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78-652: EMVest Asset Management is a private equity firm based in Pretoria , South Africa , with an additional office in London , United Kingdom. EMVest Asset Management was founded in 2011. It is a joint venture between Emergent Asset Management and Grainvest, a subsidiary of the RussellStone Group. The firm invests in landholdings in South Africa, Mozambique , Eswatini , Zambia , Zimbabwe . In June 2011,

156-524: A private equity fund . Certain institutional investors have the scale necessary to develop a diversified portfolio of private-equity funds themselves, while others will invest through a fund of funds to allow a portfolio more diversified than one a single investor could construct. Returns on private-equity investments are created through one or a combination of three factors that include: debt repayment or cash accumulation through cash flows from operations, operational improvements that increase earnings over

234-482: A $ 290 million IPO and Simon made approximately $ 66 million. The success of the Gibson Greetings investment attracted the attention of the wider media to the nascent boom in leveraged buyouts. Between 1979 and 1989, it was estimated that there were over 2,000 leveraged buyouts valued in excess of $ 250 million. During the 1980s, constituencies within acquired companies and the media ascribed

312-486: A bank (or other lender). To this, it adds $ 2bn of equity – money from its own partners and from limited partners . With this $ 11bn, it buys all the shares of an underperforming company, XYZ Industrial (after due diligence , i.e. checking the books). It replaces the senior management in XYZ Industrial, with others who set out to streamline it. The workforce is reduced, some assets are sold off, etc. The objective

390-416: A bid of $ 112, a figure they felt certain would enable them to outflank any response by Kravis's team. KKR's final bid of $ 109, while a lower dollar figure, was ultimately accepted by the board of directors of RJR Nabisco. At $ 31.1 billion of transaction value, RJR Nabisco was by far the largest leveraged buyouts in history. In 2006 and 2007, a number of leveraged buyout transactions were completed that for

468-441: A broad asset allocation that includes traditional assets (e.g., public equity and bonds ) and other alternative assets (e.g., hedge funds , real estate, commodities ). US, Canadian and European public and private pension schemes have invested in the asset class since the early 1980s to diversify away from their core holdings (public equity and fixed income). Today pension investment in private equity accounts for more than

546-854: A fine of $ 650 million – at the time, the largest fine ever levied under securities laws. Milken left the firm after his own indictment in March 1989. On 13 February 1990 after being advised by United States Secretary of the Treasury Nicholas F. Brady , the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), the New York Stock Exchange and the Federal Reserve , Drexel Burnham Lambert officially filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. The combination of decreasing interest rates, loosening lending standards and regulatory changes for publicly traded companies (specifically

624-502: A form of growth capital investment made into a publicly traded company . PIPE investments are typically made in the form of a convertible or preferred security that is unregistered for a certain period of time. The Registered Direct (RD) is another common financing vehicle used for growth capital. A registered direct is similar to a PIPE, but is instead sold as a registered security. Mezzanine capital refers to subordinated debt or preferred equity securities that often represent

702-406: A generally low likelihood of facing liquidity shocks in the medium term, and thus can afford the required long holding periods characteristic of private-equity investment. The median horizon for a LBO transaction is eight years. Nonrecourse debt The incentives for the parties are at an intermediate position between those of a full recourse secured loan and a totally unsecured loan. While

780-479: A large and active asset class and the private-equity firms, with hundreds of billions of dollars of committed capital from investors are looking to deploy capital in new and different transactions. As a result of the global financial crisis, private equity has become subject to increased regulation in Europe and is now subject, among other things, to rules preventing asset stripping of portfolio companies and requiring

858-728: A major acquisition without a change of control of the business. Companies that seek growth capital will often do so in order to finance a transformational event in their life cycle. These companies are likely to be more mature than venture capital-funded companies, able to generate revenue and operating profits, but unable to generate sufficient cash to fund major expansions, acquisitions or other investments. Because of this lack of scale, these companies generally can find few alternative conduits to secure capital for growth, so access to growth equity can be critical to pursue necessary facility expansion, sales and marketing initiatives, equipment purchases, and new product development. The primary owner of

