Misplaced Pages

#362637

86-758: Chemical engineers typically hold a degree in Chemical Engineering or Process Engineering . Practicing engineers may have professional certification and be accredited members of a professional body. Such bodies include the Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) or the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE). A degree in chemical engineering is directly linked with all of the other engineering disciplines, to various extents. A 1996 article cites James F. Donnelly for mentioning an 1839 reference to chemical engineering in relation to

172-433: A Process Flow Diagram which is used to control the capacity and reliability of a new or existing chemical factory. Education for chemical engineers in the first college degree 3 or 4 years of study stresses the principles and practices of process design. The same skills are used in existing chemical plants to evaluate the efficiency and make recommendations for improvements. Modeling and analysis of transport phenomena

258-451: A eukaryotic organelle , the human mitochondrion (16,568 bp, about 16.6 kb [kilobase]), was reported in 1981, and the first chloroplast genomes followed in 1986. In 1992, the first eukaryotic chromosome , chromosome III of brewer's yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (315 kb) was sequenced. The first free-living organism to be sequenced was that of Haemophilus influenzae (1.8 Mb [megabase]) in 1995. The following year

344-427: A polyacrylamide gel (called polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) and visualised using autoradiography. The procedure could sequence up to 80 nucleotides in one go and was a big improvement, but was still very laborious. Nevertheless, in 1977 his group was able to sequence most of the 5,386 nucleotides of the single-stranded bacteriophage φX174 , completing the first fully sequenced DNA-based genome. The refinement of

430-445: A project engineer . Chemical engineers serving as project engineers use their knowledge in selecting optimal production methods and plant equipment to minimize costs and maximize safety and profitability. After plant construction, chemical engineering project managers may be involved in equipment upgrades, troubleshooting, and daily operations in either full-time or consulting roles. Process engineering Process engineering

516-479: A 3'- OH group required for the formation of a phosphodiester bond between two nucleotides, causing DNA polymerase to cease extension of DNA when a ddNTP is incorporated. The ddNTPs may be radioactively or fluorescently labelled for detection in DNA sequencers . Typically, these machines can sequence up to 96 DNA samples in a single batch (run) in up to 48 runs a day. The high demand for low-cost sequencing has driven

602-642: A Preventive Genomics Clinic in August 2019, with Massachusetts General Hospital following a month later. The All of Us research program aims to collect genome sequence data from 1 million participants to become a critical component of the precision medicine research platform and the UK Biobank initiative has studied more than 500.000 individuals with deep genomic and phenotypic data. The growth of genomic knowledge has enabled increasingly sophisticated applications of synthetic biology . In 2010 researchers at

688-517: A base is incorporated. A microwell containing template DNA is flooded with a single nucleotide , if the nucleotide is complementary to the template strand it will be incorporated and a hydrogen ion will be released. This release triggers an ISFET ion sensor. If a homopolymer is present in the template sequence multiple nucleotides will be incorporated in a single flood cycle, and the detected electrical signal will be proportionally higher. Sequence assembly refers to aligning and merging fragments of

774-467: A combination of experimental and modeling approaches . The principal difference between structural genomics and traditional structural prediction is that structural genomics attempts to determine the structure of every protein encoded by the genome, rather than focusing on one particular protein. With full-genome sequences available, structure prediction can be done more quickly through a combination of experimental and modeling approaches, especially because

860-471: A consortium of researchers from laboratories across North America , Europe , and Japan announced the completion of the first complete genome sequence of a eukaryote, S. cerevisiae (12.1 Mb), and since then genomes have continued being sequenced at an exponentially growing pace. As of October 2011 , the complete sequences are available for: 2,719 viruses , 1,115 archaea and bacteria , and 36 eukaryotes , of which about half are fungi . Most of

946-443: A consulting role, designing plants to meet clients' needs. Design is limited by several factors, including funding, government regulations, and safety standards. These constraints dictate a plant's choice of process, materials , and equipment. Plant construction is coordinated by project engineers and project managers, depending on the size of the investment. A chemical engineer may do the job of project engineer full-time or part of

