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93-482: UK Biobank is a long-term prospective biobank study in the United Kingdom (UK) that houses de-identified biological samples and health-related data on half a million people. Volunteer participants aged 40-69 were recruited between 2006 and 2010 from across Great Britain and consented to share their health data and to be followed for at least 30 years thereafter with the aim to enable scientific discoveries into

186-431: A biobank and made available to researchers are taken by sampling . Specimen types include blood , urine , skin cells, organ tissue, and other materials. Increasingly, methods for sampling tissue specimens are becoming more targeted, sometimes involving the use of MRI to determine which specific areas of tissue should be sampled. The biobank keeps these specimens in good condition until a researcher needs them to conduct

279-573: A body's level of hydration , interactions with drugs, compounds and pigments or dyes found in food, or diseases. Normally, urine is a transparent solution ranging from colorless to amber, but is usually a pale yellow. Usually urination color comes primarily from the presence of urobilin . Urobilin is a final waste product resulting from the breakdown of heme from hemoglobin during the destruction of aging blood cells. Colorless urine indicates over-hydration. Colorless urine in drug tests can suggest an attempt to avoid detection of illicit drugs in

372-428: A computer-based system that can be backed up frequently. The physical location of each sample is noted to allow the rapid location of specimens. Archival systems de-identify samples to respect the privacy of donors and allow blinding of researchers to analysis. The database, including clinical data, is kept separately with a secure method to link clinical information to tissue samples. Room temperature storage of samples

465-538: A division to establish a common database and standard operating procedures for its partner organizations with biospecimen collections. In 2006, the Council of the European Union adopted a policy on human biological specimens, which was novel for discussing issues unique to biobanks. Researchers have called for a greater critical examination of the economic aspects of Biobanks, particularly those facilitated by

558-506: A fertilizer compared to dry manufactured nitrogen fertilizers such as diammonium phosphate , the relative transport costs for urine are high as a lot of water needs to be transported. Given that urea in urine breaks down into ammonia, urine has been used for cleaning. In pre-industrial times, urine was used – in the form of lant or aged urine – as a cleaning fluid. Urine was also used for whitening teeth in Ancient Rome . Urine

651-404: A former UK Biobank-based study on educational attainment. In November 2023, The Observer reported that UK Biobank had approved access for companies in the insurance sector between 2020 and 2023 and that this runs counter some of the publicly made claims about how insurance companies and law enforcement would not access the data and records donated by volunteers. In response, UK Biobank released

744-448: A general population. In 2008, United States researchers stored 270 million specimens in biobanks, and the rate of new sample collection was 20 million per year. These numbers represent a fundamental worldwide change in the nature of research between the time when such numbers of samples could not be used and the time when researchers began demanding them. Collectively, researchers began to progress beyond single-center research centers to

837-474: A genetic component, few diseases originate from a single defective gene ; most genetic diseases are caused by multiple genetic factors on multiple genes. Because the strategy of looking only at single genes was ineffective for finding the genetic components of many diseases, and because new technology made the cost of examining a single gene versus doing a genome-wide scan about the same, scientists began collecting much larger amounts of genetic information when any

930-433: A lower risk of colorectal and prostate cancer compared to red meat eaters. Consumption of processed meat increases risk of breast cancer. They have also found that men with higher total and central adiposity have an increased risk of prostate cancer death. The UK Biobank project operates within the terms of an Ethics and Governance Framework. The Framework describes a series of standards to which UK Biobank will operate during

1023-411: A next-generation qualitatively different research infrastructure. Some of the challenges raised by the advent of biobanks are ethical, legal, and social issues pertaining to their existence, including the fairness of collecting donations from vulnerable populations, providing informed consent to donors, the logistics of data disclosure to participants, the right to ownership of intellectual property, and

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1116-457: A range of pathogens , including HIV -1. Urine can also be used to produce urokinase , which is used clinically as a thrombolytic agent. Applying urine as fertilizer has been called "closing the cycle of agricultural nutrient flows" or ecological sanitation or ecosan . Urine fertilizer is usually applied diluted with water because undiluted urine can chemically burn the leaves or roots of some plants, causing plant injury, particularly if

