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161-506: The Common Agricultural Policy ( CAP ) is the agricultural policy of the European Commission . It implements a system of agricultural subsidies and other programmes. It was introduced in 1962 and has since then undergone several changes to reduce the EEC budget cost (from 73% in 1985, to 37% in 2017) and consider rural development in its aims. It has however, been criticised on

322-405: A mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion , the presence of a radula (except for bivalves ), and the structure of the nervous system . Other than these common elements, molluscs express great morphological diversity, so many textbooks base their descriptions on a "hypothetical ancestral mollusc" (see image below). This has a single, " limpet -like" shell on top, which

483-400: A phylum of protostomic invertebrate animals , whose members are known as molluscs or mollusks ( / ˈ m ɒ l ə s k s / ). Around 76,000  extant species of molluscs are recognized, making it the second-largest animal phylum after Arthropoda . The number of additional fossil species is estimated between 60,000 and 100,000, and the proportion of undescribed species

644-435: A 'rake' to comb up filaments from the sea floor. Others feed on macroscopic 'plants' such as kelp, rasping the plant surface with its radula. To employ this strategy, the plant has to be large enough for the mollusc to 'sit' on, so smaller macroscopic plants are not as often eaten as their larger counterparts. Filter feeders are molluscs that feed by straining suspended matter and food particles from water, typically by passing

805-497: A MS does not meet some or all EACs, usually the MS is required to follow an action plan which allows it to meet the EAC by the end of 2016. In more exceptional cases – if failure to meet a given EAC is deemed to cause "significant prejudice" to the achievement of certain objectives – payments related to the priority concerned within that program may be partly or wholly suspended until the problem

966-605: A food secure system include physical availability, economic and physical access, appropriate utilization, and stability of the prior three elements over time. Of the 6.7 billion people on the planet, about 2 billion are food insecure. As the global population grows to 9 billion by 2050, and as diets shift to emphasize higher energy products and greater overall consumption, food systems will be subjected to even greater pressure. Climate change presents additional threats to food security, affecting crop yields, distribution of pests and diseases, weather patterns, and growing seasons around

1127-527: A genuine safety net. Ministers also agreed to increase modulation, whereby direct payments to farmers were reduced and the money transferred to the Rural Development Fund. Milk quotas expired in April 2015. To prepare the dairy farmers for this transition, a 'soft landing' was ensured by increasing quotas by one per cent every year between 2009–10 and 2013–14. For Italy, the 5 per cent increase

1288-436: A given serotype may have nucleotide sequences that differ by as much as 30% for a given gene. This means that FMD vaccines must be highly specific to the strain involved. Vaccination only provides temporary immunity that lasts from months to years. Therefore, rich countries maintain a policy of banning imports from all countries, not proven FMD-free by US or EU standards. This is a point of contention. Although this disease

1449-435: A group comprising cephalopods. Molluscus is used in classical Latin as an adjective only with nux ( nut ) to describe a particular type of soft nut. The use of mollusca in biological taxonomy by Jonston and later Linnaeus may have been influenced by Aristotle 's τὰ μαλάκια ta malákia (the soft ones; < μαλακός malakós "soft"), which he applied inter alia to cuttlefish . The scientific study of molluscs

1610-418: A hard shell use calcite (sometimes with traces of aragonite) to construct the eggshells. The shell consists of three layers: the outer layer (the periostracum ) made of organic matter, a middle layer made of columnar calcite , and an inner layer consisting of laminated calcite, often nacreous . In some forms the shell contains openings. In abalones there are holes in the shell used for respiration and

1771-718: A key role in promoting agricultural activities, such as irrigation systems, roads and telecommunication systems, land reform, power in rural areas, fiscal support for research and development, pricing policies, assistance for new technologies, and markets for agricultural produce. Agricultural policies have contributed to meeting the goals related to increasing, diversifying, and improving agricultural production. Agricultural policies aimed at reducing poverty include India's Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana , which offers crop insurance to farmers to protect them from weather-related uncertainties and potential crop failures. This initiative provides farmers with financial aid for crop loss, reducing

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1932-614: A living growing rice. Several years ago, Ghana was able to feed and export their surplus. Now, it imports rice. From where? Developed countries. Why? Because it's cheaper. Even if it costs the rice producer in the developed world much more to produce the rice, he doesn't have to make a profit from his crop. The government pays him to grow it, so he can sell it more cheaply to Ghana than the farmer in Ghana can. And that farmer in Ghana? He can't feed his family anymore." ( Lyle Vanclief , former Canadian Minister of Agriculture [1997-2003]) According to

2093-403: A maximum of 120,000 species. The total number of described species is difficult to estimate because of unresolved synonymy . In 1969, David Nicol estimated the probable total number of living mollusc species at 107,000 of which were about 12,000  fresh-water gastropods and 35,000  terrestrial . The Bivalvia would comprise about 14% of the total and the other five classes less than 2% of

2254-424: A near-natural state by planting native grasses and other plants. The U.S. Environmental Quality Incentives Program subsidizes improvements which promote water conservation and other measures. This program is conducted under a bidding process using a formula where farmers request a certain percentage of cost share for improvement such as drip irrigation. Producers that offer the most environmental improvement based on

2415-513: A new problem. With food waste, the market was thrown into imbalance. Consequently, the price drop cost the farmers' utility and has led to a future reform known as the Marsholt Plan. Marsholt Plan and following reforms generally adjusted the agriculture market back to balance. Later reforms managed to spread the fund to farmers and increase each individual farmers' welfare instead of merely expanding croplands and industries. Starting from 2003,

2576-399: A number of paired ganglia, the visceral cords serving the internal organs and the pedal ones serving the foot. Most pairs of corresponding ganglia on both sides of the body are linked by commissures (relatively large bundles of nerves). The ganglia above the gut are the cerebral, the pleural, and the visceral, which are located above the esophagus (gullet). The pedal ganglia, which control

2737-407: A pair of statocysts , which act as balance sensors. In gastropods, it secretes mucus as a lubricant to aid movement. In forms having only a top shell, such as limpets , the foot acts as a sucker attaching the animal to a hard surface, and the vertical muscles clamp the shell down over it; in other molluscs, the vertical muscles pull the foot and other exposed soft parts into the shell. In bivalves,

2898-525: A period and replacing price supports and subsidies. The Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002 contains direct and countercyclical payments designed to limit the effects of low prices and yields. In the EU, €54 billion of subsidies are paid every year. An increasing share of the subsidies is being decoupled from production and lumped into the Single Farm Payment. While this has diminished

3059-539: A point system for the least cost are funded first. The process continues until that year's allocated funds are expended. In April 2004 the World Trade Organization (WTO) ruled that 3 billion dollars in US cotton subsidies violate trade agreements and that almost 50% of EU sugar exports are illegal. In 1997–2003, US cotton exports were subsidized by an average of 48%. The WTO has extracted commitments from

3220-416: A product to compete with or undercut the foreign competition. This may produce a net gain for a government despite the cost of interventions because it allows a country to build up an export industry or reduce imports. It also helps to form the nation's supply and demand market. Farm or undeveloped land composes the majority of land in most countries. Policies may encourage some land uses rather than others in