SECTION 10

#1732802201363

1032-451: A field of study in biology ending in -omics , such as genomics, proteomics or metabolomics . The related suffix -ome is used to address the objects of study of such fields, such as the genome , proteome , or metabolome ( lipidome ) respectively. The suffix -ome as used in molecular biology refers to a totality of some sort; similarly omics has come to refer generally to the study of large, comprehensive biological data sets. While

1118-501: A global level has been made possible only recently through the adaptation of genomic high-throughput assays. Metagenomics is the study of metagenomes , genetic material recovered directly from environmental samples. The broad field may also be referred to as environmental genomics, ecogenomics or community genomics. While traditional microbiology and microbial genome sequencing rely upon cultivated clonal cultures , early environmental gene sequencing cloned specific genes (often

1204-408: A high error rate at approximately 1 percent. Typically the short fragments, called reads, result from shotgun sequencing genomic DNA, or gene transcripts ( ESTs ). Assembly can be broadly categorized into two approaches: de novo assembly, for genomes which are not similar to any sequenced in the past, and comparative assembly, which uses the existing sequence of a closely related organism as

1290-505: A key role in the development of DNA sequencing techniques that enabled the establishment of comprehensive genome sequencing projects. In 1975, he and Alan Coulson published a sequencing procedure using DNA polymerase with radiolabelled nucleotides that he called the Plus and Minus technique . This involved two closely related methods that generated short oligonucleotides with defined 3' termini. These could be fractionated by electrophoresis on

1376-506: A large-scale, industrial setting. They are also involved in waste management and research. Both applied and research facets could make extensive use of computers. Chemical engineers may be involved in industry or university research where they are tasked with designing and performing experiments, by scaling up theoretical chemical reactions, to create better and safer methods for production, pollution control, and resource conservation. They may be involved in designing and constructing plants as

1462-427: A much longer DNA sequence in order to reconstruct the original sequence. This is needed as current DNA sequencing technology cannot read whole genomes as a continuous sequence, but rather reads small pieces of between 20 and 1000 bases, depending on the technology used. Third generation sequencing technologies such as PacBio or Oxford Nanopore routinely generate sequencing reads 10-100 kb in length; however, they have

1548-417: A process operation. Unit processes (such as nitration , hydrogenation, and oxidation involve the conversion of materials by biochemical , thermochemical and other means. Chemical engineers responsible for these are called process engineers . Process design requires the definition of equipment types and sizes as well as how they are connected and the materials of construction. Details are often printed on

1634-475: A protein of known structure or based on chemical and physical principles for a protein with no homology to any known structure. As opposed to traditional structural biology , the determination of a protein structure through a structural genomics effort often (but not always) comes before anything is known regarding the protein function. This raises new challenges in structural bioinformatics , i.e. determining protein function from its 3D structure. Epigenomics

1720-515: A range of software tools in their automated genome annotation pipeline. Structural annotation consists of the identification of genomic elements, primarily ORFs and their localisation, or gene structure. Functional annotation consists of attaching biological information to genomic elements. The need for reproducibility and efficient management of the large amount of data associated with genome projects mean that computational pipelines have important applications in genomics. Functional genomics

1806-432: A reference during assembly. Relative to comparative assembly, de novo assembly is computationally difficult ( NP-hard ), making it less favourable for short-read NGS technologies. Within the de novo assembly paradigm there are two primary strategies for assembly, Eulerian path strategies, and overlap-layout-consensus (OLC) strategies. OLC strategies ultimately try to create a Hamiltonian path through an overlap graph which

SECTION 20

#1732802201363

1892-434: A substantial amount of microbial DNA consists of prophage sequences and prophage-like elements. A detailed database mining of these sequences offers insights into the role of prophages in shaping the bacterial genome: Overall, this method verified many known bacteriophage groups, making this a useful tool for predicting the relationships of prophages from bacterial genomes. At present there are 24 cyanobacteria for which

