115-778: Maritime contacts Sangam period Tamilakam Cheras Spice trade Ays Ezhil Malai Confluence of religions Mamankam festival Calicut Venad - Kingdom of Quilon Valluvanad Kolattunadu Cochin Arakkal kingdom Minor principalities Age of Discovery Portuguese period Dutch period Rise of Travancore Mysorean invasion British Period Battle of Tirurangadi Malabar District North Malabar South Malabar Battle of Quilon Communism in Kerala Lakshadweep Economy Architecture The Early Pandyas of
230-404: A centre of early Chola trade (now part of Ariyankuppam ), about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from the modern Pondicherry . Huntingford further notes that Roman pottery was found at Arikamedu in 1937, and archeological excavations between 1944 and 1949 showed that it was "a trading station to which goods of Roman manufacture were imported during the first half of the 1st century AD". Following
345-627: A challenge to the prestige of the Pandavas and declaration of an act of open war. At the formal presentation of the peace proposal by Krishna in the Kuru Mahasabha at the court of Hastinapura, Krishna asks Duryodhana to return Indraprastha to the Pandavas and restore the status quo, or at least give five villages, one for each of the Pandavas; Duryodhana refuses. Krishna's peace proposals are ignored and dismissed, and Duryodhana publicly orders his soldiers to arrest Krishna despite warnings from
460-550: A duel with no clear winner. Drupada and his son Shikhandi go to help Bhima, but they are stopped by Vikarna , one of Duryodhana's brothers, who attacks and injures them badly. Drona kills many Pandava soldiers and both armies' formations are broken. Bhima penetrates the Kaurava formation and attacks Duryodhana, who is defeated but rescued. The Upapandavas (sons of Draupadi ) fight against Ashwatthama and destroy his chariot. Drona kills Shanka, one of Virata's son. Yuyutsu
575-668: A dynamic zone of interaction between peoples, cultures, and civilizations stretching from Southeast Asia to East and Southeast Africa , and the East Mediterranean in the West, in prehistoric and early historic periods. Cities and states on the Indian Ocean rim focused on both the sea and the land. There was an extensive maritime trade network operating between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations as early as
690-494: A fierce battle over hours. Drona and Dhrishtadyumna similarly engage in a duel, and Drona defeats Dhrishtadyumna, who is saved by Bhima . Duryodhana sends the troops of Kalinga to attack Bhima and most of them, including the King of Kalinga, are killed. Bhishma comes to relieve the battered Kalinga forces. Satyaki , who was assisting Bhima, shoots at Bhishma's charioteer and kills him. Bhishma's horses bolt and carry Bhishma away from
805-701: A historical date to the Kurukshetra war, with research suggesting c. 1000 BCE. However, popular tradition claims that the war marks the transition to the Kali Yuga , dating it to c. 3102 BCE. Although the Kurukshetra War is not mentioned in Vedic literature, its prominence in later literature led British Indologist A. L. Basham to conclude that there was a great battle at Kurukshetra which, "magnified to titanic proportions, formed
920-540: A number which had reached 133,000 in 1807. The British captured the islands in 1810, however, and because the British had prohibited the slave trade in 1807 a system of clandestine slave trade developed to bring slaves to French planters on the islands; in all 336,000–388,000 slaves were deported to the Mascarane Islands from 1670 until 1848. In all, Europeans traders deported 567,900–733,200 slaves within
1035-638: A probable identification with Quseir el-Quadim at the end of a fortified road from Koptos on the Nile . The Quseir el-Quadim site has further been associated with Myos Hormos following the excavations at el-Zerqa, halfway along the route, which have revealed ostraca leading to the conclusion that the port at the end of this road may have been Myos Hormos. The regional ports of Barbaricum (modern Karachi ), Sounagoura (central Bangladesh ) Barygaza , Muziris in Kerala, Korkai , Kaveripattinam and Arikamedu on
1150-591: A subject of much speculation. Historians have used several sources to identify the origins of the Early Pandyan dynasty with the pre-Christian Era and also to piece together the names of the Pandyan kings. Unfortunately, the exact genealogy of these kings has not been authoritatively established yet. One theory is that the word Pandya is derived from the Tamil word "Pandi" meaning bull. Ancient Tamils, considered
1265-653: A substantial increase in trade. The consolidation of the administration of the Mediterranean basin under the Roman Empire led to the strengthening of direct maritime trade with India and the elimination of the taxes extracted previously by the middlemen of various land-based trading routes. Trade between the Roman Empire and India peaked during the first two centuries of the Common Era, facilitated by
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#17327730300371380-455: A town or village was called Ur and each neighborhood inside an Ur was called a Cheri . While the king ruled over his entire territory from the capital, he often placed one or more principalities ( Kootram ) under the near-sovereign government of some senior member of the royal family or a feudatary. The village was the most fundamental unit of administration under the Pandyas. The affairs of