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936-429: A notable slowdown in issuance levels in the high yield and leveraged loan markets with few issuers accessing the market. Uncertain market conditions led to a significant widening of yield spreads, which coupled with the typical summer slowdown led many companies and investment banks to put their plans to issue debt on hold until the autumn. However, the expected rebound in the market after 1 May 2007 did not materialize, and

1014-463: A number of the same tactics and target the same type of companies as more traditional leveraged buyouts and in many ways could be considered a forerunner of the later private-equity firms. Posner is often credited with coining the term " leveraged buyout " or "LBO". The leveraged buyout boom of the 1980s was conceived by a number of corporate financiers, most notably Jerome Kohlberg Jr. and later his protégé Henry Kravis . Working for Bear Stearns at

1092-400: A reputation as a ruthless corporate raider after his hostile takeover of TWA in 1985. Many of the corporate raiders were onetime clients of Michael Milken , whose investment banking firm, Drexel Burnham Lambert helped raise blind pools of capital with which corporate raiders could make a legitimate attempt to take over a company and provided high-yield debt ("junk bonds") financing of

1170-493: A researcher's classification standards. Self-directed IRA investors who choose to purchase investment real estate are able to leverage their purchase with a nonrecourse loan. Due to Internal Revenue Service regulations, it would be deemed a violation of the qualified retirement account status to personally guarantee any loan on real estate owned by a self-directed IRA . A property assessed clean energy (PACE) loan, used by some states to fund residential energy improvements,

1248-410: A successful business model to act as a stand-alone entity, or as add-on / tuck-in / bolt-on acquisitions , which would include companies with insufficient scale or other deficits. Leveraged buyouts involve a financial sponsor agreeing to an acquisition without itself committing all the capital required for the acquisition. To do this, the financial sponsor will raise acquisition debt, which looks to

1326-405: A taxable gain generally results where the amount realized upon the sale or other disposition of property exceeds the amount of the taxpayer's adjusted basis in that property. Generally, the amount realized is the amount of cash and other consideration received by the taxpayer. The amount of any loan forgiven or discharged is generally part of that consideration. The adjusted basis is the sum of

1404-399: A third of all monies allocated to the asset class , ahead of other institutional investors such as insurance companies, endowments, and sovereign wealth funds. Most institutional investors do not invest directly in privately held companies , lacking the expertise and resources necessary to structure and monitor the investment. Instead, institutional investors will invest indirectly through

1482-482: A total of $ 748 billion in 2018. Thus, given the abundance of private capital available, companies no longer require public markets for sufficient funding. Benefits may include avoiding the cost of an IPO, maintaining more control of the company, and having the 'legroom' to think long-term rather than focus on short-term or quarterly figures. A new phenomenon in the Twenties are regulated platforms which fractionalise

1560-469: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Private equity Private equity ( PE ) is stock in a private company that does not offer stock to the general public. In the field of finance , private equity is offered instead to specialized investment funds and limited partnerships that take an active role in the management and structuring of the companies. In casual usage, "private equity" can refer to these investment firms, rather than

1638-471: Is an example of a loan that is nonrecourse to the borrower. Nonrecourse debt is typically used to finance commercial real estate, shipping, or other projects with high capital expenditures, long loan periods, and uncertain revenue streams. It is also commonly used for stock loans and other securities-collateralized lending structures. Since most commercial real estate is owned in a partnership structure (or similar tax pass-through), nonrecourse borrowing gives

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1716-602: Is often most closely associated with fast-growing technology , healthcare and biotechnology fields, venture funding has been used for other more traditional businesses. Investors generally commit to venture capital funds as part of a wider diversified private-equity portfolio , but also to pursue the larger returns the strategy has the potential to offer. However, venture capital funds have produced lower returns for investors over recent years compared to other private-equity fund types, particularly buyout. The category of distressed securities comprises financial strategies for

1794-406: Is to increase the valuation of the company for an early sale. The stock market is experiencing a bull market , and XYZ Industrial is sold two years after the buy-out for $ 13bn, yielding a profit of $ 2bn. The original loan can now be paid off with interest of, say, $ 0.5bn. The remaining profit of $ 1.5bn is shared among the partners. Taxation of such gains is at the capital gains tax rates , which in