1978-628: A total genome sequence is available. 15 of these cyanobacteria come from the marine environment. These are six Prochlorococcus strains, seven marine Synechococcus strains, Trichodesmium erythraeum IMS101 and Crocosphaera watsonii WH8501 . Several studies have demonstrated how these sequences could be used very successfully to infer important ecological and physiological characteristics of marine cyanobacteria. However, there are many more genome projects currently in progress, amongst those there are further Prochlorococcus and marine Synechococcus isolates, Acaryochloris and Prochloron ,

2064-461: A whole new science discipline. Following Rosalind Franklin 's confirmation of the helical structure of DNA, James D. Watson and Francis Crick 's publication of the structure of DNA in 1953 and Fred Sanger 's publication of the Amino acid sequence of insulin in 1955, nucleic acid sequencing became a major target of early molecular biologists . In 1964, Robert W. Holley and colleagues published

2150-499: A year, to local molecular biology core facilities) which contain research laboratories with the costly instrumentation and technical support necessary. As sequencing technology continues to improve, however, a new generation of effective fast turnaround benchtop sequencers has come within reach of the average academic laboratory. On the whole, genome sequencing approaches fall into two broad categories, shotgun and high-throughput (or next-generation ) sequencing. Shotgun sequencing

2236-502: Is a field of molecular biology that attempts to make use of the vast wealth of data produced by genomic projects (such as genome sequencing projects ) to describe gene (and protein ) functions and interactions. Functional genomics focuses on the dynamic aspects such as gene transcription , translation , and protein–protein interactions , as opposed to the static aspects of the genomic information such as DNA sequence or structures. Functional genomics attempts to answer questions about

2322-431: Is a physical step in an individual chemical engineering process. Unit operations (such as crystallization , filtration , drying and evaporation ) are used to prepare reactants, purifying and separating its products, recycling unspent reactants, and controlling energy transfer in reactors. On the other hand, a unit process is the chemical equivalent of a unit operation. Along with unit operations, unit processes constitute

2408-471: Is a sequencing method designed for analysis of DNA sequences longer than 1000 base pairs, up to and including entire chromosomes. It is named by analogy with the rapidly expanding, quasi-random firing pattern of a shotgun . Since gel electrophoresis sequencing can only be used for fairly short sequences (100 to 1000 base pairs), longer DNA sequences must be broken into random small segments which are then sequenced to obtain reads . Multiple overlapping reads for

2494-732: Is an NP-hard problem. Eulerian path strategies are computationally more tractable because they try to find a Eulerian path through a deBruijn graph. Finished genomes are defined as having a single contiguous sequence with no ambiguities representing each replicon . The DNA sequence assembly alone is of little value without additional analysis. Genome annotation is the process of attaching biological information to sequences , and consists of three main steps: Automatic annotation tools try to perform these steps in silico , as opposed to manual annotation (a.k.a. curation) which involves human expertise and potential experimental verification. Ideally, these approaches co-exist and complement each other in

2580-587: Is based on reversible dye-terminators and was developed in 1996 at the Geneva Biomedical Research Institute, by Pascal Mayer and Laurent Farinelli. In this method, DNA molecules and primers are first attached on a slide and amplified with polymerase so that local clonal colonies, initially coined "DNA colonies", are formed. To determine the sequence, four types of reversible terminator bases (RT-bases) are added and non-incorporated nucleotides are washed away. Unlike pyrosequencing,

2666-674: Is essential for many industrial applications. Transport phenomena involve fluid dynamics , heat transfer and mass transfer , which are governed mainly by momentum transfer , energy transfer and transport of chemical species , respectively. Models often involve separate considerations for macroscopic , microscopic and molecular level phenomena. Modeling of transport phenomena, therefore, requires an understanding of applied mathematics. Chemical engineers develop economic ways of using materials and energy. Chemical engineers use chemistry and engineering to turn raw materials into usable products, such as medicine, petrochemicals, and plastics on