1495-548: A village were the responsibility of its elders, who supervised the judicial, administrative and financial functions. Justice was administered free of charge, by special officers appointed as judges and magistrates, but the king was supreme and the final arbiter in all civil and criminal cases. Mortgage, lease, trust property, loans, breach of contract were some common sources of civil litigation, while criminal offences included theft, adultery, forgery and treason. The punishments were very severe and hence crimes were rare: one caught in
1610-499: A woman. Shikhandi's arrows fell on Bhishma without hindrance. Arjuna positions himself behind Shikhandi, protecting himself from Bhishma's attack and aimed his arrows at the weak points in Bhishma's armor and defeats him. The Kauravas and Pandavas gathered around Bhishma and at his request, Arjuna places three arrows under Bhishma's head to support it. Bhishma had promised his father, King Shantanu , that he would live until Hastinapura
1725-401: Is Nedunjeliyan I , who ruled from the coastal town of Korkai, at the mouth of river Tamraparni . During this time, the Tamil country consisted of several small kingdoms ruled over by independent chieftains, in addition to the three monarchies of Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. In a bid to expand his territory, Nedunj Cheliyan I invaded the kingdom of Koodal (later renamed Madurai), which was under
1840-531: Is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country; and ointment, but not very costly and not much. And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There are exported from these places spikenard, costus, bdellium, ivory, agate and carnelian, lycium, cotton cloth of all kinds, silk cloth, mallow cloth, yarn, long pepper and such other things as are brought here from
1955-547: Is a village in plain sight by the sea. Muziris, of the same Kingdom, abounds in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia, and by the Greeks; it is located on a river, distant from Tyndis by river and sea five hundred stadia, and up the river from the shore twenty stadia" The Periplus Maris Erythraei mentions a marketplace named Poduke (ch. 60), which G.W.B. Huntingford identified as possibly being Arikamedu in Tamil Nadu ,
2070-486: Is born on earth in each eon when evil raises its head. Before the battle begins, Yudhishthira drops his weapons, takes off his armor, and walks towards the Kaurava Army with folded hands in prayer. He falls on Bhishma's feet to seek his blessing for success in battle, and he is blessed. Yudhishthira returned to his chariot and the battle was ready to commence. The Pandavas suffered heavy losses and are defeated at
2185-456: Is debarred from fighting. Karna joins the war later when Bhishma is severely wounded by Arjuna. The Kingdom of Vidarbha , Vidura , and Balarama are the neutral parties in this war. Rukmi , King of Vidarbha, wanted to join the war, but Arjuna refuses because he had lost to Krishna during Rukmini's svayamvara and he boasted about his war strength and army, and Duryodhana does not want Arjuna's reject. Vidura does not want to see bloodshed and
2300-492: Is injured by Kripa in a sword fight. Nakula and Sahadeva fight Duryodhana's brothers but are overwhelmed by the number of them. Bhima kills 17 of Dhritarashtra 's sons. Iravan , the son of Arjuna, kills five of Shakuni 's brothers. Duryodhana deploys the Rakshasa warrior Alambusha , who kills Iravan. Bhishma destroys Pandava armies. Arjuna heads to Bhishma but fights him half-heartedly. Krishna, overwhelmed by anger at
2415-590: Is insulted by Duryodhana. The Mahābhārata states that in the year in which the war took place, three solar eclipses took place within a thirty-day period; eclipses are considered ill omens in Hindu astrology . On the first day of the war, as would be on all the following days, the Kaurava Army stood facing west and the Pandava Army east. The Pandava Army was organised by Yudhishthira and Arjuna in
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#17327730300372530-484: Is not very clear but there are at least four other kings who are thought to have ruled in the immediate succeeding generations. Notable among them were, Musiri Mutriya Cheliyan for the fact that he conquered the town of Musiri on the coast of the Arabian Sea and Ukkirap Peruvaludi for the fact that it was in his court that the famous poet Tiruvalluvar submitted his much-acclaimed work Tirukkural . Ilanji Vel
2645-612: Is one among the ancient velirs of the Yadu Kingdom.[1] He ruled a territory called Ilanji , near Courtallam . He belongs to the clan of ancient Pandyas . The head of the government was the king, a hereditary monarch. His power was restricted by the Aimberunguzhu (Tamil: ஐம்பெருங்குழு) or the Five Great Assemblies, which consisted of the representatives of the people, priests, physicians, astrologers and
