship" era of the 1920s and 1930s: the British-built R100 , the German passenger Zeppelins LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin , LZ 129 Hindenburg , LZ 130 Graf Zeppelin II , and the U.S. Navy airships USS Los Angeles (ZR-3, ex-LZ 126) , USS Akron (ZRS-4) and USS Macon (ZRS-5) . Duralumin was used to manufacture bicycle components and framesets from the 1930s to 1990s. Several companies in Saint-Étienne, France stood out for their early, innovative adoption of duralumin: in 1932, Verot et Perrin developed

448-622: The Continental-Gasgesellschaft in Dessau , where he worked on the development of the first opposed-piston engine . To measure heating value , Junkers patented a calorimeter and founded a manufacturing company in 1892. Junkers personally introduced the calorimeter at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago , where it was awarded a gold medal. The next year, he patented a gas-fired bath boiler , which he refined as

480-580: The Nazis came into power in 1933, they requested Junkers and his businesses aid in the German re-armament. When Junkers declined, the Nazis placed him under house arrest in 1934 and eventually seized control of his patents and company. He died the following year. Under Nazi control, his company produced some of the most successful German warplanes of the Second World War. Junkers was born in Rheydt in

512-712: The Prussian Rhine Province , the son of a wealthy industrialist. After taking his Abitur exams in 1878, he attended the Technische Hochschulen in Charlottenburg (now Technische Universität Berlin ) and Aachen (now RWTH Aachen ), where he completed his engineering studies in 1883. At first, he returned to Rheydt to work in his father's company, but soon attended further lectures on electromagnetism and thermodynamics held by Adolf Slaby in Charlottenburg. Slaby placed him with

544-540: The RZ-D. Alfred Wilm Too Many Requests If you report this error to the Wikimedia System Administrators, please include the details below. Request from 172.68.168.226 via cp1108 cp1108, Varnish XID 255736106 Upstream caches: cp1108 int Error: 429, Too Many Requests at Thu, 28 Nov 2024 11:01:00 GMT Hugo Junkers Hugo Junkers (3 February 1859 – 3 February 1935) was

576-403: The designs of their earlier aircraft, which benefited from Junkers' corrugated, light-metal construction technique. The Junkers F.13 of 1919 was the first of several successful civil aircraft designs produced by Junkers Flugzeugwerke : later designs include the Junkers Ju 52/3m from 1932. Through a variety of business initiatives, Junkers was active in founding and developing airlines around

608-490: The factory as the Junkers J 4, had its all-metal wings and horizontal stabilizer made in the same manner as the J 3's wings had been, like the experimental and airworthy all-duralumin Junkers J 7 single-seat fighter design, which led to the Junkers D.I low-wing monoplane fighter, introducing all-duralumin aircraft structural technology to German military aviation in 1918. Its first use in aerostatic airframes came in rigid airship frames, eventually including all those of

640-494: The factory for improvements. When the Nazis gained control of the German government in 1933, Junkers opposed their goal of re-armament. They responded by demanding ownership of all patents and market shares from his remaining companies, under threat of imprisonment on the charge of high treason. He was placed under house arrest in 1934 and died on 3 February 1935. Hugo Junkers is mainly known in connection with aircraft bearing his name. These include some he reluctantly developed for

672-911: The first light alloy crank arms; in 1934, Haubtmann released a complete crankset; from 1935 on, Duralumin freewheels, derailleurs , pedals, brakes and handlebars were manufactured by several companies. Complete framesets followed quickly, including those manufactured by: Mercier (and Aviac and other licensees) with their popular Meca Dural family of models, the Pelissier brothers and their race-worthy La Perle models, and Nicolas Barra and his exquisite mid-twentieth century “Barralumin” creations. Other names that come up here also included: Pierre Caminade, with his beautiful Caminargent creations and their exotic octagonal tubing, and also Gnome et Rhône , with its deep heritage as an aircraft engine manufacturer that also diversified into motorcycles, velomotors and bicycles after World War Two. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries , which

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704-503: The globe, initially intending to sell them aircraft. Airlines where Junkers played a pivotal role in early phases of their development include Deutsche Luft Hansa and Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano . Several business ventures failed from wider economic or political problems that hampered sound engineering plans. Junkers always had more ideas: the massive four-engined G.38 , nicknamed "Der Grosse Dessauer", delivered to Luft Hansa, made no commercial trips for many months as he repeatedly recalled it to