1872-717: The Carnegie Steel Company using private equity. Modern era private equity, however, is credited to Georges Doriot , the "father of venture capitalism" with the founding of ARDC and founder of INSEAD , with capital raised from institutional investors, to encourage private sector investments in businesses run by soldiers who were returning from World War II. ARDC is credited with the first major venture capital success story when its 1957 investment of $ 70,000 in Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) would be valued at over $ 355 million after

1950-419: The Federal Reserve will absorb the loss should the value of those assets be below their collateralized value. The legal financing industry provides nonrecourse financial products used to provide financial assistance to plaintiffs involved in a contingency -based lawsuit like a car accident. The funds are provided to the consumer on the potential settlement amount. This money is true nonrecourse funding, if

2028-654: The Oakland Institute revealed that Harvard University , Vanderbilt University , and other American colleges and universities had invested heavily in African landholding via this firm. They were accused of " landgrabbing ." By 2013, Vanderbilt University, a university based in Nashville, Tennessee where students had led protests in the wake of the revelation, removed its US$ 26 million investment from EMVest. This South African corporation or company article

2106-622: The Sarbanes–Oxley Act ) would set the stage for the largest boom private equity had seen. Marked by the buyout of Dex Media in 2002, large multibillion-dollar U.S. buyouts could once again obtain significant high yield debt financing and larger transactions could be completed. By 2004 and 2005, major buyouts were once again becoming common, including the acquisitions of Toys "R" Us , The Hertz Corporation , Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and SunGard in 2005. As 2006 began, new "largest buyout" records were set and surpassed several times with nine of

2184-532: The " corporate raid " label to many private-equity investments, particularly those that featured a hostile takeover of the company, perceived asset stripping , major layoffs or other significant corporate restructuring activities. Among the most notable investors to be labeled corporate raiders in the 1980s included Carl Icahn , Victor Posner , Nelson Peltz , Robert M. Bass , T. Boone Pickens , Harold Clark Simmons , Kirk Kerkorian , Sir James Goldsmith , Saul Steinberg and Asher Edelman . Carl Icahn developed

2262-648: The 1986 buyout of the Revco drug stores, Walter Industries, FEB Trucking and Eaton Leonard. Additionally, the RJR Nabisco deal was showing signs of strain, leading to a recapitalization in 1990 that involved the contribution of $ 1.7 billion of new equity from KKR. In the end, KKR lost $ 700 million on RJR. Drexel reached an agreement with the government in which it pleaded nolo contendere (no contest) to six felonies – three counts of stock parking and three counts of stock manipulation . It also agreed to pay

2340-460: The US private-equity industry were planted in 1946 with the founding of two venture capital firms: American Research and Development Corporation (ARDC) and J.H. Whitney & Company . Before World War II, venture capital investments (originally known as "development capital") were primarily the domain of wealthy individuals and families. In 1901 J.P. Morgan arguably managed the first leveraged buyout of

2418-547: The United States are lower than ordinary income tax rates. Note that part of that profit results from turning the company around, and part results from the general increase in share prices in a buoyant stock market, the latter often being the greater component. Notes: Growth capital refers to equity investments, most often minority investments, in relatively mature companies that are looking for capital to expand or restructure operations, enter new markets or finance

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2496-462: The amount of adjusted basis in the property is fairly complex. The tax consequences of a disposition depend on whether the taxpayer acquired the property with the nonrecourse debt already attached, or whether the taxpayer took out the nonrecourse debt after acquisition of the property, and the relative relationships between fair market value and purchase price and disposition price. Upon a sale or other disposition of property under U.S. income tax law,

2574-548: The asset class, to invest in private equity from older vintages than would otherwise be available to them. Secondaries also typically experience a different cash flow profile, diminishing the j-curve effect of investing in new private-equity funds. Often investments in secondaries are made through third-party fund vehicle, structured similar to a fund of funds although many large institutional investors have purchased private-equity fund interests through secondary transactions. Sellers of private-equity fund investments sell not only