2760-640: Is present. He orders the Samsaptakas (the Trigarta warriors headed by Susharma , who had vowed to either conquer or die) to keep Arjuna busy in a remote part of the battlefield, an order which they readily obey on account of their old hostilities with the Pandava scion. Arjuna defeats them before the afternoon, then faces Bhagadatta , who had been creating havoc among the Pandava troops, and defeated Bhima, Abhimanyu and Satyaki. Arjuna and Bhagadatta fight and
2875-462: Is referred to as the most popular warrior among the Early Pandyas, winning a battle at Talaialanganam against a coalition of forces from Cholas and Cheras and five other kingdoms. The early Pandyan kingdom extended between Travancore in the west, Vellaru river in the north and all the way to the ocean in the east and the south. The Early Pandyas had active maritime trade relationships with
2990-486: Is right and what is wrong, Arjuna turns to Krishna for divine advice and teachings. Krishna, who Arjuna chose as his charioteer, advised him of his duty. Krishna instructs Arjuna not to yield to degrading impotence and to fight his kin. He also reminds him that it is a war between righteousness and unrighteousness ( dharma and adharma ), and it is Arjuna's duty to slay anyone who supported the cause of unrighteousness, or sin. Krishna reveals his divine form and explains that he
3105-540: The Athiyamaan are the major Kings that ruled ancient Tamilakkam . Several Tamil literary works, such as Iraiyanar Akapporul , mention the legend of three separate Tamil Sangams lasting several centuries before the Christian Era and ascribe their patronage to the Pandyas. The Sangam poem Maduraikkanci by Mankudi Maruthanaar contains a full-length description of Madurai and the Pandyan country under
3220-723: The Indian subcontinent by the Roman world since the Ptolemaic dynasty. The decline in trade saw the ancient Tamil country turn to Southeast Asia for international trade, where it influenced the native culture to a greater degree than the impressions made on Rome. The Satavahanas developed shipping ventures in Southeast Asia. The 8th century depiction of a wooden double outrigger and sailed Borobudur ship in ancient Java suggests that there were ancient trading links across
3335-762: The Mahabharata War , is a war described in the Hindu epic poem Mahabharata , arising from a dynastic struggle between two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas , for the throne of Hastinapura . The war is used as the context for the dialogues of the Bhagavad Gita . The Mahābhārata is an account of the life and deeds of several generations of a ruling dynasty called the Kuru clan. Central to
3450-520: The Pharaonic traders of ancient Egypt and the Ptolemaic dynasty before falling into Roman control. The site of Berenice, since its discovery by Belzoni (1818), has been equated with the ruins near Ras Banas in Southern Egypt. However, the precise location of Myos Hormos is disputed with the latig Abu Sha'ar and the accounts given in classical literature and satellite images indicating
3565-617: The Purananuru collection. The successor of Pudappandiyan was Nedunj Cheliyan II also known as "Pasumpun Pandyan". Immediately after ascending the throne, he marched with his troops to the north of Vaigai and defeated the chieftain Evvi II. He then headed west and captured the Aayi territory controlled by another chieftain, Atiyan. Both Evvi II and Atiyan were made commanders of the Pandyan army for his battles against Kongu country that
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3680-986: The Red Seal ship system. During the Muslim period, in which the Muslims had dominated the trade across the Indian Ocean, the Gujaratis were bringing spices from the Moluccas as well as silk from China , in exchange for manufactured items such as textiles , and then selling them to the Egyptians and Arabs. Calicut was the center of Indian pepper exports to the Red Sea and Europe at this time with Egyptian and Arab traders being particularly active. Muslim missionaries and merchants began to spread Islam along
3795-763: The Roman-Persian Wars , the areas under the Roman Byzantine Empire were captured by Khosrow II of the Persian Sassanian Dynasty, but the Byzantine emperor Heraclius reconquered them (628). The Arabs, led by 'Amr ibn al-'As , crossed into Egypt in late 639 or early 640 CE. This advance marked the beginning of the Islamic conquest of Egypt and the fall of ports such as Alexandria, which used to secure trade with
3910-561: The Sangam period were one of the three main kingdoms of the Tamilakam (southern India), the other two being the Cholas , and Cheras dynasty. As with many other kingdoms around this period (earlier than 200 BCE), most of the information about the Early Pandyas come to modern historians mainly through literary sources and some epigraphic, archaeological and numismatic evidence. The capital of
4025-509: The Srivijaya thalassocracy empire that rule the maritime trade network in maritime Southeast Asia and connecting India and China . Chinese fleets under Zheng He crisscrossed the Indian Ocean during the early part of the 15th century. The missions were diplomatic rather than commercial, but many exchanges of gift and produces were made. During the 16th and 17th century, Japanese ships also made forays into Indian Ocean trade through