Chemical engineering - Misplaced Pages Continue

2752-486: Is over-sampled is referred to as coverage . For much of its history, the technology underlying shotgun sequencing was the classical chain-termination method or ' Sanger method ', which is based on the selective incorporation of chain-terminating dideoxynucleotides by DNA polymerase during in vitro DNA replication . Recently, shotgun sequencing has been supplanted by high-throughput sequencing methods, especially for large-scale, automated genome analyses. However,

2838-679: Is the study of the complete set of epigenetic modifications on the genetic material of a cell, known as the epigenome . Epigenetic modifications are reversible modifications on a cell's DNA or histones that affect gene expression without altering the DNA sequence (Russell 2010 p. 475). Two of the most characterized epigenetic modifications are DNA methylation and histone modification . Epigenetic modifications play an important role in gene expression and regulation, and are involved in numerous cellular processes such as in differentiation/development and tumorigenesis . The study of epigenetics on

2924-522: Is the understanding and application of the fundamental principles and laws of nature that allow humans to transform raw material and energy into products that are useful to society, at an industrial level . By taking advantage of the driving forces of nature such as pressure , temperature and concentration gradients , as well as the law of conservation of mass , process engineers can develop methods to synthesize and purify large quantities of desired chemical products. Process engineering focuses on

3010-495: Is then formatted through the use of a process flow diagram (PFD) where material flow paths, storage equipment (such as tanks and silos), transformations (such as distillation columns , receiver/head tanks, mixing, separations, pumping, etc.) and flowrates are specified, as well as a list of all pipes and conveyors and their contents, material properties such as density , viscosity , particle-size distribution , flowrates, pressures, temperatures, and materials of construction for

3096-411: The 16S rRNA gene) to produce a profile of diversity in a natural sample. Such work revealed that the vast majority of microbial biodiversity had been missed by cultivation-based methods. Recent studies use "shotgun" Sanger sequencing or massively parallel pyrosequencing to get largely unbiased samples of all genes from all the members of the sampled communities. Because of its power to reveal

3182-606: The Human Genome Project is also seen as a major development, not only advancing chemical engineering but genetic engineering and genomics as well. Chemical engineering principles were used to produce DNA sequences in large quantities. Chemical engineering involves the application of several principles. Key concepts are presented below. Chemical engineering design concerns the creation of plans, specifications, and economic analyses for pilot plants , new plants, or plant modifications. Design engineers often work in

3268-633: The J. Craig Venter Institute announced the creation of a partially synthetic species of bacterium , Mycoplasma laboratorium , derived from the genome of Mycoplasma genitalium . Population genomics has developed as a popular field of research, where genomic sequencing methods are used to conduct large-scale comparisons of DNA sequences among populations - beyond the limits of genetic markers such as short-range PCR products or microsatellites traditionally used in population genetics . Population genomics studies genome -wide effects to improve our understanding of microevolution so that we may learn

3354-482: The Plus and Minus method resulted in the chain-termination, or Sanger method (see below ), which formed the basis of the techniques of DNA sequencing, genome mapping, data storage, and bioinformatic analysis most widely used in the following quarter-century of research. In the same year Walter Gilbert and Allan Maxam of Harvard University independently developed the Maxam-Gilbert method (also known as

3440-477: The chemical method ) of DNA sequencing, involving the preferential cleavage of DNA at known bases, a less efficient method. For their groundbreaking work in the sequencing of nucleic acids, Gilbert and Sanger shared half the 1980 Nobel Prize in chemistry with Paul Berg ( recombinant DNA ). The advent of these technologies resulted in a rapid intensification in the scope and speed of completion of genome sequencing projects . The first complete genome sequence of

3526-478: The eukaryotic cell , while the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster has been a very important tool (notably in early pre-molecular genetics ). The worm Caenorhabditis elegans is an often used simple model for multicellular organisms . The zebrafish Brachydanio rerio is used for many developmental studies on the molecular level, and the plant Arabidopsis thaliana is a model organism for flowering plants. The Japanese pufferfish ( Takifugu rubripes ) and