1209-481: A response, stating that the quoted passages were only made in relation to identifiable data, not the de-identified data that was ultimately shared with insurance companies. In 2023 the UK's Secretary of State for Science, Innovation and Technology Michelle Donelan described UK Biobank as "mak[ing] an unparalleled contribution to science across the whole world, by putting invaluable information at researchers' fingertips. It

1302-413: A series of drops. Average urine production in adult humans is around 1.4 L (0.31 imp gal; 0.37 US gal) of urine per person per day with a normal range of 0.6 to 2.6 L (0.13 to 0.57 imp gal; 0.16 to 0.69 US gal) per person per day, produced in around 6 to 8 urinations per day depending on state of hydration, activity level, environmental factors, weight, and

1395-416: A similar effect, as their compounds pass through the kidneys without being fully broken down before exiting the body. The pH normally is within the range of 5.5 to 7 with an average of 6.2. In persons with hyperuricosuria , acidic urine can contribute to the formation of stones of uric acid in the kidneys, ureters, or bladder. Urine pH can be monitored by a physician or at home. A diet which

1488-734: A specific gravity of 1.003–1.035. Urine is not sterile, not even in the bladder. In the urethra, epithelial cells lining the urethra are colonized by facultatively anaerobic Gram-negative rod and cocci bacteria . One study conducted in Nigeria isolated a total of 77 distinct bacterial strains from 100 healthy children (ages 5–11) as well as 39 strains from 33 cow urine samples, a considerable amount being pathogens. Pathogens identified and their percentages were: The study also states: Multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) rates recorded in children urinal bacterial species were 37.5–100% ( Gram-positive ) and 12.5–100% ( Gram-negative ), while MAR among

1581-463: A statement that criticised the report and dismissed the main findings, claiming to have conducted a full investigation that had "found no evidence of misuse of UK Biobank data" as only publicly accessible summary statistics where used. However, in a follow-up report by The Guardian after UK Biobank's statement, the newspaper reported on correspondence between a senior medic and UK Biobank chief executive, Prof Sir Rory Collins , in which Collins said that

1674-437: A study on "genetic contributions to social deprivation and household income" was published using UK Biobank data. In 2019, researchers published a study on the genetics of same-sex behaviour, which made use of data from 23andMe and UK Biobank. Following the publication, researchers and bioethicists voiced concerns about the approval and nature of the study, including how the findings were being exploited commercially, similar to

1767-504: A sweetened urine odor. This can be due to kidney diseases as well, such as kidney stones . Additionally, the presence of amino acids in urine (diagnosed as maple syrup urine disease ) can cause it to smell of maple syrup . Eating asparagus can cause a strong odor reminiscent of the vegetable caused by the body's breakdown of asparagusic acid . Likewise consumption of saffron , alcohol , coffee , tuna fish , and onion can result in telltale scents. Particularly spicy foods can have

1860-409: A system to gather the related phenotype data. Whereas genotype data comes from a biological specimen like a blood sample, phenotype data has to come from examining a specimen donor with an interview, physical assessment, review of medical history, or some other process which could be difficult to arrange. Even when this data was available, there were ethical uncertainties about the extent to which and

1953-420: A test, do an experiment, or perform an analysis. Biobanks, like other DNA databases, must carefully store and document access to samples and donor information. The samples must be maintained reliably with minimal deterioration over time, and they must be protected from physical damage, both accidental and intentional. The registration of each sample entering and exiting the system is centrally stored, usually on

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2046-533: A variety of other compounds. The resulting urine contains high concentrations of urea and other substances, including toxins. Urine flows from the kidneys through the ureter, bladder, and finally the urethra before passing through the urinary meatus . Research looking at the duration of urination in a range of mammal species found that nine larger species urinated for 21 ± 13 seconds irrespective of body size. Smaller species, including rodents and bats , cannot produce steady streams of urine and instead urinate with

2139-499: A wide range of metabolites , varying by what is introduced into the body. The total solids in urine are on average 59 g (2.1 oz) per day per person. Urea is the largest constituent of the solids, constituting more than 50% of the total. The daily volume and composition of urine varies per person based on the amount of physical exertion, environmental conditions, as well as water, salt, and protein intakes. In healthy persons, urine contains very little protein and an excess