4140-556: The 18th century, and 3700 during the period 1800–1870. Slave trade also occurred in the eastern Indian Ocean before the Dutch settled there around 1600 but the volume of this trade is unknown. In Madagascar, merchants and slave traders from the Middle East (Shirazi Persians, Omani Arabs, Arabized Jews, accompanied by Bantus from southeast Africa) and from Asia ( Gujaratis , Malays , Javanese , Bugis ) were sometimes integrated within
4255-561: The 4th millennium BCE. Parpola sees the finds as ox-pulled carts, indicating support for his proposal for a first wave of Indo-Aryan migrations into the Indian subcontinent at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE, prior to the migration of the Rig Vedic people. In the beginning, Sanjaya gives a description of the various continents of the Earth , the other planets , and focuses on
4370-594: The Bharata battle, which would imply improbably long reigns on average for the kings listed in the genealogies. There are also analyses of parallel genealogies in the Puranas between the times of Adhisimakrishna (Parikshit's great-grandson) and Mahapadma Nanda. Pargiter estimated 26 generations by averaging 10 different dynastic lists and assuming 18 years for the average duration of a reign, arrived at an estimate of 850 BCE for Adhisimakrishna and approximately 950 BCE for
4485-454: The Bharata battle. Despite the inconclusiveness of the data, attempts have been made to assign a historical date to the Kurukshetra War. The existing text of the Mahābhārata went through many revisions, and mostly belongs to the period between c. 500 BCE and 400 CE. Within the frame story of the Mahābhārata , the kings Parikshit and Janamejaya are featured significantly as scions of
4600-575: The Brahmana literature itself to show that it cannot have been much earlier". Puranic literature presents genealogical lists associated with the Mahābhārata narrative. There are two pieces of evidence of the Puranas: there is the direct statement that there were 1,015 (or 1,050) years between the birth of Parikshit (Arjun's grandson) and the accession of Mahapadma Nanda , commonly dated to 382 BCE, which would yield an estimate of about 1400 BCE for
4715-615: The Early Pandyan kingdom was initially Korkai , Thoothukudi and was later moved to Koodal (now Madurai ) during the reign of Nedunjeliyan I . The kings of the Pandyan dynasty are frequently mentioned in Sangam literature of the third century BCE and onwards, in literary works such as the Mathuraikkanci and other early Tamil literary works such as Cilapatikaram , which have been used by historians to identify their names and, to some extent, their genealogy. Nedunjeliyan II
Early Pandyan kingdom - Misplaced Pages Continue
4830-490: The Elder (NH VI.101) complained about the drain of specie to India: The three main Roman ports involved with eastern trade were Arsinoe , Berenice and Myos Hormos . Arsinoe was one of the early trading centers but was soon overshadowed by the more easily accessible Myos Hormos and Berenice. The Ptolemaic dynasty exploited the strategic position of Alexandria to secure trade with the subcontinent. The course of trade with
4945-535: The Indian Ocean began when Portugal established Estado da Índia in the early 16th century. From then until the 1830s, c. 200 slaves were exported from Mozambique annually and similar figures has been estimated for slaves brought from Asia to the Philippines during the Iberian Union (1580–1640). Venetian interests were directly threatened as the traditional trade patterns were eliminated and
5060-475: The Indian Ocean between Indonesia and Madagascar and East Africa sometimes referred to as the 'Cinnamon Route.' The single or double outrigger is a typical feature of vessels of the seafaring Austronesians and the most likely vessel used for their voyages and exploration across Southeast Asia, Oceania, and Indian Ocean. During this period, between 7th to 13th century in Indonesian archipelago flourished
5175-779: The Indian Ocean between 1500 and 1850, and almost that same number were deported from the Indian Ocean to the Americas during the same period. Slave trade in the Indian Ocean was, nevertheless, very limited compared to c. 12,000,000 slaves deported across the Atlantic. Kurukshetra War Overlord Yudhishthira Commander-in-chief Dhrishtadyumna (day 1-18) † Other-Commanders Bhima Drupada † Virata † Chekitana † Satyaki . Shikhandi † The Kurukshetra War ( Sanskrit : कुरुक्षेत्र युद्ध ), also called
5290-468: The Indian subcontinent, then gives an elaborate list of kingdoms, tribes, provinces, cities, towns, villages, rivers, mountains, and forests of the ancient Indian subcontinent ( Bharata Varsha ). He also explains the military formations adopted by each side on each day, the death of each hero and the details of each war-racing. As a last attempt at peace is called for in Rajadharma, Krishna travels to
5405-468: The Kaurava Army. Bhishma accepts on the condition that, while he would fight the battle sincerely, he would not harm the five Pandava brothers. He also says that Karna would rather not fight under him, but serve as Duryodhana's bodyguard as long as he was in the battlefield. Having little choice, Duryodhana agrees to Bhishma's conditions and makes him the Major General of the Kaurava Army, while Karna