Chemical engineering - Misplaced Pages Continue

3612-404: The human genome was completed by the Human Genome Project in early 2001, creating much fanfare. This project, completed in 2003, sequenced the entire genome for one specific person, and by 2007 this sequence was declared "finished" (less than one error in 20,000 bases and all chromosomes assembled). In the years since then, the genomes of many other individuals have been sequenced, partly under

3698-599: The petrochemical industry ; however, advances in other fields were made as well. Advancements in biochemical engineering in the 1940s, for example, found application in the pharmaceutical industry , and allowed for the mass production of various antibiotics , including penicillin and streptomycin . Meanwhile, progress in polymer science in the 1950s paved way for the "age of plastics". Concerns regarding large-scale chemical manufacturing facilities' safety and environmental impact were also raised during this period. Silent Spring , published in 1962, alerted its readers to

3784-442: The phylogenetic history and demography of a population. Population genomic methods are used for many different fields including evolutionary biology , ecology , biogeography , conservation biology and fisheries management . Similarly, landscape genomics has developed from landscape genetics to use genomic methods to identify relationships between patterns of environmental and genetic variation. Conservationists can use

3870-401: The spotted green pufferfish ( Tetraodon nigroviridis ) are interesting because of their small and compact genomes, which contain very little noncoding DNA compared to most species. The mammals dog ( Canis familiaris ), brown rat ( Rattus norvegicus ), mouse ( Mus musculus ), and chimpanzee ( Pan troglodytes ) are all important model animals in medical research. A rough draft of

3956-416: The DNA chains are extended one nucleotide at a time and image acquisition can be performed at a delayed moment, allowing for very large arrays of DNA colonies to be captured by sequential images taken from a single camera. Decoupling the enzymatic reaction and the image capture allows for optimal throughput and theoretically unlimited sequencing capacity; with an optimal configuration, the ultimate throughput of

4042-700: The IChemE required safety to be part of every degree course that it accredited after 1982. By the 1970s, legislation and monitoring agencies were instituted in various countries, such as France, Germany, and the United States. In time, the systematic application of safety principles to chemical and other process plants began to be considered a specific discipline, known as process safety . Advancements in computer science found applications for designing and managing plants, simplifying calculations and drawings that previously had to be done manually. The completion of

4128-449: The N 2 -fixing filamentous cyanobacteria Nodularia spumigena , Lyngbya aestuarii and Lyngbya majuscula , as well as bacteriophages infecting marine cyanobaceria. Thus, the growing body of genome information can also be tapped in a more general way to address global problems by applying a comparative approach. Some new and exciting examples of progress in this field are the identification of genes for regulatory RNAs, insights into

4214-481: The Sanger method remains in wide use, primarily for smaller-scale projects and for obtaining especially long contiguous DNA sequence reads (>500 nucleotides). Chain-termination methods require a single-stranded DNA template, a DNA primer , a DNA polymerase , normal deoxynucleosidetriphosphates (dNTPs), and modified nucleotides (dideoxyNTPs) that terminate DNA strand elongation. These chain-terminating nucleotides lack

4300-478: The United States continued until the 1960s, transport phenomena started to receive greater focus. Along with other novel concepts, such as process systems engineering (PSE), a "second paradigm" was defined. Transport phenomena gave an analytical approach to chemical engineering while PSE focused on its synthetic elements, such as those of a control system and process design . Developments in chemical engineering before and after World War II were mainly incited by

4386-575: The auspices of the 1000 Genomes Project , which announced the sequencing of 1,092 genomes in October 2012. Completion of this project was made possible by the development of dramatically more efficient sequencing technologies and required the commitment of significant bioinformatics resources from a large international collaboration. The continued analysis of human genomic data has profound political and social repercussions for human societies. The English-language neologism omics informally refers to

SECTION 50

#1732802201363

4472-411: The availability of large numbers of sequenced genomes and previously solved protein structures allow scientists to model protein structure on the structures of previously solved homologs. Structural genomics involves taking a large number of approaches to structure determination, including experimental methods using genomic sequences or modeling-based approaches based on sequence or structural homology to