2232-402: Is a global biobanking organization which creates opportunities for networking, education, and innovations and harmonizes approaches to evolving challenges in biological and environmental repositories. ISBER connects repositories globally through best practices. The ISBER Best Practices, Fourth Edition was launched on January 31, 2018 with a LN2 addendum that was launched early May 2019. In 1998,

2325-444: Is a liquid by-product of metabolism in humans and in many other animals. In placental mammals , urine flows from the kidneys through the ureters to the urinary bladder and exits the urethra through the penis or vulva during urination . In other vertebrates , urine is excreted through the cloaca . Urine contains water-soluble by-products of cellular metabolism that are rich in nitrogen and must be cleared from

2418-414: Is a strong commercial incentive underlying the systematic collection of tissue material. This can be seen particularly in the field of genomic research where population sized study lends itself more easily toward diagnostic technologies rather than basic etiological studies. Considering the potential for substantial profit, researchers Mitchell and Waldby argue that because biobanks enroll large numbers of

2511-525: Is attributed to Vespasian – said to have been his reply to a complaint from his son about the unpleasant nature of the tax. Vespasian's name is still attached to public urinals in France ( vespasiennes ), Italy ( vespasiani ), and Romania ( vespasiene ). Alchemists spent much time trying to extract gold from urine, which led to discoveries such as white phosphorus by German alchemist Hennig Brand when distilling fermented urine in 1669. In 1773

2604-646: Is funded by the Medical Research Council (MRC), the Wellcome Trust , UK government and charitable sources, and philanthropic donations. UK Biobank was conceived in the early 2000s, with Professor Sir Rory Collins appointed as the Principal Investigator and Chief Executive of UK Biobank in 2005. An incremental approach was adopted to developing the study procedures and technology, using systems designed and developed by

2697-419: Is generally a sign of adequate hydration. Dark urine is a sign of dehydration . The exception occurs when diuretics are consumed, in which case urine can be clear and copious and the person still be dehydrated. Urine contains proteins and other substances that are useful for medical therapy and are ingredients in many prescription drugs (e.g., Ureacin, Urecholine , Urowave). Urine from postmenopausal women

2790-471: Is high in protein from meat and dairy, as well as alcohol consumption can reduce urine pH, whilst potassium and organic acids, such as from diets high in fruit and vegetables, can increase the pH and make it more alkaline. Cranberries, popularly thought to decrease the pH of urine, have actually been shown not to acidify urine. Drugs that can decrease urine pH include ammonium chloride , chlorothiazide diuretics, and methenamine mandelate . Human urine has

2883-560: Is needed and researchers should consider the factors effecting the underrepresented populations. In November 2020 scientists began collecting living fragments, tissue and DNA samples of the endangered corals from the Great Barrier Reef for a precautionary biobank for potential future restoration and rehabilitation activities. A few months earlier another Australian team of researchers reported that they evolved such corals to be more heat-resistant. The specimens stored by

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2976-467: Is rich in gonadotropins that can yield follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone for fertility therapy. One such commercial product is Pergonal . Urine from pregnant women contains enough human chorionic gonadotropins for commercial extraction and purification to produce hCG medication. Pregnant mare urine is the source of estrogens , namely Premarin . Urine also contains antibodies , which can be used in diagnostic antibody tests for

3069-450: Is sometimes used, and was developed in response to perceived disadvantages of low-temperature storage, such as costs and potential for freezer failure. Current systems are small and are capable of storing nearly 40,000 samples in about one tenth of the space required by a −80 °C (−112 °F) freezer. Replicates or split samples are often stored in separate locations for security. One controversy of large databases of genetic material

3162-402: Is suggestive of illness, as with sugar. Organic matter, in healthy persons, also is reported to at most 1.7 times more matter than minerals. However, any more than that is suggestive of illness. However, it is important to note that lesser amounts and concentrations of other compounds and ions are often present in urination of humans. Urine varies in appearance, depending principally upon

3255-664: Is the consumption of urine . Urine was used in several ancient cultures for various health, healing, and cosmetic purposes; urine drinking is still practiced today. In extreme cases, people may drink urine if no other fluids are available, although numerous credible sources (including the US Army Field Manual ) advise against using it. Urine may also be consumed as a sexual activity . ( Full article... ) The US Army Field Manual advises against drinking urine for survival. The manual explains that drinking urine tends to worsen rather than relieve dehydration due to