2652-634: The assets making investment sizes of $ 10,000 or less possible. Although the capital for private equity originally came from individual investors or corporations, in the 1970s, private equity became an asset class in which various institutional investors allocated capital in the hopes of achieving risk-adjusted returns that exceed those possible in the public equity markets . In the 1980s, insurers were major private-equity investors. Later, public pension funds and university and other endowments became more significant sources of capital. For most institutional investors, private-equity investments are made as part of

2730-411: The borrower is in first loss position, the lender also assumes significant risk, so the lender must underwrite the loan with much more care than in a full recourse loan. This typically requires that the lender have significant domain expertise and financial modeling expertise. Recourse debt or recourse loan is a debt that is backed by both collateral from the debtor, and by personal liability of

2808-452: The borrower/taxpayer is personally liable for any deficiency that may remain after the lender forecloses against the property), and then contrasting against similar facts involving nonrecourse debt, as follows: As an example, suppose: Assuming that the creditor forecloses on the property and that the $ 20,000 excess of the debt over the property's fair market value ($ 100,000 less $ 80,000) is contractually discharged (for didactic symmetry with

2886-409: The buyouts. One of the final major buyouts of the 1980s proved to be its most ambitious and marked both a high-water mark and a sign of the beginning of the end of the boom. In 1989, KKR (Kohlberg Kravis Roberts) closed in on a $ 31.1 billion takeover of RJR Nabisco . It was, at that time and for over 17 years, the largest leveraged buyout in history. The event was chronicled in the book (and later

2964-426: The case is lost, one does not owe the company funding the lawsuit anything. This is a purchase of an asset and not a loan. Nonrecourse debt is usually carried on a debtor company's balance sheet as a liability, and the collateral is carried as an asset. For U.S. Federal income tax purposes , the interaction among the concepts of (1) the "amount realized" upon a disposition, (2) the amount of nonrecourse debt, and (3)

3042-528: The cash flows of the acquisition target to make interest and principal payments. Acquisition debt in an LBO is often non-recourse to the financial sponsor and has no claim on other investments managed by the financial sponsor. Therefore, an LBO transaction's financial structure is particularly attractive to a fund's limited partners, allowing them the benefits of leverage, but limiting the degree of recourse of that leverage. This kind of financing structure leverage benefits an LBO's financial sponsor in two ways: (1)

3120-409: The companies in which that they invest. Private-equity capital is invested into a target company either by an investment management company ( private equity firm ), a venture capital fund, or an angel investor ; each category of investor has specific financial goals, management preferences, and investment strategies for profiting from their investments. Private equity provides working capital to

3198-434: The company may not be willing to take the financial risk alone. By selling part of the company to private equity, the owner can take out some value and share the risk of growth with partners. Capital can also be used to effect a restructuring of a company's balance sheet, particularly to reduce the amount of leverage (or debt) the company has on its balance sheet . A private investment in public equity (PIPE), refer to

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3276-405: The company's initial public offering in 1968 (a return of over 5,000 times its investment and an annualized rate of return of 101%). It is commonly noted that the first venture-backed startup is Fairchild Semiconductor , which produced the first commercially practicable integrated circuit, funded in 1959 by what would later become Venrock Associates . The first leveraged buyout may have been

3354-424: The debtor. This type of debt allows the lender to collect from the debtor and the debtor's assets in the case of default, in addition to foreclosing on a particular property or asset as with a home loan or auto loan. Nonpayment of recourse debt allows the lender the right to collect assets or pursue legal action . While mortgages in the US are typically nonrecourse debt, a foreclosure or bankruptcy can trigger

3432-426: The discharge of debt. Instead, the entire $ 55,000 difference between the unpaid principal of the debt and the taxpayer's adjusted basis ($ 100,000 less $ 45,000) would be treated as a taxable capital gain on the "sale or other disposition" of the property—again, even though no cash is received by the taxpayer at the time of foreclosure. At the sale, foreclosure or other disposition, nonrecourse debt incurred as part of