4558-413: The design, operation, control, optimization and intensification of chemical, physical, and biological processes. Their work involves analyzing the chemical makeup of various ingredients and determining how they might react with one another. A process engineer can specialize in a number of areas, including the following: Process engineering involves the utilization of multiple tools and methods. Depending on

4644-448: The development of high-throughput sequencing technologies that parallelize the sequencing process, producing thousands or millions of sequences at once. High-throughput sequencing is intended to lower the cost of DNA sequencing beyond what is possible with standard dye-terminator methods. In ultra-high-throughput sequencing, as many as 500,000 sequencing-by-synthesis operations may be run in parallel. The Illumina dye sequencing method

4730-419: The disciplines of fluid mechanics and transport phenomena. Disciplines within the field of mechanics need to be applied in the presence of fluids or porous and dispersed media. Materials engineering principles also need to be applied, when relevant. Manufacturing in the field of process engineering involves an implementation of process synthesis steps. Regardless of the exact tools required, process engineering

4816-585: The end of the 20th century, process engineering had expanded from chemical engineering-based technologies to other applications, including metallurgical engineering , agricultural engineering, and product engineering . Genomics Genomics is an interdisciplinary field of molecular biology focusing on the structure, function, evolution, mapping, and editing of genomes . A genome is an organism's complete set of DNA , including all of its genes as well as its hierarchical, three-dimensional structural configuration. In contrast to genetics , which refers to

4902-605: The equipment, etc. All previous work is directed toward defining the scope of the project, then developing a cost estimate to get the design installed, and a schedule to communicate the timing needs for engineering, procurement, fabrication, installation, commissioning, startup, and ongoing production of the process. Depending on needed accuracy of the cost estimate and schedule that is required, several iterations of designs are generally provided to customers or stakeholders who feed back their requirements. The process engineer incorporates these additional instructions (scope revisions) into

4988-623: The evolutionary origin of photosynthesis , or estimation of the contribution of horizontal gene transfer to the genomes that have been analyzed. Genomics has provided applications in many fields, including medicine , biotechnology , anthropology and other social sciences . Next-generation genomic technologies allow clinicians and biomedical researchers to drastically increase the amount of genomic data collected on large study populations. When combined with new informatics approaches that integrate many kinds of data with genomic data in disease research, this allows researchers to better understand

5074-409: The exact nature of the system, processes need to be simulated and modeled using mathematics and computer science. Processes where phase change and phase equilibria are relevant require analysis using the principles and laws of thermodynamics to quantify changes in energy and efficiency. In contrast, processes that focus on the flow of material and energy as they approach equilibria are best analyzed using

5160-557: The first nucleic acid sequence ever determined, the ribonucleotide sequence of alanine transfer RNA . Extending this work, Marshall Nirenberg and Philip Leder revealed the triplet nature of the genetic code and were able to determine the sequences of 54 out of 64 codons in their experiments. In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology of the University of Ghent ( Ghent , Belgium ) were

5246-465: The first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. Fiers' group expanded on their MS2 coat protein work, determining the complete nucleotide-sequence of bacteriophage MS2-RNA (whose genome encodes just four genes in 3569 base pairs [bp]) and Simian virus 40 in 1976 and 1978, respectively. In addition to his seminal work on the amino acid sequence of insulin, Frederick Sanger and his colleagues played

SECTION 60

#1732802201363

5332-430: The function of DNA at the levels of genes, RNA transcripts, and protein products. A key characteristic of functional genomics studies is their genome-wide approach to these questions, generally involving high-throughput methods rather than a more traditional "gene-by-gene" approach. A major branch of genomics is still concerned with sequencing the genomes of various organisms, but the knowledge of full genomes has created

5418-480: The genetic bases of drug response and disease. Early efforts to apply the genome to medicine included those by a Stanford team led by Euan Ashley who developed the first tools for the medical interpretation of a human genome. The Genomes2People research program at Brigham and Women’s Hospital , Broad Institute and Harvard Medical School was established in 2012 to conduct empirical research in translating genomics into health. Brigham and Women's Hospital opened