3381-610: A range of indicators concerning financial execution, outputs, results and impact. Ex ante conditionalities (EACs) help to ensure that MS have set the right background conditions for spending funds effectively and efficiently through their program. Some EACs are "general" in the sense that they apply to all of the European Structural and Investment Funds (ESIFs). MS declare their fulfilment or non-fulfilment of EACs in their programs, and summaries it in their Partnership Agreement. The Commission checks this information. When

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3542-678: A rasping "tongue", the radula, and a complex digestive system in which exuded mucus and microscopic, muscle-powered "hairs" called cilia play various important roles. The generalized mollusc has two paired nerve cords , or three in bivalves . The brain , in species that have one, encircles the esophagus . Most molluscs have eyes , and all have sensors to detect chemicals, vibrations, and touch . The simplest type of molluscan reproductive system relies on external fertilization , but more complex variations occur. Nearly all produce eggs , from which may emerge trochophore larvae , more complex veliger larvae, or miniature adults. The coelomic cavity

3703-424: A risk of food poisoning, and many jurisdictions have regulations to reduce this risk. Molluscs have, for centuries, also been the source of important luxury goods, notably pearls , mother of pearl , Tyrian purple dye, and sea silk . Their shells have also been used as money in some preindustrial societies. A handful of mollusc species are sometimes considered hazards or pests for human activities. The bite of

3864-496: A shell (secondarily absent in a number of taxonomic groups, such as the nudibranchs ) that consists of mainly chitin and conchiolin (a protein hardened with calcium carbonate ), except the outermost layer, which in almost all cases is all conchiolin (see periostracum ). Molluscs never use phosphate to construct their hard parts, with the questionable exception of Cobcrephora . While most mollusc shells are composed mainly of aragonite , those gastropods that lay eggs with

4025-456: A singular gill. Generally, the gills are rather like feathers in shape, although some species have gills with filaments on only one side. They divide the mantle cavity so water enters near the bottom and exits near the top. Their filaments have three kinds of cilia, one of which drives the water current through the mantle cavity, while the other two help to keep the gills clean. If the osphradia detect noxious chemicals or possibly sediment entering

4186-500: A vaccine based on reverse genetics made with H5N1 antigens, and they have been using it. There has been a lot of criticism of what they have done because they have protected their chickens against death from this virus but the chickens still get infected, and then you get the drift - the virus mutates in response to the antibodies - and now we have a situation where we have five or six 'flavours' of H5N1 out there." Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), commonly known as "mad cow disease",

4347-422: A very high unemployment rate, much farmland and retains a large rural population growing food for their own use. Price controls may also be used to assist poor citizens. Many countries have used this method of welfare support as it delivers cheap food to the poorest in urban areas without the need to assess people to give them financial aid. This often goes at the cost of the rural poor, who then earn less from what

4508-401: A whole, with a focus on ensuring the competitiveness of farms and forestry, delivering sustainable management of natural resources and climate action as well as create growth and jobs in rural areas. Rural development policy is financed by three categories of funding: The expected total public spending (EU + national + regional) on rural development policy in the period between 2014 and 2020

4669-647: Is EUR 161 billion. The three objectives and overall purpose of the CAP include: However, in practical terms RDPs are drawn up with reference to six more specific priorities, which are further divided into more detailed focus areas. There is a total of 118 Rural Development Programs(RDP) in the EU. In most Member States there is a national program which covers the entire territory but in some countries there are several programs, most often linked to regions: France (30), Spain(22), Italy(23), Germany(15), Portugal(3), United Kingdom(4), Belgium(2), Finland(2). A given RDP links

4830-415: Is a hemocoel through which blood and coelomic fluid circulate and which encloses most of the other internal organs. These hemocoelic spaces act as an efficient hydrostatic skeleton . The blood of these molluscs contains the respiratory pigment hemocyanin as an oxygen -carrier. The heart consists of one or more pairs of atria ( auricles ), which receive oxygenated blood from the gills and pump it to

4991-631: Is a fatal, neurodegenerative disease of cattle , which infects by a mechanism that surprised biologists upon its discovery in the late 20th century. In the UK, the country worst affected, 179,000 cattle were infected and 4.4 million were killed as a precaution. The disease can be transmitted to human beings who eat or inhale material from infected carcasses. In humans, it is known as new variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD or nvCJD), and by June 2007, it had killed 165 people in Britain, and six elsewhere with

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5152-436: Is a penalty measure: if farmers do not respect these standards, their payment will be reduced. The direct aids and market related expenditure made up 31% of the total EU budget in 2010. Together with 11% for Rural Development, the total CAP budget took 42% of the total EU budget The CAP budget shrank relatively from 75% in 1984 to 37% of the total EU budget in 2017. Intervention mechanisms diminished significantly, for instance

5313-600: Is able to survive; this contributed to the spread of the disease in Britain, which had reduced the temperatures used during its rendering process. Another contributory factor was the feeding of infected protein supplements to very young calves instead of milk from their mothers. Foot-and-mouth disease is a highly contagious and sometimes fatal viral disease of cattle and pigs . It can also infect deer , goats , sheep , and other bovids with cloven hooves , as well as elephants , rats , and hedgehogs . Humans are affected only very rarely. FMD occurs throughout much of

5474-437: Is accordingly called malacology . The name Molluscoida was formerly used to denote a division of the animal kingdom containing the brachiopods , bryozoans , and tunicates , the members of the three groups having been supposed to somewhat resemble the molluscs. As now known, these groups have no relation to molluscs, and very little to one another, so the name Molluscoida has been abandoned. The most universal features of

5635-529: Is an endemic snail species of the Eastern Alps . There is strong evidence for self-fertilization in the easternmost snail populations of this species. The most basic molluscan larva is a trochophore , which is planktonic and feeds on floating food particles by using the two bands of cilia around its "equator" to sweep food into the mouth, which uses more cilia to drive them into the stomach, which uses further cilia to expel undigested remains through

5796-478: Is an example of where this might have already occurred. According to the CDC article "H5N1 Outbreaks and Enzootic Influenza" by Robert G. Webster et al.: "Transmission of highly pathogenic H5N1 from domestic poultry back to migratory waterfowl in western China has increased the geographic spread. The spread of H5N1 and its likely reintroduction to domestic poultry increase the need for good agricultural vaccines. In fact,

5957-402: Is associated with the odontophore , a cartilaginous supporting organ. The radula is unique to the molluscs and has no equivalent in any other animal. Molluscs' mouths also contain glands that secrete slimy mucus , to which the food sticks. Beating cilia (tiny "hairs") drive the mucus towards the stomach, so the mucus forms a long string called a "food string". At the tapered rear end of

6118-487: Is bad vaccine that stops the disease in the bird but the bird goes on pooping out the virus and maintaining it and changing it. And I think this is what is going on in China. It has to be. Either there is not enough vaccine being used or there is substandard vaccine being used. Probably both. It's not just China. We can't blame China for substandard vaccines. I think there are substandard vaccines for influenza in poultry all over

6279-558: Is expected to switch to more efficient irrigation equipment as a result of rural development support. A MS / region draws up its RDP in close consultation with a wide range of interested parties, including bodies representing Civil society . The MS / region submits its RDP to the Commission for analysis. The Commission approves the RDP when satisfied concerning its legality and quality (usually after several months of detailed discussion with

6440-449: Is made of proteins and chitin reinforced with calcium carbonate , and is secreted by a mantle covering the whole upper surface. The underside of the animal consists of a single muscular "foot". Although molluscs are coelomates , the coelom tends to be small. The main body cavity is a hemocoel through which blood circulates; as such, their circulatory systems are mainly open . The "generalized" mollusc's feeding system consists of