5520-574: The Kauravas ever happened cannot be proved or disproved. It is possible that there was a small-scale conflict, transformed into a gigantic epic war by bards and poets. Some historians and archaeologists have argued that this conflict may have occurred in about 1000 BCE. According to Finnish Sindhologist Asko Parpola , the war may have taken place during the later phase of the Painted Grey Ware , c/ 750–350 BCE. Popular tradition holds that
5635-479: The Kingdom of Hastinapura to persuade the Kauravas to see reason, avoid bloodshed of their kin, and to embark upon a peaceful path with him as the "divine" ambassador of the Pandavas. Duryodhana is insulted that Krishna turns down his invitation to accommodate himself in the royal palace. Duryodhana plots to arrest Krishna and insult, humiliate, and defame him in front of the entire royal court of Hastinapura as
5750-505: The Kuru clan, and Michael Witzel concludes that the general setting of the epic has a historical precedent in the Vedic period , where the Kuru kingdom was the center of political power during roughly 1200 to 800 BCE. According to Professor Alf Hiltebeitel , the Mahābhārata is essentially mythological. Indian historian Upinder Singh wrote: Whether a bitter war between the Pandavas and
5865-428: The Major General of the Kaurava forces according to Karna's advice. Duryodhana wants to capture Yudhishthira alive; killing Yudhishthira in battle would only enrage the Pandavas more, while holding him as a hostage would be strategically useful. Drona cuts down Yudhishthira's bow, and Arjuna stops Drona from capturing Yudhishthira. Drona tells Duryodhana that it would be difficult to capture Yudhishthira as long as Arjuna
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#17327730300375980-505: The Pandyan kingdom and started living there in the Third Tamil Sangam period 2000 years ago. The Chinese historian Yu Huan in his 3rd century text, the Weilüe , mentions The Kingdom of Panyue : The Roman emperor Julian received an embassy from a Pandya about 361 CE. A Roman trading centre was located on the Pandyan coast ( Alagankulam - at the mouth of the Vaigai river, southeast of Madurai). Pandyas also had trade contacts with Ptolemaic Egypt and, through Egypt, with Rome by
6095-418: The Portuguese became able to undersell the Venetians in the spice trade in Europe. Venice broke diplomatic relations with Portugal and started to look at ways to counter its intervention in the Indian Ocean, sending an ambassador to the Egyptian court. Venice negotiated for Egyptian tariffs to be lowered to facilitate competition with the Portuguese, and suggested that "rapid and secret remedies" be taken against
6210-409: The Portuguese from Bahrain . In 1622, with the help of four English ships, Abbas retook Hormuz from the Portuguese in the capture of Ormuz . He replaced it as a trading centre with a new port, Bandar Abbas , nearby on the mainland, but it never became as successful. The establishment of the Dutch East India Company in the early 17th century lead to a quick increase in volume of the slave trade in
6325-408: The Portuguese successfully intercepted and destroyed the Ottoman Armada . Subsequently, the Portuguese attacked Gwadar and Pasni on the Mekran Coast and sacked them in retaliation for providing aid and comfort to the enemy. During the 16th century the Portuguese had established bases in the Persian Gulf . In 1602, the Iranian army under the command of Imam-Quli Khan Undiladze managed to expel
6440-420: The Portuguese. The Mamluks sent a fleet in 1507 under Amir Husain Al-Kurdi , which would fight in the Battle of Chaul . The Ottomans tried to challenge Portugal's hegemony in the Persian Gulf region by sending an armada against the Portuguese under Ali Bey in 1581. They were supported in this endeavor by the chiefs of several local principalities and port towns such as Muscat , Gwadar , and Pasni . However,
6555-428: The Roman empire have been found around Madurai: these coins bear the names of emperors ranging from Augustus (27 BCE) to Alexander Severus (235 CE). Scholars have attempted to reconstruct the political history of the ancient Pandya country based on classical works such as the Purananuru , the Pattuppāṭṭu and the Padirrupattu . The first Pandyan king who has been mentioned in the Sangam works recovered so far
6670-409: The Samsaptakas led by Susharma challenge Arjuna and keep him busy at a remote part of the battlefield the whole day. On the other side of the battlefield, the remaining four Pandavas and their allies find it impossible to break Drona's chakra formation. Yudhishthira instructed Abhimanyu to break the chakra/padma formation. Abhimanyu knows how to enter the chakra formation, but not know how to exit, so
6785-636: The act of burglary, adultery or spying was given the death penalty and one giving false testimony would have his tongue cut off. The king was the chief commander of the army and usually led his army in the battlefield. The military was said to be fourfold : the infantry, the cavalry, the elephantry and the chariotry. A wide variety of war weapons filled the military arsenal including shields, swords, spears, tridents, maces, bows and arrows. The main sources of royal revenue were taxes, tributes, customs duties and tolls. Land tax, paid in money or in kind, and income tax, equal to one-sixth of an individual's income, were