5504-490: The genome) phenomena such as epistasis (effect of one gene on another), pleiotropy (one gene affecting more than one trait), heterosis (hybrid vigour), and other interactions between loci and alleles within the genome. From the Greek ΓΕΝ gen , "gene" (gamma, epsilon, nu, epsilon) meaning "become, create, creation, birth", and subsequent variants: genealogy, genesis, genetics, genic, genomere, genotype, genus etc. While

5590-425: The growth in the use of the term has led some scientists ( Jonathan Eisen , among others ) to claim that it has been oversold, it reflects the change in orientation towards the quantitative analysis of complete or near-complete assortment of all the constituents of a system. In the study of symbioses , for example, researchers which were once limited to the study of a single gene product can now simultaneously compare

5676-552: The harmful effects of DDT , a potent insecticide . The 1974 Flixborough disaster in the United Kingdom resulted in 28 deaths, as well as damage to a chemical plant and three nearby villages. 1984 Bhopal disaster in India resulted in almost 4,000 deaths. These incidents, along with other incidents , affected the reputation of the trade as industrial safety and environmental protection were given more focus. In response,

5762-438: The information gathered by genomic sequencing in order to better evaluate genetic factors key to species conservation, such as the genetic diversity of a population or whether an individual is heterozygous for a recessive inherited genetic disorder. By using genomic data to evaluate the effects of evolutionary processes and to detect patterns in variation throughout a given population, conservationists can formulate plans to aid

5848-467: The instrument depends only on the A/D conversion rate of the camera. The camera takes images of the fluorescently labeled nucleotides, then the dye along with the terminal 3' blocker is chemically removed from the DNA, allowing the next cycle. An alternative approach, ion semiconductor sequencing, is based on standard DNA replication chemistry. This technology measures the release of a hydrogen ion each time

5934-501: The law of conservation of mass in the 1780s that process engineering was properly developed and implemented as its own discipline. The set of knowledge that is now known as process engineering was then forged out of trial and error throughout the industrial revolution. The term process , as it relates to industry and production, dates back to the 18th century. During this time period, demands for various products began to drastically increase, and process engineers were required to optimize

6020-469: The microorganisms whose genomes have been completely sequenced are problematic pathogens , such as Haemophilus influenzae , which has resulted in a pronounced bias in their phylogenetic distribution compared to the breadth of microbial diversity. Of the other sequenced species, most were chosen because they were well-studied model organisms or promised to become good models. Yeast ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae ) has long been an important model organism for

6106-545: The operation of the process. It guides the process through operation of machinery, safety in design, programming and effective communication between engineers. From the P&;ID, a proposed layout (general arrangement) of the process can be shown from an overhead view ( plot plan ) and a side view (elevation), and other engineering disciplines are involved such as civil engineers for site work (earth moving), foundation design, concrete slab design work, structural steel to support

6192-409: The overall design and additional cost estimates, and schedules are developed for funding approval. Following funding approval, the project is executed via project management . Process engineering activities can be divided into the following disciplines: Various chemical techniques have been used in industrial processes since time immemorial. However, it wasn't until the advent of thermodynamics and

6278-456: The piping and unit operations . The process flow diagram is then used to develop a piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) which graphically displays the actual process occurring. P&ID are meant to be more complex and specific than a PFD. They represent a less muddled approach to the design. The P&ID is then used as a basis of design for developing the "system operation guide" or " functional design specification " which outlines

6364-415: The possibility for the field of functional genomics , mainly concerned with patterns of gene expression during various conditions. The most important tools here are microarrays and bioinformatics . Structural genomics seeks to describe the 3-dimensional structure of every protein encoded by a given genome . This genome-based approach allows for a high-throughput method of structure determination by

6450-433: The previously hidden diversity of microscopic life, metagenomics offers a powerful lens for viewing the microbial world that has the potential to revolutionize understanding of the entire living world. Bacteriophages have played and continue to play a key role in bacterial genetics and molecular biology . Historically, they were used to define gene structure and gene regulation. Also the first genome to be sequenced