3348-556: Is the question of ownership of samples. As of 2007, Iceland had three different laws on ownership of the physical samples and the information they contain. Icelandic law holds that the Icelandic government has custodial rights of the physical samples themselves while the donors retain ownership rights. In contrast, Tonga and Estonia give ownership of biobank samples to the government, but their laws include strong protections of donor rights. The key event which arises in biobanking

3441-415: Is when a researcher wants to collect a human specimen for research. When this happens, some issues which arise include the following: right to privacy for research participants , ownership of the specimen and its derived data, the extent to which the donor can share in the return of the research results , and the extent to which a donor is able to consent to be in a research study. With respect to consent,

3534-521: Is without question a jewel in the crown of UK science, and an envy of the world". In October 2024, The Guardian published a story detailing that the far-right " Human Diversity Foundation " had gotten access to UK Biobank data to use it in pseudo-scientific race studies , raising questions about the governance and processes for approving and controlling access to the data. Following the initial publication in The Guardian , UK Biobank released

3627-611: The Friends episode "The One With the Jellyfish", an early episode of Survivor , as well as the films The Real Cancun (2003), The Heartbreak Kid (2007) and The Paperboy (2012). However, at best it is ineffective, and in some cases this treatment may make the injury worse. Urine has often been used as a mordant to help prepare textiles, especially wool, for dyeing. In the Scottish Highlands and Hebrides,

3720-830: The Icelandic Parliament passed the Act on Health Sector Database . This act allowed for the creation of a national biobank in that country. In 1999, the United States National Bioethics Advisory Commission issued a report containing policy recommendations about handling human biological specimens. In 2005, the United States National Cancer Institute founded the Office of Biorepositories and Biospecimen Research so that it could have

3813-495: The Umayyad empire. Diabetes mellitus got its name because the urine is plentiful and sweet . The name uroscopy refers to any visual examination of the urine, including microscopy , although it often refers to the aforementioned prescientific or Proto-scientific forms of urine examination. Clinical urine tests today duly note the color, turbidity, and odor of urine but also include urinalysis , which chemically analyzes

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3906-697: The Wellcome Trust medical research charity. The cost of the initial participant recruitment and assessment phase was 62 million GBP . Biobank Biobanks can give researchers access to data representing a large number of people. Samples in biobanks and the data derived from those samples can often be used by multiple researchers for cross purpose research studies. For example, many diseases are associated with single-nucleotide polymorphisms . Genome-wide association studies using data from tens or hundreds of thousands of individuals can identify these genetic associations as potential disease biomarkers . Many researchers struggled to acquire sufficient samples prior to

3999-446: The bloodstream , such as urea , uric acid , and creatinine . A urinalysis can detect nitrogenous wastes of the mammalian body. Urine plays an important role in the earth's nitrogen cycle . In balanced ecosystems , urine fertilizes the soil and thus helps plants to grow. Therefore, urine can be used as a fertilizer . Some animals use it to mark their territories . Historically, aged or fermented urine (known as lant )

4092-400: The urinary system and, to a lesser extent in terms of urea , removed by perspiration . In placental mammals, the urinary system consists of the kidneys , ureters , urinary bladder , and urethra . The system produces urine by a process of filtration , reabsorption , and tubular secretion . The kidneys extract the soluble wastes from the bloodstream, as well as excess water, sugars, and

4185-561: The "UK Biobank has the potential, in ways that are not currently available elsewhere, to support a wide range of research". Colin Blakemore , chief executive of the MRC , predicted it "will provide scientists with extraordinary information" and "grow into a unique resource for future generations." There was some early criticism, however. GeneWatch UK, a pressure group that claims to promote the responsible use of genetic information, asserted that

4278-497: The Clinical Trial Service Unit. This consisted of a series of pilot studies of increasing complexity and sophistication with interludes for assessment of results and additional scientific input. In-house trials were conducted during 2005, and a fully integrated clinic was run at Altrincham , Greater Manchester throughout Spring 2006 where 3,800 individuals were assessed. On 22 August 2006, it was announced that