736-478: The introduction of duralumin in 1909. The name, originally a trade mark of Dürener Metallwerke AG which acquired Wilm's patents and commercialized the material, is mainly used in pop-science to describe all Al-Cu alloys system, or '2000' series, as designated through the international alloy designation system originally created in 1970 by the Aluminum Association . In addition to aluminium ,

768-487: The main materials in duralumin are copper , manganese and magnesium . For instance, Duraluminium 2024 consists of 91-95% aluminium, 3.8-4.9% copper, 1.2-1.8% magnesium, 0.3-0.9% manganese, <0.5% iron, <0.5% silicon, <0.25% zinc, <0.15% titanium, <0.10% chromium and no more than 0.15% of other elements together. Although the addition of copper improves strength, it also makes these alloys susceptible to corrosion . Corrosion resistance can be greatly enhanced by

800-543: The metallurgical bonding of a high-purity aluminium surface layer, referred to as alclad -duralum. Alclad materials are commonly used in the aircraft industry to this day. Duralumin's remarkable strength and durability stem from its unique microstructure, which is significantly influenced by heat treatment processes. Solid Solution: After initial solidification, duralumin exists as a single-phase solid solution, primarily composed of aluminium atoms with dispersed copper, magnesium, and other alloying elements. This initial state

832-487: The outbreak of World War I in 1914. Despite this, use of the alloy outside Germany did not occur until after fighting ended in 1918. Reports of German use during World War I, even in technical journals such as Flight , could still mis-identify its key alloying component as magnesium rather than copper. Engineers in the UK showed little interest in duralumin until after the war. The earliest known attempt to use duralumin for

864-449: The supersaturated solid solution becomes unstable. Fine precipitates, such as CuAl2 and Mg2Si, form within the aluminum matrix. These precipitates act as obstacles to dislocation movement, significantly increasing the alloy's strength and hardness. The final microstructure of duralumin consists of a predominantly aluminium matrix dispersed fine precipitates (CuAl2, Mg2Si) Grain boundaries. The size, distribution, and type of precipitates play

896-559: The war. During this time, the German government's IdFlieg military aviation inspectorate forced him to merge his firm with Anthony Fokker 's to form the Junkers-Fokker Aktiengesellschaft on 20 October 1917. The J.I's pattern of an armored fuselage that protected the nose-mounted engine, pilot, and observer in a unitized metal "bathtub" was the possible inspiration for Sergey Ilyushin 's later Il-2 Shturmovik (conceivably appropriate as Junkers did have

928-521: The world's first practical all-metal aircraft design, the Junkers J 1 "Blechesel" (Sheetmetal Donkey), which survived on display at the Deutsches Museum in Munich until WWII. His firm's first military production design in 1916–17 was the armored-fuselage, two-seat, all-metal sesquiplane known by its IdFlieg designation, the Junkers J.I , considered the best German ground attack aircraft of

960-525: The world's first production low-winged, single-seat monoplane all-metal fighter aircraft, the Junkers D.I , which pioneered the use of Alfred Wilm 's 1906 invention of duralumin throughout a production airframe. The D.I did not enter production until 1918. He also produced a two-seat monoplane fighter, the Junkers CL.I . Both postwar Soviet aviation pioneer Andrei Tupolev and American aviation designer William Bushnell Stout owed much to Hugo Junkers in

992-561: The world. In addition to aircraft, Junkers also built both diesel and petrol engines and held various thermodynamic and metallurgical patents. He was also one of the main sponsors of the Bauhaus movement and facilitated the move of the Bauhaus from Weimar to Dessau (where his factory was situated) in 1925. Amongst the highlights of his career were the Junkers J 1 of 1915, the world's first practical all-metal aircraft, incorporating

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1024-518: Was prohibited from producing aircraft during the American occupation of Japan, manufactured the “cross” bicycle out of surplus wartime duralumin in 1946. The “cross” was designed by Kiro Honjo , a former aircraft designer responsible for the Mitsubishi G4M . Duralumin use in bicycle manufacturing faded in the 1970s and 1980s. Vitus nonetheless released the venerable “979” frameset in 1979,

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