6900-403: The apparent inability of Arjuna to kill Bhishma, rushes towards the Kaurava commander. Ghatotkacha kills the rakshasa Alambusha. Realising that the war could not be won as long as Bhishma was standing, Krishna suggests placing a transgender in the field to face him. The Pandavas put Shikhandi , who had been a woman in a prior life, in front of Bhishma, as Bhishma has taken a vow not to attack
7015-460: The basis of the story of the greatest of India's epics, the Mahābhārata ". Acknowledging that later "generations looked upon it as marking an end of an epoch", he suggested that rather than being a civil war it might have been "a muddled recollection of the conquest of the Kurus by a tribe of Mongol type from the hills". He saw it as useless to the historian and dates the war to the ninth century BCE based on archaeological evidence and "some evidence in
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#17327730300377130-412: The battlefield, and Duryodhana's forces scatter. Bhishma restores order and Duryodhana returns to lead the army. He is angry at Bhishma for what he saw as leniency towards the five Pandava brothers, and spoke harshly of him. Bhishma, stung by this unfair charge, returns to the battlefield. Arjuna attacks Bhishma to restore order. Arjuna and Bhishma duel again. Bhishma commands the Kaurava Army to move on
7245-443: The battlefield. The Kauravas concentrate their attack on Arjuna, whose chariot becomes covered with arrows and javelins. Arjuna builds a fortification around his chariot with an unending stream of arrows from his bow. Abhimanyu and Satyaki join forces to defeat Shakuni 's Gandhara forces. Bhima and Ghatotkacha attack Duryodhana in the rear. Bhima's arrows hit Duryodhana, who collapses in his chariot. His charioteer drives him off
7360-553: The bull as a sign of masculinity and valor. Pandya became the epithet of the first Pandyan king of Thenmadurai ( lit . south Mathurai), Kulasekharan Pandya as he was built like a bull. It was used as an epithet of masculinity. His son, the second king of Thenmadurai, the legendary Malayadhwaja Pandya who sided with the Pandavas and took part in the Kurukshetra battle is described as follows in Karna Parva (verse 20.25). Malayadhwaja Pandya and his queen Kanchanamala had one daughter Thathagai alias Meenakshi who succeeded her father and ruled
7475-460: The cavalry. The principal officers of State were the high priest, the chief astrologer, the ministers and the commanders of the army. The king divided his territory into a number of administrative units or principalities, each called a Kootram (Tamil: கூற்றம்). A Kootram was further divided into provinces called Mandalam , which in turn was divided into many sub-provinces called Nadus , with each Nadu consisting of many villages. A locality inside
7590-430: The control of the Indo-Scythian Western Satrap Nahapana ("Nambanus"), was especially flourishing: There are imported into this market-town ( Barigaza ), wine, Italian preferred, also Laodicean and Arabian; copper, tin, and lead; coral and topaz; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored girdles a cubit wide; storax, sweet clover, flint glass, realgar, antimony, gold and silver coin, on which there
7705-613: The country. Yudhishthira asks his brothers to organize their army. The Pandavas have seven akshauhinis with the help of their allies. After consulting his commanders, the Pandavas appoint Dhrishtadyumna as the Major General of the Pandava Army. The Kaurava Army is made up of 11 akshauhinis . This includes the Narayani Sena of Krishna, which originally included seven maharathi s (Krishna, Balarama , Samba , Ahuka, Charudeshna, Chakradeva, and Satyaki ) and seven athirathi s ( Kritavarma , Anadhrishti, Samika, Samitinjaya, Kanka, Sanku, and Kunti). Duryodhana asks Bhishma to command
7820-534: The diamond ( vajra ) formation. Ten akshauhinis of the Kaurava Army were arranged in a phalanx . The eleventh was put under the immediate command of Bhishma, partly to protect him. The safety of the supreme commander Bhishma was central to Duryodhana's strategy, as he had placed all his hope on the great warrior's abilities. When the war is declared and the two armies face each other, Arjuna realises that he would have to kill his dear granduncle Bhishma and his respected teacher Drona. Despondent and confused about what
7935-438: The early centuries of the Christian Era. The excavations at Alagankulam , near Madurai, recovered two copper coins of the early Pandyas along with Northern Black Polished Ware . These coins have been assigned a broad time period ranging from 200 BCE to 200 CE. Several coins issued by the Pandyan king Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi have been recovered in the Madurai area and have been dated to around 200 BCE. Many gold and silver coins of
8050-431: The east then seems to have been first through the harbor of Arsinoe, the present day Suez . The goods from the East African trade were landed at one of the three main Roman ports, Arsinoe, Berenice or Myos Hormos. The Romans repaired and cleared out the silted up canal from the Nile to harbor center of Arsinoe on the Red Sea. This was one of the many efforts the Roman administration had to undertake to divert as much of