4371-630: The French chemist Hilaire Rouelle discovered the organic compound urea by boiling urine dry. The English word urine ( / ˈ juː r ɪ n / , / ˈ j ɜːr ɪ n / ) comes from the Latin urina ( -ae , f .), which is cognate with ancient words in various Indo-European languages that concern water, liquid, diving, rain, and urination (for example Sanskrit varṣati meaning 'it rains' or vār meaning 'water' and Greek ourein meaning 'to urinate'). The onomatopoetic term piss predates

4464-450: The UK population or is not applicable to diverse populations. Questions and concerns have been raised about the nature of some of the approved studies that have made use of UK Biobank data. Some of these studies are less obviously related to UK Biobank's self-stated mission of "Improving the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of a wide range of serious and life-threatening illnesses" . In 2016,

4557-431: The advent of biobanks. Biobanks have provoked questions on privacy, research ethics , and medical ethics . Viewpoints on what constitutes appropriate biobank ethics diverge. However, a consensus has been reached that operating biobanks without establishing carefully considered governing principles and policies could be detrimental to communities that participate in biobank programs. The term "biobank" first appeared in

4650-454: The biobank, the organisation is helping other institutions establish and run similar initiatives. The UK Biobank dataset was opened to applications from researchers in March 2012. The resource is available to scientists from the UK and outside, whether they work in the public or private sector, for industry, academia or a charity, subject to verification that the research is health-related and in

4743-470: The biobank, the organisation is helping other institutions establish and run similar initiatives. Participant enrolment was declared complete in August 2010. However recruitment proved more efficient than hoped and only 22 centres had been opened when the recruitment target of 500,000 was reached in 2010. In August 2022, UK Biobank celebrated its 20th anniversary. In May 2023, UKRI announced that UK Biobank

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4836-472: The bloodstream through over-hydration. Sometime after leaving the body, urine may acquire a strong "fish-like" odor because of contamination with bacteria that break down urea into ammonia . This odor is not present in fresh urine of healthy individuals; its presence may be a sign of a urinary tract infection . The odor of normal human urine can reflect what has been consumed or specific diseases. For example, an individual with diabetes mellitus may present

4929-461: The complexity of the programme could result in the finding of "false links between genes and disease", and expressed concern that the genetic information from patients could be patented for commercial purposes. Biobank's chief executive described such a risk as "extremely low, if it exists at all." Some literature has raised concerns that the UK Biobank is not representative of the diversity of

5022-409: The cow urinal bacteria was 12.5–75.0% (Gram-positive) and 25.0–100% (Gram-negative). Many physicians in ancient history resorted to the inspection and examination of the urine of their patients. Hermogenes wrote about the color and other attributes of urine as indicators of certain diseases. Abdul Malik Ibn Habib of Andalusia ( d. 862 AD) mentions numerous reports of urine examination throughout

5115-463: The creation, maintenance and use of the resource and it elaborates on the commitments that are involved to those participating in the project, researchers and the public more broadly. The independent UK Biobank Ethics and Governance Council provides advice to the project and monitors its conformity with the Framework. The Council also advises more generally on the interests of research participants and

5208-453: The database including genetic information. By 2017 Biobank participants had approximately 1.3 million hospitalisations, 40,000 cancer incidents with 14,000 of them having died. The study was initially launched with a visit consisting of the following: Once the visit-based assessment method was proven, the range of investigations was extended to include: Since the completion of recruitment several new types of data have been added: Following

5301-436: The first German chlorine gas attacks, Allied troops were supplied with masks of cotton pads that had been soaked in urine. It was believed that the ammonia in the pad neutralized the chlorine. These pads were held over the face until the soldiers could escape from the poisonous fumes. Urban legend states that urine works well against jellyfish stings. This scenario has appeared many times in popular culture including in

5394-493: The general public in relation to the project. The UK Biobank Board is accountable to the members of the company (the Medical Research Council and The Wellcome Trust ) and acts as company directors and as charity trustees. It is chaired by Lord Kakkar , who succeeded Sir Michael Rawlins in January 2020. The project has been generally praised for its ambitious scope and unique potential. A scientific review panel concluded,

5487-456: The individual's health. Producing too much or too little urine needs medical attention. Polyuria is a condition of excessive production of urine (> 2.5 L/day), oliguria when < 400 mL are produced, and anuria being < 100 mL per day. About 91–96% of urine consists of water. The remainder can be broadly characterized into inorganic salts, urea, organic compounds, and organic ammonium salts. Urine also contains proteins, hormones, and