6601-540: Is nearly impossible to prove that they are entirely free of this disease. If they try they are forced to erect nationwide fences, which destroys wildlife migration. Because detecting and reporting of FMD have enormously improved and sped up, almost all poor countries could now safely create FMD-free export zones. But rich countries refuse to change the rules. In effect, many poor tropical countries have no chance to meet current rules, so they are still today banned from exporting meat, even if many of them are FMD-free. The result

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6762-410: Is not dangerous to humans and rarely fatal to otherwise healthy animals, it reduces milk and meat production. Outbreaks can be stopped quickly if farmers and transporters are forced to abide by existing rules. Therefore, (besides temporary discomfort to the animals), any outbreak in the rich world should not be much more as a localized, cyclical economic problem. For countries with free roaming wildlife it

6923-474: Is often their only realistic or potential source of income: agriculture. Because in almost all countries the rural poor are poorer than the urban poor, cheap food policies through price controls often increase overall poverty. The same often counts for poverty relief in the form of food aid, which (unless while during severe drought) drives small producers in poor countries out of production. It tends to benefit lower middle class groups (sub-urban and urban poor) at

7084-433: Is one of the largest invertebrates , surpassed in weight but not in length by the colossal squid . Freshwater and terrestrial molluscs appear exceptionally vulnerable to extinction. Estimates of the numbers of non-marine molluscs vary widely, partly because many regions have not been thoroughly surveyed. There is also a shortage of specialists who can identify all the animals in any one area to species. However, in 2004

7245-564: Is particularly popular in competitive agricultural exporting nations in both the developed and developing world, some of whom have banded together in the Cairns Group lobby. Canada's Department of Agriculture estimates that developing nations would benefit by about $ 4 billion annually if subsidies in the developed world were halved. Many developing countries do not grow enough food to feed their own populations. These nations must buy food from other countries. Lower prices and free food save

7406-667: Is reduced. They have an open circulatory system and kidney-like organs for excretion. Good evidence exists for the appearance of gastropods, cephalopods , and bivalves in the Cambrian period, 541–485.4 million years ago. However, the evolutionary history both of molluscs' emergence from the ancestral Lophotrochozoa and of their diversification into the well-known living and fossil forms are still subjects of vigorous debate among scientists. Molluscs have been and still are an important food source for humans. Toxins that can accumulate in certain molluscs under specific conditions create

7567-466: Is resolved. 6% of the EAFRD financial resources allocated to a given RDP are placed in a performance reserve, which is provisionally divided up between some or all of the rural development priorities. After receipt of the 2019 annual implementation reports, the Commission checks which priorities have "performed well" – i.e. against which priorities particular "milestones" (key targets) have been met. Where

7728-420: Is secreted by a mantle covering the upper surface. The underside consists of a single muscular "foot". The visceral mass, or visceropallium, is the soft, nonmuscular metabolic region of the mollusc. It contains the body organs. The mantle cavity, a fold in the mantle, encloses a significant amount of space. It is lined with epidermis, and is exposed, according to habitat , to sea, fresh water or air. The cavity

7889-552: Is still incomplete. Since 2000, the "second pillar" of the CAP, the EU rural development policy has been in effect, financed since 2007 from the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development , one of the five European Structural and Investment Funds . This policy aims to promote the economic, social and environmental development of the countryside. Its budget, 11% of the total EU budget, has been allocated along three axes. The first axis focuses on improving

8050-530: Is that if drought hits, the poor try to cope by selling their few animals. This quickly saturates regional demand. The export ban then destroys the value of these animals, in effect destroying the most important coping mechanism of several hundreds of millions extremely poor households. The rules around meat exports have been changed many times, always to accommodate changing circumstances in rich countries, usually further reducing meat export chances for poor countries. For that reason, Kanya and many other countries find

8211-493: Is therefore a crucial element of agricultural policy in a developing country . In addition, a recent Natural Resource Perspective paper by the Overseas Development Institute found that good infrastructure , education and effective information services in rural areas were necessary to improve the chances of making agriculture work for the poor. During the 1980s and 1990s, there was a disregard for

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8372-410: Is these quality demands from the rich world. In international trade parlance, when a company from country A sells a commodity below the cost of production into country B, this is called " dumping ". A number of countries that are signatories to multilateral trade agreements have provisions that prohibit this practice. When rich countries subsidize domestic production, the excess output is often given to

8533-476: Is to have a holistic view of their effects and externalities (a by-product of an action that affects others without their consent), because some policies intended to address one aspect of the concerns may have unintended harmful consequences that worsen other aspects while some have zero or negative beneficial effects. For example, subsidizing agricultural companies allows them to expand their industry and offer their products at lower prices to customers, but increases

8694-554: Is transmitted to humans by water snail hosts, and affects about 200 million people. Snails and slugs can also be serious agricultural pests, and accidental or deliberate introduction of some snail species into new environments has seriously damaged some ecosystems . The words mollusc and mollusk are both derived from the French mollusque , which originated from the post-classical Latin mollusca , from mollis , soft, first used by J. Jonston (Historiæ Naturalis, 1650) to describe

8855-510: Is very high. Many taxa remain poorly studied. Molluscs are the largest marine phylum, comprising about 23% of all the named marine organisms . They are highly diverse, not just in size and anatomical structure, but also in behaviour and habitat , as numerous groups are freshwater and even terrestrial species. The phylum is typically divided into 7 or 8 taxonomic classes , of which two are entirely extinct . Cephalopod molluscs, such as squid , cuttlefish , and octopuses , are among

9016-846: Is vulnerable to many disruptions such as weather changes, locality, manpower shifts, etc. Consequently, before we resolve this primary fragility of our agriculture system. It's of high cruciality for policymakers to weigh the trade-offs and adopt the most appropriate policies. There are examples of the agricultural policy design mentioned above that are made by worldwide unions, countries, and states. While every specific situation requires its own specific agricultural policy design, these examples can provide useful models, insights, and lessons for future policymakers' reference and inspiration. The Common Agricultural Policy , published by E.U., uses government subsidies to encourage food production and farming industrialization in its early stage. In some areas, food production boomed so much that enormous food waste became

9177-781: The Asian Financial Crisis of 1997 to 1998, the government's agricultural policy has been closely concentrated on achieving price stability and self-sufficiency for import-competing commodities, such as palm oil, sugar and rice. International agencies such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Bank , the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), espouse

9338-512: The European Union have stopped FMD vaccination . Infection with foot-and-mouth disease tends to occur locally, that is, the virus is passed on to susceptible animals through direct contact with infected animals or with contaminated pens or vehicles used to transport livestock. The clothes and skin of animal handlers such as farmers, standing water, and uncooked food scraps and feed supplements containing infected animal products can harbor

9499-487: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species included nearly 2,000 endangered non-marine molluscs. For comparison, the great majority of mollusc species are marine, but only 41 of these appeared on the 2004 Red List. About 42% of recorded extinctions since the year 1500 are of molluscs, consisting almost entirely of non-marine species. Because of the great range of anatomical diversity among molluscs, many textbooks start