6536-422: The process in which these products were created. By 1980, the concept of process engineering emerged from the fact that chemical engineering techniques and practices were being used in a variety of industries. By this time, process engineering had been defined as "the set of knowledge necessary to design, analyze, develop, construct, and operate, in an optimal way, the processes in which the material changes". By

6622-582: The production of sulfuric acid . In the same paper, however, George E. Davis , an English consultant, was credited with having coined the term. Davis also tried to found a Society of Chemical Engineering, but instead, it was named the Society of Chemical Industry (1881), with Davis as its first secretary. The History of Science in United States: An Encyclopedia puts the use of the term around 1890. "Chemical engineering", describing

6708-660: The same annotation pipeline (also see below ). Traditionally, the basic level of annotation is using BLAST for finding similarities, and then annotating genomes based on homologues. More recently, additional information is added to the annotation platform. The additional information allows manual annotators to deconvolute discrepancies between genes that are given the same annotation. Some databases use genome context information, similarity scores, experimental data, and integrations of other resources to provide genome annotations through their Subsystems approach. Other databases (e.g. Ensembl ) rely on both curated data sources as well as

6794-429: The sequencing and analysis of genomes through uses of high throughput DNA sequencing and bioinformatics to assemble and analyze the function and structure of entire genomes. Advances in genomics have triggered a revolution in discovery-based research and systems biology to facilitate understanding of even the most complex biological systems such as the brain. The field also includes studies of intragenomic (within

6880-482: The study of individual genes and their roles in inheritance, genomics aims at the collective characterization and quantification of all of an organism's genes, their interrelations and influence on the organism. Genes may direct the production of proteins with the assistance of enzymes and messenger molecules. In turn, proteins make up body structures such as organs and tissues as well as control chemical reactions and carry signals between cells. Genomics also involves

6966-405: The target DNA are obtained by performing several rounds of this fragmentation and sequencing. Computer programs then use the overlapping ends of different reads to assemble them into a continuous sequence. Shotgun sequencing is a random sampling process, requiring over-sampling to ensure a given nucleotide is represented in the reconstructed sequence; the average number of reads by which a genome

7052-573: The time, which requires additional training and job skills or act as a consultant to the project group. In the USA the education of chemical engineering graduates from the Baccalaureate programs accredited by ABET do not usually stress project engineering education, which can be obtained by specialized training, as electives, or from graduate programs . Project engineering jobs are some of the largest employers for chemical engineers. A unit operation

7138-507: The total complement of several types of biological molecules. After an organism has been selected, genome projects involve three components: the sequencing of DNA, the assembly of that sequence to create a representation of the original chromosome, and the annotation and analysis of that representation. Historically, sequencing was done in sequencing centers , centralized facilities (ranging from large independent institutions such as Joint Genome Institute which sequence dozens of terabases

7224-522: The use of mechanical equipment in the chemical industry, became common vocabulary in England after 1850. By 1910, the profession, "chemical engineer," was already in common use in Britain and the United States. In the 1940s, it became clear that unit operations alone were insufficient in developing chemical reactors . While the predominance of unit operations in chemical engineering courses in Britain and

7310-656: The word genome (from the German Genom , attributed to Hans Winkler ) was in use in English as early as 1926, the term genomics was coined by Tom Roderick, a geneticist at the Jackson Laboratory ( Bar Harbor, Maine ), over beers with Jim Womack, Tom Shows and Stephen O’Brien at a meeting held in Maryland on the mapping of the human genome in 1986. First as the name for a new journal and then as

7396-507: Was a bacteriophage . However, bacteriophage research did not lead the genomics revolution, which is clearly dominated by bacterial genomics. Only very recently has the study of bacteriophage genomes become prominent, thereby enabling researchers to understand the mechanisms underlying phage evolution. Bacteriophage genome sequences can be obtained through direct sequencing of isolated bacteriophages, but can also be derived as part of microbial genomes. Analysis of bacterial genomes has shown that

#362637