3510-404: The fair market value over the adjusted basis ($ 80,000 less $ 45,000) would be treated as a taxable capital gain on the "sale or other disposition" of the property—again, even though the taxpayer received no cash at the time of the foreclosure. Assuming the same facts except that the debt is nonrecourse, the result would be quite different. The taxpayer would realize zero taxable ordinary income from

3588-432: The financial press as the superficial rebranding of investment management companies who specialized in the leveraged buyout of financially weak companies. Evaluations of the returns of private equity are mixed: some find that it outperforms public equity, but others find otherwise. Some key features of private equity investment include: The strategies private-equity firms may use are as follows, leveraged buyout being

3666-432: The financing of the acquisition, and money extracted from an investment by mortgaging out, are treated the same: both are taxable realization only at the time of the property's disposition, even if, at time of disposition, the property is worth less than the amount of the mortgage. Nonrecourse debt that is in place at the time of acquisition of the property is included in basis, Crane v. Commissioner , subsequent borrowing

3744-409: The first time surpassed the RJR Nabisco leveraged buyout in terms of nominal purchase price. However, adjusted for inflation, none of the leveraged buyouts of the 2006–2007 period would surpass RJR Nabisco. By the end of the 1980s the excesses of the buyout market were beginning to show, with the bankruptcy of several large buyouts including Robert Campeau 's 1988 buyout of Federated Department Stores ,

3822-439: The following: If the amount realized exceeds the amount of adjusted basis, the taxpayer has realized a gain at the time of disposition. If the adjusted basis exceeds the amount realized, a loss has been incurred. The federal income tax effect of nonrecourse debt may be explained by first considering the tax effect of a disposition involving recourse debt (that is, a debt in which the property provides first security coverage, and

3900-476: The formation of Kohlberg Kravis Roberts in that year. In January 1982, former United States Secretary of the Treasury William E. Simon and a group of investors acquired Gibson Greetings , a producer of greeting cards, for $ 80 million, of which only $ 1 million was rumored to have been contributed by the investors. By mid-1983, just sixteen months after the original deal, Gibson completed

3978-434: The investments in the fund but also their remaining unfunded commitments to the funds. Other strategies that can be considered private equity or a close adjacent market include: As well as this to compensate for private equities not being traded on the public market, a private-equity secondary market has formed, where private-equity investors purchase securities and assets from other private equity investors. The seeds of

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4056-421: The investor only needs to provide a fraction of the capital for the acquisition, and (2) the returns to the investor will be enhanced, as long as the return on assets exceeds the cost of the debt. As a percentage of the purchase price for a leverage buyout target, the amount of debt used to finance a transaction varies according to the financial condition and history of the acquisition target, market conditions,

4134-454: The lack of market confidence prevented deals from pricing. By the end of September, the full extent of the credit situation became obvious as major lenders including Citigroup and UBS AG announced major writedowns due to credit losses. The leveraged finance markets came to a near standstill during a week in 2007. As 2008 began, lending standards tightened and the era of "mega-buyouts" came to an end. Nevertheless, private equity continues to be

4212-577: The launch of startup companies to late stage and growth capital that is often used to fund expansion of existing business that are generating revenue but may not yet be profitable or generating cash flow to fund future growth. Entrepreneurs often develop products and ideas that require substantial capital during the formative stages of their companies' life cycles. Many entrepreneurs do not have sufficient funds to finance projects themselves, and they must, therefore, seek outside financing. The venture capitalist's need to deliver high returns to compensate for

4290-402: The launch of a seed or startup company, early-stage development, or expansion of a business. Venture investment is most often found in the application of new technology, new marketing concepts and new products that do not have a proven track record or stable revenue streams. Venture capital is often sub-divided by the stage of development of the company ranging from early-stage capital used for

4368-449: The levels that traditional lenders are willing to provide through bank loans. In compensation for the increased risk, mezzanine debt holders require a higher return for their investment than secured or other more senior lenders. Mezzanine securities are often structured with a current income coupon. Venture capital (VC) is a broad subcategory of private equity that refers to equity investments made, typically in less mature companies, for