5580-730: The initial pilot stage in the 2005-6 period, the main study began in April 2007 and by the end of that year 50,000 people had taken part. Recruitment reached 100,000 in April 2008, 200,000 in October 2008, 300,000 in May 2009, 400,000 in November 2009 and passed the 500,000 target in July 2010. Participant enrolment was declared complete in August 2010. The volunteers were largely healthy, wealthy and white European. Rather than recruiting more participants into

5673-672: The inquiries were continuing. In the same article, The Guardian also reported on the US-based startup, Heliospect Genomics that claims to use UK Biobank data to predict traits such as IQ, sex and height, as well as risk of obesity or mental illness, in human embryos for IVF treatment. The UK Biobank is funded by the UK Department of Health , the Medical Research Council, the Scottish Executive , and

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5766-506: The largest in the world. The project is enabling scientists to study the onset of diseases such as cancers, heart disease, and age-related conditions in the early stages of their development. Nature has referred to UK Biobank as an "unprecedented open access database." Since 2012, 30,000 researchers from over 90 countries have registered to use UK Biobank. As of November 2023 there have been over 9,000 peer-reviewed publications using UK Biobank data, including over 3,000 in 2023. UK Biobank

5859-450: The late 1990s and is a broad term that has evolved in recent years. One definition is "an organized collection of human biological material and associated information stored for one or more research purposes." Collections of plant, animal, microbe, and other nonhuman materials may also be described as biobanks but in some discussions the term is reserved for human specimens. Biobanks usually incorporate cryogenic storage facilities for

5952-676: The local level from an institutional review board . Institutional review boards typically enforce standards set by their country's government. To different extents, the law used by different countries is often modeled on biobank governance recommendations that have been internationally proposed. Some examples of organizations that participated in creating written biobanking guidelines are the following: World Medical Association , Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences , Council of Europe , Human Genome Organisation , World Health Organization , and UNESCO . The International Society for Biological and Environmental Repositories (ISBER)

6045-478: The main issue is that biobanks usually collect samples and data for multiple future research purposes and it is not feasible to obtain specific consent for all possible future research. It has been discussed that one-off consent or a broad consent for various research purposes may not suffice ethical and legal requirements. Dynamic consent is an approach to consent that may be better suited to biobanking, because it enables ongoing engagement and communication between

6138-527: The main programme would recruit men and women aged between 40 and 69 based from up to 35 regional centres. Following the initial pilot stage in the 2005-6 period, the main study began in April 2007 and by the end of that year 50,000 people had taken part. Recruitment reached 100,000 in April 2008, 200,000 in October 2008, 300,000 in May 2009, 400,000 in November 2009 and passed the 500,000 target in July 2010. The volunteers were largely healthy, wealthy and white European. Rather than recruiting more participants into

6231-437: The national population as productive participants, who allow their bodies and prospective medical histories to create a resource with commercial potential, their contribution should be seen as a form of "clinical labor" and therefore participants should also benefit economically. There have been cases when the ownership of stored human specimens have been disputed and taken to court. Some cases include: Urine Urine

6324-423: The participant nor their physician would be notified. Problems detected later, such as genetic risk factors, were not conveyed to either participant or physician ("to ensure that volunteers are not penalised by insurance companies, for example, which may require customers to disclose the results of any genetic tests."). From 2012, researchers were able to apply to use the database (though they are not given access to

6417-970: The prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of disease. Based in Stockport , Greater Manchester , it is incorporated as a limited company and registered charity in England and Wales, and registered as a charity in Scotland. UK Biobank holds more than 10,000 variables of data on many of their 500,000 participants to inform research including biological samples, physical measurements, body and brain imaging data, bone density data, activity tracking and lifestyle questionnaire data. Participants continue to provide more data over time. They have over 15 million biological samples stored, which can be requested for use by researchers, and their online database holds over 30 petabytes of data. Their human genome sequencing database, proteomic database, and human imaging project are

6510-419: The privacy and security of donors who participate. Because of these new problems, researchers and policymakers began to require new systems of research governance. Many researchers have identified biobanking as a key area for infrastructure development in order to promote drug discovery and drug development . By the late 1990s, scientists realized that although many diseases are caused at least in part by