8165-608: The eastern Indian ocean trade network had extended to include Japan as early as early Yayoi period (3rd century BCE) as evidenced by the discovery of Indo-Pacific beads . The maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean was run by the Austronesian peoples of Maritime Southeast Asia . They established trade routes with South India and Sri Lanka , ushering an exchange of material culture (like catamarans , outrigger boats , lashed-lug and sewn-plank boats, and paan ) and cultigens (like coconuts , sandalwood , bananas , sugarcane , cloves , and nutmeg ); as well as connecting
8280-641: The edicts, these kingdoms lay outside the southern boundary of the Mauryan Empire . The Hathigumpha inscriptions of the Kalinga King Kharavela , (c. 150 BCE), refers to the arrival of a tribute of jewels and elephants from the Pandyan king. The stone inscriptions discovered at Mangulam (a.k.a. Meenakshipuram) mentions the name of Nedunj Cheliyan III and his contemporary and subordinate, Kadalan Vazhuthi. Excavations in Tamil Nadu in
8395-536: The elders. Krishna laughs and displays his divine form, radiating intense light. He curses Duryodhana that his downfall was certain at the hands of the one who was sworn to tear off his thigh. His peace mission utterly insulted by Duryodhana, Krishna returns to the Pandava camp at Upaplavya to inform the Pandavas that the only course left to uphold the principles of virtue and righteousness is war. During his return, Krishna meets Karna , Kunti 's firstborn (before Yudhishthira), and asks him to help his brothers and fight on
8510-474: The end of the first day. Virata's sons, Uttara and Sweta, are slain by Shalya and Bhishma. Krishna consoles Yudhishthira saying that eventually, victory would be his. Arjuna, realizing that something needs to be done quickly to reverse the Pandava losses, decides to kill Bhishma. Krishna locates Bhishma's chariot and steers Arjuna toward him. Arjuna tries to engage Bhishma in a duel, but the Kaurava soldiers protect him and attack Arjuna. Arjuna and Bhishma fight
8625-623: The enemy territories – the southern province of Cholas and eastern province of the Cheras. At one point, it is said that a coalition of his neighbors including the Cheras, Cholas and five other kingdoms, met him at a pitched battle in Talaialanganam, in present-day Tanjore district. Nedunj Cheliyan emerged victorious in the battle that ensued and ended up annexing several new territories to his kingdom. He thus came to be known as Talaialanganathu Seruvendra Pandyan . The genealogy after this king
8740-471: The epic is an account of a war that took place between two rival families belonging to this clan. Kurukshetra (literally " Region of the Kurus"), also known as Dharmakshetra (the "Region of Dharma "), was the battleground on which the Kurukshetra War was fought. The first Mahābhārata says that this site was chosen because a sin committed on land was forgiven because of the land's sanctity. The events of
8855-666: The epic. John Keay confirmed it and also dated the battle to have taken place in 950 BCE. According to Parpola, the war may have taken place during the later phase of the Painted Grey Ware culture, c. 750-350 BCE. He noted that the Pandava heroes are not being mentioned in the Vedic literature from before the Grhyasutras . Parpola suggests that the Pandavas were Iranic migrants, who came to South Asia around 800 BCE. Excavations in Sinauli unearthed burials with
8970-560: The estuaries of rivers opening into the sea allowed brisk maritime trade with Mesopotamian cities. Recent archaeological study has highlighted the growing corpus of evidence supporting direct maritime contacts between bronze age Egypt and India via the Red Sea. Scholars such as Gregory Possehl have also proposed maritime activities between the Indus Valley Civilization and East Africa . The maritime activity in
9085-408: The finest cotton and silk fabrics, with embroidery. Both men and women sported long tresses of hair. The diet was plain, rice being the staple cereal, with millet, milk, butter and honey being in common use. Meat eating was discouraged as expounded in the ancient tamil literature Thirukkural, Naladiyar etc. The kind of housing was determined by the type of geography of the land and the economic status of
9200-476: The first century, and with China by the 3rd century. The 1st century Greek historian Nicolaus of Damascus met, at Damascus, the ambassador sent by an Indian King "named Pandion or, according to others, Porus" to Caesar Augustus around 13 CE (Strabo XV.1-4, and Strabo XV.1-73). The 2nd and 13th rock edicts of Ashoka (273 - 232 BCE) refers to the Pandyas, Cholas, Cheras and the Satyaputras . According to
9315-609: The first half of the first millennium AD. It continued up to historic times, later becoming the Maritime Silk Road . Trade between India and the Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom was started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE. From Egypt, goods could be sent on to ports throughout the Mediterranean . The Kingdom's opening of Red Sea ports and improved knowledge of the seasonal monsoons resulted in