4446-583: The life of the investment and multiple expansion, selling the business for a higher price than was originally paid. A key component of private equity as an asset class for institutional investors is that investments are typically realized after some period of time, which will vary depending on the investment strategy. Private-equity investment returns are typically realized through one of the following avenues: Large institutional asset owners such as pension funds (with typically long-dated liabilities), insurance companies, sovereign wealth and national reserve funds have

4524-762: The loan debt. Lewis Cullman's acquisition of Orkin Exterminating Company in 1964 is often cited as the first leveraged buyout. Similar to the approach employed in the McLean transaction, the use of publicly traded holding companies as investment vehicles to acquire portfolios of investments in corporate assets was a relatively new trend in the 1960s popularized by the likes of Warren Buffett ( Berkshire Hathaway ) and Victor Posner ( DWG Corporation ) and later adopted by Nelson Peltz ( Triarc ), Saul Steinberg (Reliance Insurance) and Gerry Schwartz ( Onex Corporation ). These investment vehicles would utilize

4602-408: The loan to become recourse debt at the request of the lending institution. Recourse debt can either be full or limited recourse debt. A full recourse debt gives the granter the right to take any and all assets of the debtor, up to the full amount of the debts. The lender will sell the seized assets, including the asset acquired through the original loan. Limited, or partial recourse debt, relies on

4680-455: The major banking players of the day, including Morgan Stanley , Goldman Sachs , Salomon Brothers , and Merrill Lynch were actively involved in advising and financing the parties. After Shearson's original bid, KKR quickly introduced a tender offer to obtain RJR Nabisco for $ 90 per share—a price that enabled it to proceed without the approval of RJR Nabisco's management. RJR's management team, working with Shearson and Salomon Brothers, submitted

4758-471: The most common. Leveraged buyout (LBO) refers to a strategy of making equity investments as part of a transaction in which a company, business unit, or business asset is acquired from the current shareholders typically with the use of financial leverage . The companies involved in these transactions are typically mature and generate operating cash flows . Private-equity firms view target companies as either Platform companies, which have sufficient scale and

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4836-439: The most junior portion of a company's capital structure that is senior to the company's common equity . This form of financing is often used by private-equity investors to reduce the amount of equity capital required to finance a leveraged buyout or major expansion. Mezzanine capital, which is often used by smaller companies that are unable to access the high yield market , allows such companies to borrow additional capital beyond

4914-466: The movie), Barbarians at the Gate : The Fall of RJR Nabisco . KKR would eventually prevail in acquiring RJR Nabisco at $ 109 per share, marking a dramatic increase from the original announcement that Shearson Lehman Hutton would take RJR Nabisco private at $ 75 per share. A fierce series of negotiations and horse-trading ensued which pitted KKR against Shearson and later Forstmann Little & Co. Many of

4992-435: The nonrecourse example, let's assume, contrary to the commercial point of a recourse loan, that the debt is outright forgiven by the creditor, with no actual payment), the taxpayer would realize the $ 20,000 amount as income from the discharge of indebtedness. That $ 20,000 of forgiveness would be taxable to the taxpayer as ordinary income even though the taxpayer received no cash at the time of the discharge. The $ 35,000 excess of

5070-630: The notification and disclosure of information in connection with buy-out activity. From 2010 to 2014 KKR , Carlyle , Apollo and Ares went public. Starting from 2018 these companies converted from partnerships into corporations with more shareholder rights and the inclusion in stock indices and mutual fund portfolios. But with the increased availability and scope of funding provided by private markets, many companies are staying private simply because they can. McKinsey & Company reports in its Global Private Markets Review 2018 that global private market fundraising increased by $ 28.2 billion from 2017, for

5148-422: The original loan contract , where named assets are the extent to which a lender may take action. In Europe, mortgage loans secured by personal residences are usually recourse loans. Most states in the United States also permit recourse for residential mortgages, but antideficiency statutes in a minority of states require nonrecourse mortgages. Around 13 states can be classified as nonrecourse states, depending on