6603-434: The process of " waulking " (fulling) woven wool is preceded by soaking in urine, preferably infantile. Urine plays a role in olfactory communication , since it contains semiochemicals that act as pheromones . The urine of predator species often contains kairomones that serve as a repellent against their prey species. The fermentation of urine by bacteria produces a solution of ammonia ; hence fermented urine

6696-436: The public interest. Researchers must register to be approved to use UK Biobank data. Researchers are required to publish their results in an open source publication site or in an academic journal and return their findings to the UK Biobank. In 2021, UK Biobank launched its cloud-based Research Analysis Platform (UKB-RAP), providing information technology infrastructure to store and analyse UK Biobank's large dataset regardless of

6789-403: The quantity of 1.5 L urine per day (or 550 L per year), the concentration values of macronutrients as follows: 7.3 g/L N; .67 g/L P; 1.8 g/L K. These are design values but the actual values vary with diet. Urine's nutrient content, when expressed with the international fertilizer convention of N:P 2 O 5 :K 2 O, is approximately 7:1.5:2.2. Since urine is rather diluted as

6882-402: The researcher's own technological capabilities. By 2023 the platform had over 5,000 users. The platform is hosted by Amazon Web Services, which also pledged $ 1.5 million in research credits for early career researchers and researchers from low and low-middle income countries to reduce limitations when collating, storing and securely accessing data. By 2023 30,000 researchers had registered to use

6975-409: The researchers and sample/data donors over time. There is no internationally accepted set of governance guidelines that are designed to work with biobanks. Biobanks typically try to adapt to the broader recommendations that are internationally accepted for human subject research and change guidelines as they become updated. For many types of research and particularly medical research, oversight comes at

7068-436: The resource and over 9,000 peer-reviewed articles based on UK Biobank data had been published. A 2022 review of UK Biobank data found that road traffic noise exposure increases risk of CVD mortality, stroke and all-cause mortality. A 2023 review found that participants with sense of meaning and purpose in life have a decreased risk of dementia. Two other studies of participants in the UK Biobank study found that dementia risk

7161-400: The salts in it, and that urine should not be consumed in a survival situation, even when there is no other fluid available. In hot weather survival situations, where other sources of water are not available, soaking cloth (a shirt for example) in urine and putting it on the head can help cool the body. During World War I , Germans experimented with numerous poisonous gases as weapons. After

7254-644: The samples. They may range in size from individual refrigerators to warehouses, and are maintained by institutions such as hospitals, universities, nonprofit organizations, and pharmaceutical companies. Biobanks may be classified by purpose or design. Disease-oriented biobanks usually have a hospital affiliation through which they collect samples representing a variety of diseases, perhaps to look for biomarkers affiliated with disease. Population-based biobanks need no particular hospital affiliation because they take samples from large numbers of all kinds of people, perhaps to look for biomarkers for disease susceptibility in

7347-860: The soil moisture content is low. The dilution also helps to reduce odor development following application. When diluted with water (at a 1:5 ratio for container-grown annual crops with fresh growing medium each season or a 1:8 ratio for more general use), it can be applied directly to soil as a fertilizer. The fertilization effect of urine has been found to be comparable to that of commercial nitrogen fertilizers. Urine may contain pharmaceutical residues ( environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants ). Concentrations of heavy metals such as lead , mercury , and cadmium , commonly found in sewage sludge, are much lower in urine. Typical design values for nutrients excreted with urine are: 4 kg nitrogen per person per year, 0.36 kg phosphorus per person per year and 1.0 kg potassium per person per year. Based on

7440-404: The state. National biobanks are often funded by public/private partnerships, with finance provided by any combination of national research councils, medical charities, pharmaceutical company investment, and biotech venture capital. In this way, national biobanks enable an economic relationship mediated between states, national populations, and commercial entities. It has been illustrated that there

7533-420: The urine and quantifies its constituents. A culture of the urine is performed when a urinary tract infection is suspected, as bacteriuria without symptoms does not require treatment. A microscopic examination of the urine may be helpful to identify organic or inorganic substrates and help in the diagnosis. The color and volume of urine can be reliable indicators of hydration level. Clear and copious urine