9660-556: The Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy , corn, soybeans, cotton, wheat and rice are sold below the cost of production, or dumped. Dumping rates are approximately forty percent for wheat, between twenty-five and thirty percent for corn (maize), approximately thirty percent for soybeans, fifty-seven percent for cotton, and approximately twenty percent for rice. For example, wheat is sold for forty percent below cost. According to Oxfam, "If developed nations eliminated subsidy programs,

9821-476: The Philippines government, making it lower import barriers to half their present levels over a span of six years, and allowing in drastically increased competition from the industrialised and heavily subsidised farming systems of North America and Europe. A recent Oxfam report estimated that average household incomes of maize farmers will be reduced by as much as 30% over the six years as cheap imports from

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9982-509: The United States are currently experiencing canker outbreaks. The disease can be detected in orchards and on fruit by the appearance of lesions. Early detection is critical in quarantine situations. Bacteria are tested for pathogenicity by inoculating multiple citrus species with the bacterium. Simultaneously, other diagnostic tests (antibody detection, fatty-acid profiling, and genetic procedures using PCR ) are conducted to identify

10143-405: The blue-ringed octopus is often fatal, and that of Octopus apollyon causes inflammation that can last over a month. Stings from a few species of large tropical cone shells of the family Conidae can also kill, but their sophisticated, though easily produced, venoms have become important tools in neurological research. Schistosomiasis (also known as bilharzia, bilharziosis, or snail fever)

10304-462: The coelom , a small cavity that surrounds the heart, into which they shed ova or sperm . The nephridia extract the gametes from the coelom and emit them into the mantle cavity. Molluscs that use such a system remain of one sex all their lives and rely on external fertilization . Some molluscs use internal fertilization and/or are hermaphrodites , functioning as both sexes; both of these methods require more complex reproductive systems. C. obtusus

10465-400: The ventricle , which pumps it into the aorta (main artery ), which is fairly short and opens into the hemocoel. The atria of the heart also function as part of the excretory system by filtering waste products out of the blood and dumping it into the coelom as urine . A pair of metanephridia ("little kidneys") to the rear of and connected to the coelom extracts any re-usable materials from

10626-492: The Commission only intervened on: common wheat, butter, and skimmed milk powder. The Health Check of the CAP agreed in November 2008 added on a number of measures to help the farmers to respond better to signals from the markets and to face new challenges. Among a range of measures, the agreement abolished arable set-aside, increased milk quotas gradually leading up to their abolition in 2015, and converted market intervention into

10787-586: The Common Agricultural Policy fund is further detailed into individuals and environmental protection is finally put into consideration. The farmer population is approximately five percent of the total population in the E.U. and 1.7% in the U.S. The total value of agricultural production in the E.U. amounted to 128 billion euros (1998). About forty-nine percent of this amount was accounted for by political measures: 37 billion euros due to direct payments and 43 billion euros from consumers due to

10948-571: The EU budget: in 1980 it accounted for more than 70% of the EU expenditure while in 2021 it accounted for less than 25%. In 2019 France was the biggest beneficiary of the policy by 17.3%, followed by Spain with 12.4% and Germany (11.2%), Italy (10.4%), Poland (8.1%) and the UK (7.2%). The 2003 reform introduced the Single Payment Scheme (SPS) or as it is known as well the Single Farm Payment (SFP). The most recent reform

11109-563: The EU's agricultural imports originate from developing countries. The ' Everything but Arms ' program, gives the world's 49 least-developed countries duty-free and quota-free access to the EU market. Under the Economic Partnership Agreements, countries from the African, Caribbean and Pacific group enjoy full duty-free and quota free access. Agricultural policy Agricultural policies take into consideration

11270-494: The European Commission has long acknowledged the numerous defects of the policy. In May 2007, Sweden became the first EU country to take the position that all EU farm subsidies should be abolished, except those related to environmental protection . Many developing countries are highly dependent on agriculture. The FAO finds that agriculture provides for the livelihood of 70% of the world's poorest people. As such,

11431-514: The MS concerned). RDPs usually need to be amended several times during their seven-year life, to keep them as relevant, effective and efficient as possible – in light of changing circumstances and the findings of monitoring and evaluation. Program amendments which go beyond surface details require the Commission's approval. When a RDP has been drawn up and approved, it is advertised. People, businesses etc. which would like to receive support for projects apply for it. Provided that they are eligible for

11592-460: The US drive down prices in the local markets. The report estimates that in the absence of trade restrictions, US subsidised maize could be marketed at less than half the price of maize grown on the Philippine island of Mindanao ; and that the livelihoods of up to half a million Filipino maize farmers (out of the total 1.2 million) are under immediate threat. Molluscs Mollusca is

11753-620: The United States, 65% of the approximately $ 16.5 billion in annual subsidies went to the top 10% of farmers in 2002 because subsidies are linked to certain commodities. On the other hand, organic farming received $ 5 million for help in certification and $ 15 million for research over a 5-year time period. Some advocate Fair Trade rules to ensure that poor farmers in developing nations that produce crops primarily for export are not exploited or negatively impacted by trade policies, practices, tariffs, and agreements which benefit one competitor at

11914-405: The agricultural industry as one part of the various methods a government uses in a mixed economy . The conditions for payment and the reasons for the individual specific subsidies vary with farm product, size of the farm, nature of ownership, and country among other factors. Enriching peanut farmers for political purposes, keeping the price of a staple low to keep the poor from rebelling, stabilizing

12075-706: The agriculture sector among policymakers and investors, only regaining interest when the prices of staple food crops experienced a significant increase in the mid-2000s. As a result of agricultural policy neglect, there has been a scarcity of investment in infrastructure, which has hindered agricultural development and public goods, such as education, research and development and technology. Rural productive sectors and small agricultural enterprises suffer from market failures due to policies favouring urban areas and lending policies biased against small-scale agricultural firms. Neglect in implementing agriculture policy has been detected in several developing countries. In Indonesia, since

12236-526: The agriculture sector. An example of the breadth and types of agriculture policy concerns can be found in the Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics article "Agricultural Economies of Australia and New Zealand" which says that the major challenges and issues faced by their industrial agriculture industry are: Policymakers working in poverty reduction in the agriculture sector assess, plan, or enact policies aimed to address

12397-412: The anus. New tissue grows in the bands of mesoderm in the interior, so the apical tuft and anus are pushed further apart as the animal grows. The trochophore stage is often succeeded by a veliger stage in which the prototroch , the "equatorial" band of cilia nearest the apical tuft, develops into the velum ("veil"), a pair of cilia-bearing lobes with which the larva swims. Eventually, the larva sinks to

12558-406: The artificially high price. Eighty percent of European farmers receive a direct payment of 5,000 euros or less, while 2.2% receive a direct payment above 50,000 euros, totaling forty percent of all direct subsidies. The average U.S. farmer receives $ 16,000 in annual subsidies. Two-thirds of farmers receive no direct payments. Of those that do, the average amount amongst the lowest paid eighty percent

12719-672: The body structure of molluscs are a mantle with a significant body cavity used for breathing and excretion , and the organization of the nervous system. Many have a calcareous shell. Molluscs have developed such a varied range of body structures, finding synapomorphies (defining characteristics) to apply to all modern groups is difficult. The most general characteristic of molluscs is they are unsegmented and bilaterally symmetrical. The following are present in all modern molluscs: Other characteristics that commonly appear in textbooks have significant exceptions: Estimates of accepted described living species of molluscs vary from 50,000 to