5226-411: The previous record set in 2000 by 22% and 33% higher than the 2005 fundraising total The following year, despite the onset of turmoil in the credit markets in the summer, saw yet another record year of fundraising with $ 302 billion of investor commitments to 415 funds Among the mega-buyouts completed during the 2006 to 2007 boom were: EQ Office , HCA , Alliance Boots and TXU . In July 2007,

5304-537: The profitable investment of working capital into the corporate equity and the securities of financially weak companies. The investment of private-equity capital into distressed securities is realised with two financial strategies: Moreover, the private-equity investment strategies of hedge funds also include actively trading the loans held and the bonds issued by the financially-weak target companies. Secondary investments refer to investments made in existing private-equity assets. These transactions can involve

5382-504: The purchase by McLean Industries, Inc. of Pan-Atlantic Steamship Company in January 1955 and Waterman Steamship Corporation in May 1955 Under the terms of that transaction, McLean borrowed $ 42 million and raised an additional $ 7 million through an issue of preferred stock . When the deal closed, $ 20 million of Waterman cash and assets were used to retire $ 20 million of

5460-458: The real estate owner the tax benefits of a tax-pass-through partnership structure (that is, loss pass-through and no double taxation ), and simultaneously limits personal liability to the value of the investment. A nonrecourse debt of $ 30 billion was issued to JPMorgan Chase by the Federal Reserve in order to purchase Bear Stearns on March 16, 2008. The nonrecourse loan was issued with Bear Stearns's less liquid assets as collateral, meaning that

5538-434: The risk of these investments makes venture funding an expensive capital source for companies. Being able to secure financing is critical to any business, whether it is a startup seeking venture capital or a mid-sized firm that needs more cash to grow. Venture capital is most suitable for businesses with large up-front capital requirements which cannot be financed by cheaper alternatives such as debt . Although venture capital

5616-399: The sale of private equity fund interests or portfolios of direct investments in privately held companies through the purchase of these investments from existing institutional investors . By its nature, the private-equity asset class is illiquid, intended to be a long-term investment for buy and hold investors. Secondary investments allow institutional investors, particularly those new to

5694-420: The target company to finance the expansion of the company with the development of new products and services, restructuring of operations, management, and formal control and ownership of the company. As a financial product, the private-equity fund is a type of private capital for financing a long-term investment strategy in an illiquid business enterprise. Private equity fund investing has been described by

5772-469: The three Bear Stearns bankers would complete a series of buyouts including Stern Metals (1965), Incom (a division of Rockwood International, 1971), Cobblers Industries (1971), and Boren Clay (1973) as well as Thompson Wire, Eagle Motors and Barrows through their investment in Stern Metals. By 1976, tensions had built up between Bear Stearns and Kohlberg, Kravis and Roberts leading to their departure and

5850-463: The time, Kohlberg and Kravis along with Kravis' cousin George Roberts began a series of what they described as "bootstrap" investments. Many of these companies lacked a viable or attractive exit for their founders as they were too small to be taken public and the founders were reluctant to sell out to competitors and so a sale to a financial buyer could prove attractive. In the following years

5928-403: The top ten buyouts at the end of 2007 having been announced in an 18-month window from the beginning of 2006 through the middle of 2007. In 2006, private-equity firms bought 654 U.S. companies for $ 375 billion, representing 18 times the level of transactions closed in 2003. Additionally, U.S.-based private-equity firms raised $ 215.4 billion in investor commitments to 322 funds, surpassing

6006-411: The turmoil that had been affecting the mortgage markets , spilled over into the leveraged finance and high-yield debt markets. The markets had been highly robust during the first six months of 2007, with highly issuer friendly developments including PIK and PIK Toggle (interest is " P ayable I n K ind") and covenant light debt widely available to finance large leveraged buyouts. July and August saw

6084-516: The willingness of lenders to extend credit (both to the LBO's financial sponsors and the company to be acquired) as well as the interest costs and the ability of the company to cover those costs. Historically the debt portion of a LBO will range from 60 to 90% of the purchase price. Between 2000 and 2005, debt averaged between 59.4% and 67.9% of total purchase price for LBOs in the United States. A private-equity fund, ABC Capital II, borrows $ 9bn from

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