7626-422: The volunteers will be followed for at least 30 years thereafter. Prospective participants were invited to visit an assessment centre, at which they completed an automated questionnaire and were interviewed about lifestyle, medical history and nutritional habits; basic variables such as weight, height, blood pressure etc. were measured; and blood and urine samples were taken. These samples were preserved so that it

7719-438: The volunteers, who will remain strictly anonymous). A typical study using the database might compare a sample of participants who developed a particular disease , such as cancer , heart disease , diabetes or Alzheimer's disease , with a sample of those that did not, in an attempt to measure the benefits, risk contribution and interaction of specific genes , lifestyles, and medications. In 2017 researchers were able to access

7812-447: The ways in which patient rights could be preserved by connecting it to genotypic data. The institution of the biobank began to be developed to store genotypic data, associate it with phenotypic data, and make it more widely available to researchers who needed it. Biobanks including genetic testing samples have historically been composed of a majority of samples from individuals from European ancestry. Diversification of biobank samples

7905-419: The word urine , but is now considered vulgar. Urinate was at first used mostly in medical contexts. Piss is also used in such colloquialisms as to piss off , piss poor , and the slang expression pissing down to mean heavy rain. Euphemisms and expressions used between parents and children (such as wee , pee , and many others) have long existed. Lant is a word for aged urine, originating from

7998-479: Was also used for gunpowder production, household cleaning, tanning of leather and dyeing of textiles. Human urine and feces are collectively referred to as human waste or human excreta, and are managed via sanitation systems. Livestock urine and feces also require proper management if the livestock population density is high . Most animals have excretory systems for elimination of soluble toxic wastes. In humans, soluble wastes are excreted primarily by

8091-445: Was higher for those who were more socially isolated. A study from the UK Biobank showed a reduction in grey matter thickness, overall reduction in brain size and greater cognitive decline in patients after COVID-19 compared with control groups. The UK Biobank also reported on an increased risk of hospitalization for those who contracted COVID-19 with obesity. Reviews of UK Biobank data have found that pescatarians and vegetarians have

8184-585: Was possible to later extract DNA and measure other biologically important substances. During the whole duration of the study it was intended that all disease events, drug prescriptions and deaths of the participants are recorded in a database, taking advantage of the centralized UK National Health Service . During the initial physical examination, basic feedback was provided to the participant regarding their weight, height, BMI, blood pressure , lung vital capacity , bone density and intra-ocular pressure ; however if any other medical problems were detected, neither

8277-400: Was set to receive £127.6m to move to a purpose-built facility at Bruntwood SciTech 's Manchester Science Park . In October 2023, a number of funders including Eric Schmidt and Ken Griffin announced further funding for the next five years. The study is following about 500,000 volunteers in the UK, enrolled at ages from 40 to 69. Initial enrolment took place over four years from 2006, and

8370-422: Was the discovery of many single-nucleotide polymorphisms , with an early success being an improvement from the identification of about 10,000 of these with single-gene scanning and before biobanks versus 500,000 by 2007 after the genome-wide scanning practice had been in place for some years. A problem remained; this changing practice allowed the collection of genotype data, but it did not simultaneously come with

8463-561: Was to be collected at all. At the same time technological advances also made it possible for wide sharing of information, so when data was collected, many scientists doing genetics work found that access to data from genome-wide scans collected for any one reason would actually be useful in many other types of genetic research. Whereas before data usually stayed in one laboratory, now scientists began to store large amounts of genetic data in single places for community use and sharing. An immediate result of doing genome-wide scans and sharing data

8556-455: Was used before the development of a chemical industry in the manufacture of gunpowder . Urine, a nitrogen source, was used to moisten straw or other organic material, which was kept moist and allowed to rot for several months to over a year. The resulting salts were washed from the heap with water, which was evaporated to allow collection of crude saltpeter crystals, that were usually refined before being used in making gunpowder. Urophagia

8649-562: Was used in Classical Antiquity to wash cloth and clothing, to remove hair from hides in preparation for tanning, to serve as a mordant in dying cloth, and to remove rust from iron. Ancient Romans used fermented human urine (in the form of lant ) to cleanse grease stains from clothing. The emperor Nero instituted a tax ( Latin : vectigal urinae ) on the urine industry, continued by his successor, Vespasian . The Latin saying Pecunia non olet ('money does not smell')

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