12880-413: The case of a Quota Share) or enact tariffs to raise the domestic price of imported products. These barriers give preference to domestic producers. Some argue that nations have an interest in assuring there is sufficient domestic production capability to meet domestic needs in the event of a global supply disruption. Significant dependence on foreign food producers makes a country strategically vulnerable in

13041-428: The centre of decisions on food systems and policies, rather than the demands of markets and corporations that they believe have come to dominate the global food system. This movement is advocated by a number of farmers, peasants, pastoralists, fisherfolk, indigenous peoples, women, rural youth, and environmental organizations. An agricultural subsidy is a governmental subsidy paid to farmers and agribusinesses to manage

13202-436: The citizens, increases the democratic legitimacy of the CAP. Outside Brussels proper, the impact of the powerful farming lobby has been a factor in determining EU agricultural policy since the earliest days of integration. In recent times change has been more forthcoming because of external trade demands and intrusion in agricultural affairs by other parts of the EU policy framework, such as consumer advocate working groups and

13363-452: The competitiveness of the farm and forestry sector through support for restructuring, development and innovation. The second one concerns the improvement of the environment and the countryside through support for land management as well as helping to fight climate change . Such projects could for example concern preserving water quality, sustainable land management , planting trees to prevent erosion and floods. The third axis concerns improving

13524-484: The cost to consumers for agricultural products, either via hidden wealth-transfers via the government, or increased prices at the consumer level, such as for sugar and peanuts in the US. This has led to market distortions , such as food processors using high fructose corn syrup as a replacement for sugar. High fructose corn syrup may be an unhealthy food additive, and, were sugar prices not inflated by government fiat, sugar might be preferred over high fructose corn syrup in

13685-459: The developing world as foreign aid. This process eliminates the domestic market for agricultural products in the developing world because the products can be obtained for free from western aid agencies. In developing nations where these effects are most severe, small farmers could no longer afford basic inputs and were forced to sell their land. "Consider a farmer in Ghana who used to be able to make

13846-518: The disease has become established, management options include replacing susceptible citrus cultivars with resistant cultivars, applying preventive sprays of copper -based bactericides , and destroying infected trees and all surrounding trees within an appropriate radius. The citrus industry is the largest fresh-fruit exporting industry in Australia. Australia has had three outbreaks of citrus canker; all three were successfully eradicated. The disease

14007-411: The distortions created by the Common Agricultural Policy, many critics argue that a greater focus on the provision of public goods, such as biodiversity and clean water, is needed. The next major reform is expected for 2014 when a new long-term EU budget is coming into effect. The U.S. Conservation Reserve Program leases land from producers that take marginal land out of production and convert it back to

14168-421: The dynamics of agricultural production, or improve the consumer impacts of the production. Agricultural policy has wide reaching primary and secondary effects. Agriculture has large impacts on climate change , estimated to be contributing 20–25% of global annual emissions as of 2010. Moreover, agricultural policy needs to account for a lot of shocks to the system: for example, agriculture is highly vulnerable to

14329-516: The environmental departments of the Union. In addition, Euroscepticism in states such as Denmark (and formerly the UK) is fed in part by the CAP, which Eurosceptics consider detrimental to their economies. Proponents claim that the CAP is an exceptional economic sector as it protects the "rural way of life" although it is recognized that it affects world poverty. The policy has evolved significantly since it

14490-451: The event of war, blockade or embargo. Maintaining adequate domestic capability allows for food self-sufficiency that lessens the risk of supply shocks due to geopolitical events. Agricultural policies may be used to support domestic producers as they gain domestic and international market share. This may be a short term way of encouraging an industry until it is large enough to thrive without aid. Or it may be an ongoing subsidy designed to allow

14651-401: The expense of another - which advocates consider a dangerous "race to the bottom" in agricultural labor and safety standards. Opponents point out that most agriculture in developed nations is produced by industrial corporations (agribusiness) which are hardly deserving of sympathy, and that the alternative to exploitation is poverty. Fair trade steak? Much of what developing countries export to

14812-602: The expense of the poorest 20 percent, who as a result remain deprived of customers. Welfare economics theory holds that sometimes private activities can impose social costs upon others. Industrial agriculture is widely considered to impose social costs through pesticide pollution and nitrate pollution . Further, agriculture uses large amounts of water, a scarce resource . Some economists argue that taxes should be levied on agriculture, or that organic agriculture, which uses little pesticides and experiences relatively little nitrate runoff, should be encouraged with subsidies. In

14973-533: The export value of agriculture in lesser developed nations would increase by 24 %, plus a further 5.5 % from tariff equilibrium. ... exporters can offer US surpluses for sale at prices around half the cost of production; destroying local agriculture and creating a captive market in the process." Free trade advocates desire the elimination of all market distorting mechanisms (subsidies, tariffs, regulations) and argue that, as with free trade in all areas, this will result in aggregate benefit for all. This position

15134-669: The external trade regime is more extensive than the coverage of the CAP regime. This is to limit competition between EU products and alternative external goods (for example, lychee juice could potentially compete with orange juice). The objectives, set out in Article 39 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, are as follows: The CAP recognized the need to take account of the social structure of agriculture and of

15295-427: The firm's water and land usage which are at the cost of natural habitats. From an opposite perspective, if we protect the natural habitats and tax the agricultural firm for turning natural lands into factories, the prices of their products increase, making the firm's products too expensive for some customers. These externalities and trade-offs put the policymakers in a dilemma because our current global agriculture system

15456-782: The fish market interventions have remained financed from the European Agricultural Guarantee Fund . This part of CAP is financed from the European Agricultural Guarantee Fund (EAGF). Each country can choose if the payment will be established at the farm level or at the regional level. Farmers receiving the SFP have the flexibility to produce any commodity on their land except fruit, vegetables and table potatoes. In addition, they are obliged to keep their land in good agricultural and environmental condition (cross-compliance). Farmers have to respect environmental, food safety, phytosanitary and animal welfare standards. This

15617-421: The foot is adapted for burrowing into the sediment; in cephalopods it is used for jet propulsion, and the tentacles and arms are derived from the foot. Most molluscs' circulatory systems are mainly open , except for cephalopods , whose circulatory systems are closed . Although molluscs are coelomates , their coeloms are reduced to fairly small spaces enclosing the heart and gonads. The main body cavity

15778-422: The foot, are below the esophagus and their commissure and connectives to the cerebral and pleural ganglia surround the esophagus in a circumesophageal nerve ring or nerve collar . The acephalic molluscs (i.e., bivalves) also have this ring but it is less obvious and less important. The bivalves have only three pairs of ganglia— cerebral, pedal, and visceral— with the visceral as the largest and most important of

15939-415: The grounds of its cost, its environmental, and humanitarian effects. The CAP is often explained as the result of a political compromise between France and Germany: German industry would have access to the French market; in exchange, Germany would help pay for France's farmers. The CAP has always been a difficult area of EU policy to reform; it is a problem that began in the 1960s and one that has continued to

16100-412: The infectious agent to spread. The origin of the disease itself remains unknown. The current scientific view is that infectious proteins called prions developed through spontaneous mutation, probably in the 1970s, and there is a possibility that the use of organophosphorus pesticides increased the susceptibility of cattle to the disease. The infectious agent is distinctive for the high temperatures it

16261-415: The interest of protecting the environment. For instance, subsidies may be given for particular farming methods, forestation, land clearance, or pollution abatement. Subsidising farming may encourage people to remain on the land and obtain some income. This might be relevant to an agrarian country with many peasant farmers, but it may also be a consideration to more developed countries such as Poland . It has

16422-505: The issue. "This CAP reform was not intended to address the trade barriers used to keep some EU market prices higher than world market levels. The EU has reduced the effect of these barriers for a number of developing countries through extending the scope of preferential access under various trade agreements , and a further reduction is being negotiated in the WTO Doha Round. Nonetheless, developing countries will be disappointed that

16583-430: The level of global investment in food systems, and developing specific programs and policies to support the most vulnerable populations (namely, those that are already subject to food insecurity). ' Food sovereignty ', a term coined by members of Via Campesina in 1996, is about the right of peoples to define their own food systems. Advocates of food sovereignty put the people who produce, distribute, and consume food at

16744-853: The lives of millions of starving people, despite the drop in food sales of the local farmers. A developing nation could use new improved farming methods to grow more food, with the ultimate goal of feeding their nation without outside help. New greenhouse methods, hydroponics, fertilizers, R/O water processors, hybrid crops, fast-growing hybrid trees for quick shade, interior temperature control, greenhouse or tent insulation, autonomous building gardens, sun lamps, mylar, fans, and other cheap tech can be used to grow crops on previously un arable land , such as rocky, mountainous, desert, and even Arctic lands. More food can be grown, reducing dependency on other countries for food. Replacement crops can also make nations agriculturally independent. Sugar, for example, comes from sugar cane imported from Polynesia . Instead of buying

16905-475: The living molluscs. In 2009, Chapman estimated the number of described living mollusc species at 85,000. Haszprunar in 2001 estimated about 93,000 named species, which include 23% of all named marine organisms. Molluscs are second only to arthropods in numbers of living animal species — far behind the arthropods' 1,113,000 but well ahead of chordates ' 52,000. About 200,000 living species in total are estimated, and 70,000 fossil species, although

17066-468: The mantle cavity, the gills' cilia may stop beating until the unwelcome intrusions have ceased. Each gill has an incoming blood vessel connected to the hemocoel and an outgoing one to the heart. Molluscs use intracellular digestion . Most molluscs have muscular mouths with radulae , "tongues", bearing many rows of chitinous teeth, which are replaced from the rear as they wear out. The radula primarily functions to scrape bacteria and algae off rocks, and

17227-401: The marketplace. The concerns of agricultural policies are extensive, and includes ensuring the hygiene of salads, globalization management, and other emerging issues. The majority of the concerns fall into three categories: food supply for a growing population, livelihood insurance for farmers, and environmental protection. The theme of all approaches aiming to address these 3 types of concerns

17388-479: The measure Investments in physical assets as set out in the Rural development Regulation allows support for: MS follow the rules for a given measure but, within this framework, still enjoy considerable flexibility about how they use it. For example, a MS might choose to make the measure Investments in physical assets available in its RDP, but only with regard to environmental investments. In explaining how it will use

17549-518: The milestones of a given priority have been met, the sum from the performance reserve initially allocated to that priority is confirmed. Where the milestones of a given priority have not been met, the sum initially allocated from the performance reserve is transferred to priorities whose milestones have been met. This approach is intended to focus minds more sharply on achieving results. The CAP has been roundly criticized by many diverse interests since its inception. Criticism has been wide-ranging, and even

17710-422: The most neurologically advanced of all invertebrates —and either the giant squid or the colossal squid is the largest known extant invertebrate species. The gastropods ( snails , slugs and abalone ) are by far the most diverse class and account for 80% of the total classified molluscan species. The four most universal features defining modern molluscs are a soft body composed almost entirely of muscle ,

17871-432: The needs of persons living in poverty. Agriculture has been a critical driver of poverty reduction in most developing countries, particularly in rural areas. Approximately 80% of the world's impoverished population, who primarily reside in rural areas and earn their livelihood through farming, can benefit from agriculture in terms of poverty reduction, income generation, and food security. Fostering agricultural development

18032-487: The negative impacts of climate change, such as decreases in water access , geophysical processes such as ocean level rise and changing weather , and socioeconomic processes that affect farmers, many of whom are in subsistence economic conditions . In order for global climate change mitigation and adaptation to be effective a wide range of policies need to be implemented to reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture and greenhouse gas emissions from

18193-529: The new regime. Other governments chose to wait, and change the system in one go at the latest possible time. Governments also had limited discretion to continue to direct a small proportion of the total subsidy to support specific crops. Alterations to the qualifying rules meant that many small landowners became eligible to apply for grants and the Rural Payments Agency in England received double

18354-447: The new scheme would be introduced. The UK government decided to run a dual system of subsidies in England, each year transferring a larger proportion of the total payment to the new scheme. Payments under the old scheme were frozen at their levels averaged over 2002–2003 and reduced each subsequent year. This allowed farmers in England a period where their income was maintained, but which they could use to change farm practices in accord with

18515-421: The number expected to rise because of the disease's long incubation period. Between 460,000 and 482,000 BSE-infected animals had entered the human food chain before controls on high-risk offal were introduced in 1989. A British inquiry into BSE concluded that the epidemic was caused by feeding cattle, who are normally herbivores , the remains of other cattle in the form of meat and bone meal (MBM), which caused

18676-524: The oceans, from the seashores to the abyssal zone , but some form a significant part of the freshwater fauna and the terrestrial ecosystems . Molluscs are extremely diverse in tropical and temperate regions, but can be found at all latitudes . About 80% of all known mollusc species are gastropods. Cephalopoda such as squid , cuttlefish , and octopuses are among the most neurologically advanced of all invertebrates. The giant squid , which until recently had not been observed alive in its adult form,

18837-521: The opportunity was not taken in this reform to set a final date for the ending of export subsidies. A more ambitious CAP reform, in which the targeting of direct payments was pursued more insistently and coupled payments were phased out, would also have a greater effect in removing the remaining distortions caused by the CAP to world markets." In another study, Prof. Matthews showed how linking EU farm subsidies to goals such as environmental protection could help farmers in poor countries, although much depends on

18998-411: The part of the mantle cavity, is swept by the outgoing "lane" of the current created by the gills. Carnivorous molluscs usually have simpler digestive systems. As the head has largely disappeared in bivalves, the mouth has been equipped with labial palps (two on each side of the mouth) to collect the detritus from its mucus. The cephalic molluscs have two pairs of main nerve cords organized around

19159-452: The particular canker strain. Citrus canker outbreaks are prevented and managed in a number of ways. In countries that do not have canker, the disease is prevented from entering the country by quarantine measures. In countries with new outbreaks, eradication programs that are started soon after the disease has been discovered have been successful; such programs rely on the destruction of affected orchards. When eradication has been unsuccessful and

19320-666: The present, albeit less severely. Changes to the CAP are proposed by the European Commission, after a public consultation, which then sends its proposals to the Council and to the European Parliament . Both the Council and the European Parliament have to agree to any changes. The Parliament was involved in the process of change for the first time in 2013. The involvement of the Parliament, which represents

19481-572: The previous number of applications (110,000). The CAP also aims to promote legislative harmonization within the Community. Differing laws in member countries can create problems for anyone seeking to trade between countries. Examples are regulations on permitted preservatives or Food coloring , labelling regulations, use of hormones or other drugs in livestock intended for human consumption and disease control, animal welfare regulations. The process of removing all hidden legislative barriers to trade

19642-486: The primary ( production ), secondary (such as food processing , and distribution ) and tertiary processes (such as consumption and supply in agricultural products and supplies). Outcomes can involve, for example, a guaranteed supply level, price stability, product quality, product selection, land use or employment. Governments can use tools like rural development practices , agricultural extension , economic protections , agricultural subsidies or price controls to change

19803-510: The priorities of rural development policy to the situation on its territory via a SWOT analysis . The RDP then sets out a selection of measures drawn from the Rural Development Regulation to address the priorities in the appropriate way. A measure is essentially a set of one types of activity, project, investment etc. which may be funded within a RDP to achieve the priorities of rural development policy. For example,

19964-599: The prioritisation of agricultural endeavours to support poverty reduction. The impact of agricultural policy on reducing poverty differs across countries and is influenced by a variety of factors, such as the level of government policy support, the degree of public and private investment in agriculture, the different types of agriculture, and the growth rates of agriculture parallel to non-agriculture sectors. In particular, investment in agricultural research and development has been shown to be highly influential on agricultural GDP growth and poverty reduction. Government policies play

20125-421: The production of a crop to avoid famine years, encouraging diversification and many other purposes have been suggested as the reason for specific subsidies. Price floors or price ceilings set a minimum or maximum price for a product. Price controls encourage more production by a price floor or less production by a price ceiling. A government can erect trade barriers to limit the number of goods imported (in

20286-463: The quality of life in rural areas and encouraging diversification of economic activity. The policy also provided support to the Leader rural development methodology , under which Local Action Groups designed and carried out local development strategies for their area. Member States distribute "second pillar" funds through actions of national and regional rural development programmes. Rural development ,

20447-440: The release of egg and sperm, in the nautilus a string of tissue called the siphuncle goes through all the chambers, and the eight plates that make up the shell of chitons are penetrated with living tissue with nerves and sensory structures. The body of a mollusc has a ventral muscular foot, which is adapted to different purposes (locomotion, grasping the substratum, burrowing or feeding) in different classes. The foot carries

20608-428: The rich world, also comes from industrial corporations. The reason for that is, that rich countries have put up elaborate quality demands, most of whom make no factual health contribution. Small farmers often in effect meet these demands, but are rarely able to prove that in western standards. Therefore, the biggest impediment to the growth of small farming and therefore of fair trade in sectors beyond coffee and bananas,

20769-687: The risk of falling into poverty. Rwanda's Crop Intensification Program is another example of such policy, which provides farmers with inputs like fertilisers, improved seeds, and pesticides, as well as training and technical support to help them adopt more efficient farming practices. However, for agricultural policies to contribute to poverty reduction, it is essential that they collaborate effectively and cohesively with other sectors, such as tourism, sustainable economy, and industry. The biosecurity concerns facing industrial agriculture can be illustrated by: The use of animal vaccines can create new viruses that kill people and cause flu pandemic threats. H5N1

20930-455: The root cause of the continuing H5N1 pandemic threat may be the way the pathogenicity of H5N1 viruses is masked by co-circulating influenza viruses or bad agricultural vaccines." Robert Webster explains: "If you use a good vaccine you can prevent the transmission within poultry and to humans. But if they have been using vaccines now [in China] for several years, why is there so much bird flu? There

21091-414: The rules very unjust. They are however discouraged to file a formal complaint with WTO by diplomats from rich countries. Citrus canker is a disease affecting citrus species that is caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas axonopodis . The infection causes lesions on the leaves, stems, and fruit of citrus trees, including lime, oranges, and grapefruit. While not harmful to humans, canker significantly affects

21252-602: The rural-urban territorial vary – from countries with an explicitly defined rural character (such as Ireland, Sweden, Finland, etc.) to Member States that tend to be more urbanised (such as the Benelux countries , Malta). The policy works essentially through seven-year rural development programmes (RDPs) – which operate at either national or regional level. These are funded from the EU budget , national/regional budgets and private sources. Rural Development policy targets rural areas as

21413-613: The seafloor and metamorphoses into the adult form. While metamorphosis is the usual state in molluscs, the cephalopods differ in exhibiting direct development: the hatchling is a 'miniaturized' form of the adult. The development of molluscs is of particular interest in the field of ocean acidification as environmental stress is recognized to affect the settlement, metamorphosis, and survival of larvae. Most molluscs are herbivorous, grazing on algae or filter feeders. For those grazing, two feeding strategies are predominant. Some feed on microscopic, filamentous algae, often using their radula as

21574-410: The second pillar of CAP, is a vitally important policy area in the European Union. It works to improve aspects of the economic, environmental and social situation of the EU's rural areas. Rural regions cover 57% of the EU territory and 24% of the EU population . Together with intermediate regions they comprise 91% of the EU territory and 59% of the total EU population. Across the EU, the dimensions of

21735-465: The size of the payments and how they are made. At the same time, however, the EU remains the world's biggest importer of farm products from developing countries. On average, over the period 2006–2008, the EU has imported €53 billion worth of goods. This is more than the US, Japan, Canada, Australia and New Zealand combined. This is further encouraged by a preferential market access agreement for products from developing countries. Today, around 71% of

21896-415: The smaller particles, mainly minerals, to the prostyle so eventually they are excreted, while the larger ones, mainly food, are sent to the stomach's cecum (a pouch with no other exit) to be digested. The sorting process is by no means perfect. Periodically, circular muscles at the hindgut's entrance pinch off and excrete a piece of the prostyle, preventing the prostyle from growing too large. The anus, in

22057-412: The stomach and projecting slightly into the hindgut is the prostyle, a backward-pointing cone of feces and mucus, which is rotated by further cilia so it acts as a bobbin, winding the mucus string onto itself. Before the mucus string reaches the prostyle, the acidity of the stomach makes the mucus less sticky and frees particles from it. The particles are sorted by yet another group of cilia, which send

22218-425: The structural and natural disparities between the various agricultural regions and to effect the appropriate adjustments by degrees. CAP is an integrated system of measures that works by maintaining commodity price levels within the EU and by subsidizing production. There are a number of mechanisms: The change in subsidies was intended to be completed by 2011, but individual governments had some freedom to decide how

22379-435: The subject of molluscan anatomy by describing what is called an archi-mollusc , hypothetical generalized mollusc , or hypothetical ancestral mollusc ( HAM ) to illustrate the most common features found within the phylum. The depiction is visually rather similar to modern monoplacophorans . The generalized mollusc is an unsegmented, bilaterally symmetrical animal and has a single, " limpet -like" shell on top. The shell

22540-416: The subsidies in the CAP are charged with preventing developing countries from exporting agricultural produce to the EU on a level playing field. The WTO Doha Development Round , which intended to increase global development, has stalled due to the developed countries' refusal to remove agricultural subsidies. A review of post-2013 proposal by Prof. Alan Matthews underlines the lack of ambition in tackling

22701-795: The sugar from Polynesia , a nation can make sugar from sugar beets, maple sap, or sweetener from stevia plant, keeping the profits circulating within the nation's economy. Paper and clothes can be made of hemp instead of trees and cotton. Tropical foods won't grow in many places in Europe, but they will grow in insulated greenhouses or tents in Europe. Soybean plant cellulose can replace plastic (made from oil). Ethanol from farm waste or hempseed oil can replace gasoline. Rainforest medicine plants grown locally can replace many imported medicines. Alternates of cash crops, like sugar and oil replacements, can reduce farmers' dependency on subsidies in both developed and developing nations. Market interventions may increase

22862-499: The three functioning as the principal center of "thinking". Some such as the scallops have eyes around the edges of their shells which connect to a pair of looped nerves and which provide the ability to distinguish between light and shadow. The simplest molluscan reproductive system relies on external fertilization , but with more complex variations. All produce eggs, from which may emerge trochophore larvae, more complex veliger larvae, or miniature adults. Two gonads sit next to

23023-423: The total number of mollusc species ever to have existed, whether or not preserved, must be many times greater than the number alive today. Molluscs have more varied forms than any other animal phylum . They include snails , slugs and other gastropods ; clams and other bivalves ; squids and other cephalopods ; and other lesser-known but similarly distinctive subgroups. The majority of species still live in

23184-705: The type of support in question (according to the RDP), they may be selected for support on the basis of objective selection criteria . Monitoring is essentially about tracking how fast, and in what way, RDPs are being implemented – with reference to financial data and other indicators. RDPs are monitored continuously. Within this process, program authorities must each send an annual implementation report for each program by 30 June every year, starting in 2016 and ending in 2024. Evaluation involves rather deeper analysis (especially of effectiveness, efficiency and impact). The key stages are: The monitoring and evaluation processes draw on

23345-402: The urine and dumps additional waste products into it, and then ejects it via tubes that discharge into the mantle cavity. Exceptions to the above are the molluscs Planorbidae or ram's horn snails, which are air-breathing snails that use iron-based hemoglobin instead of the copper-based hemocyanin to carry oxygen through their blood. Most molluscs have only one pair of gills, or even only

23506-520: The usual fashion, but its diet includes protists such as the xenophyophore Stannophyllum . Sacoglossan sea-slugs suck the sap from algae, using their one-row radula to pierce the cell walls, whereas dorid nudibranchs and some Vetigastropoda feed on sponges and others feed on hydroids . (An extensive list of molluscs with unusual feeding habits is available in the appendix of GRAHAM, A. (1955). "Molluscan diets" . Journal of Molluscan Studies . 31 (3–4): 144. .) Opinions vary about

23667-471: The various measures together to address the priorities / focus areas of rural development policy within its RDP, the MS / region set various targets against these. The nature of the target varies according to the focus area. For example, against focus area 5A – Increasing efficiency in water use by agriculture – the standard target indicator is the percentage of the Irrigation area in the program area which

23828-417: The vicinity of Emerald be destroyed rather than trying to isolate infected trees. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines food security as existing when "all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life". The four qualifications that must be met for

23989-410: The virus as well. Cows can also catch FMD from the semen of infected bulls. Control measures include quarantine and destruction of infected livestock, and export bans for meat and other animal products to countries not infected with the disease. Because FMD rarely infects humans but spreads rapidly among animals, it is a much greater threat to the agriculture industry than to human health. Farmers around

24150-482: The vitality of citrus trees, causing leaves and fruit to drop prematurely; a fruit infected with canker is safe to eat but too unsightly to be sold. The disease, which is believed to have originated in South East Asia , is extremely persistent when it becomes established in an area, making it necessary for all citrus orchards to be destroyed for the successful eradication of the disease. Australia , Brazil and

24311-417: The water over their gills. Most bivalves are filter feeders, which can be measured through clearance rates. Research has demonstrated that environmental stress can affect the feeding of bivalves by altering the energy budget of organisms. Cephalopods are primarily predatory, and the radula takes a secondary role to the jaws and tentacles in food acquisition. The monoplacophoran Neopilina uses its radula in

24472-440: The world can lose huge amounts of money during a foot-and-mouth epidemic, when large numbers of animals are destroyed and revenues from milk and meat production go down. One of the difficulties in vaccinating against FMD is the huge variation between and even within serotypes. There is no cross-protection between serotypes (meaning that a vaccine for one serotype won't protect against any others) and in addition, two strains within

24633-409: The world, and while some countries have been free of FMD for some time, its wide host range and rapid spread represent cause for international concern. In 1996, endemic areas included Asia , Africa , and parts of South America . North America , Australia , New Zealand and Japan have been free of FMD for many years. Most European countries have been recognized as free, and countries belonging to

24794-457: The world. Food security has thus become an increasingly important topic in agricultural policy as decision makers attempt to reduce poverty and malnutrition while augmenting adaptive capacity to climate change. The Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change listed high-priority policy actions to address food security, including integrating food security and sustainable agriculture into global and national policies, significantly raising

24955-517: The world." In response to the same concerns, Reuters reports Hong Kong infectious disease expert Lo Wing-lok indicating that vaccines have to take top priority. Julie Hall, who is in charge of the WHO's outbreak response in China, claimed that China's vaccinations might be masking the virus. The BBC reported that Wendy Barclay, a virologist at the University of Reading, UK said: "The Chinese have made

25116-428: Was $ 7000 from 1995 to 2003. Subsidies are a mix of tax reductions, direct cash payments and below-market prices on water and other inputs. Some claim that these aggregate figures are misleading because large agribusinesses , rather than individual farmers, receive a significant share of total subsidy spending. The Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996 reduced farm subsidies, providing fixed payments over

25277-437: Was at the rear in the earliest molluscs, but its position now varies from group to group. The anus , a pair of osphradia (chemical sensors) in the incoming "lane", the hindmost pair of gills and the exit openings of the nephridia (kidneys) known as "Organs of bojanus" and gonads (reproductive organs) are in the mantle cavity. The whole soft body of bivalves lies within an enlarged mantle cavity. The mantle edge secretes

25438-588: Was created by the Treaty of Rome (1957). Substantial reforms over the years have moved the CAP away from a production-oriented policy. CAP has been divided into two 'pillars': Accordingly, the European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund (EAGGF) of the EU, which initially used to fund the CAP as a whole, has been replaced in 2007 with two separate funds, one for each of the two pillars: CAP reforms have steadily lowered its share in

25599-676: Was found twice during the 1900s in the Northern Territory and was eradicated each time. During the first outbreak in 1912, every citrus tree north of latitude 19° south was destroyed, taking 11 years to eradicate the disease. In 2004, Asiatic citrus canker was detected in an orchard in Emerald , Queensland , and was thought to have occurred from the illegal import of infected citrus plants. The state and federal governments have ordered that all commercial orchards, all non-commercial citrus trees, and all native lime trees ( C. glauca ) in

25760-402: Was introduced immediately in 2009–10. In 2009–10 and 2010–11, farmers who exceed their milk quotas by more than 6 per cent had to pay a levy 50 per cent higher than the normal penalty. The common agricultural policy price intervention covers only certain agricultural products: Fish, Molluscs and crustaceans are covered by the separate Common Fisheries Policy . The coverage of products in

25921-457: Was made in 2013 by Commissioner Dacian Cioloș and applies for the period 2014 to 2020. Since 1970, a separate Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) has been in place for the EU fisheries and fish market, with its own separate structural policy fund established as a spin-off from the EAGGF in 1993 (currently operating under the name European Maritime, Fisheries and Aquaculture Fund or EMFAF), while

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