9430-732: The first right to make his request. Krishna tells Arjuna and Duryodhana that he would give the Narayani Sena to one side and himself as a non-combatant to the other. Since Arjuna is given the first opportunity to choose, Duryodhana worries that Arjuna would choose the mighty army of Krishna. When given the choice of either Krishna's army or Krishna himself on their side, Arjuna chooses Krishna. Arjuna asks Krishna to be his charioteer, who agrees. Both Duryodhana and Arjuna returned satisfied. The Pandavas gather their armies while camping at Upaplavya in Virata 's territory. Contingents arrive from across
9545-410: The hill and forest area people. Skins of animals and barks of trees were also used. Men of the poorer classes wore only one piece of cloth around the waist. Women covered their upper body with a kind of dress called, kachchu. Among the higher classes, men wore two pieces: one around the waist and the other, the upper cloth, thrown over the shoulders. Women of sophisticated society wore half sarees, made of
9660-673: The indigenous Malagasy clans New waves of Austronesian migrants arrived in Madagascar at this time leaving behind a lasting cultural and genetic legacy. The Portuguese under Vasco da Gama discovered a naval route to the Indian Ocean through the southern tip of Africa in 1497–98. Initially, the Portuguese were mainly active in Calicut , but the northern region of Gujarat was even more important for trade, and an essential intermediary in east–west trade. European slave trade in
9775-560: The kingdom successfully. The Madurai Meenakshi Amman temple was built after her. The city of Madurai was built around this temple. Yet another theory suggests that in Sangam Tamil lexicon, the word Pandya means old country in contrast with Chola meaning new country , Chera meaning hill country and Pallava meaning branch in Sanskrit . The Chera , Chola and Pandya are the traditional Tamil siblings and together with
9890-430: The last fifty years or so have yielded remnants of black-and-red pottery ware, normally assigned to the Tamil speaking areas around 300 BCE. Some all-black and Russet coated ware assigned to the same time period have also been found. Rouletted and Amphorae wares, made in the Roman empire and brought by traders, have been excavated in several parts of Tamil Nadu, including the Pandyan country. These imported wares are dated to
10005-412: The latter is killed. Drona continues his attempts to capture Yudhishthira, however his attacks were repelled by Prativindhya that day. The Pandavas, however, fought hard and delivered severe blows to the Kaurava Army, frustrating Drona's plans. Drona's goal remains to capture Yudhishthira. Among the Pandavas, only Arjuna and Krishna knew how to penetrate this formation, and to prevent them from doing so,
10120-418: The major types of taxes collected. Other sources of revenue include tributes paid by feudal subordinates, war booty presents by loyal and visiting subjects, treasure troves besides land revenue, cess and forced gifts. The items incurring expenditure for the king include the military, gifts to poets and temples, maintenance of educational and health services, building infrastructure such as roads and irrigation and
10235-606: The material cultures of India and China. Indonesians , in particular were trading in spices (mainly cinnamon and cassia ) with East Africa using catamaran and outrigger boats and sailing with the help of the Westerlies in the Indian Ocean. This trade network possibly expanded to reach as far as Africa and the Arabian Peninsula , and also resulting in the Austronesian colonization of Madagascar by
10350-767: The middle Harappan Phase (2600-1900 BCE), with much commerce being handled by "middlemen merchants from Dilmun " (modern Bahrain and Failaka located in the Persian Gulf ). Such long-distance sea trade became feasible with the development of plank-built watercraft, equipped with a single central mast supporting a sail of woven rushes or cloth. Several coastal settlements like Sotkagen-dor (astride Dasht River, north of Jiwani), Sokhta Koh (astride Shadi River, north of Pasni ), and Balakot (near Sonmiani) in Pakistan along with Lothal in western India, testify to their role as Harappan trading outposts. Shallow harbours located at
10465-524: The ministers. There was another assembly of officials that served the king called the Enberaayam (Tamil: எண்பேராயம்) or the Eight Groups of Attendants. While some scholars believe it consisted of attendants on the king's person like the perfumers, dressing valets, etc., others believe it consisted of more important persons like the people of the capital city, the leaders of the elephant corps and of
10580-486: The occupants. The rich built their houses with tiled roofs and walls made of burnt bricks and mud, while the poor built their huts with mud and thatched it with grass, coconut leaves or palmyra palm leaves. Both in the huts and houses, the flooring was smeared with cowdung. The affluent had houses with porticoes, many storeys, open terraces and furnished their houses well. The inner walls of their houses were decorated with flowers and paintings, with cottages to protect them from
10695-522: The offensive. When the Kauravas form a chakravyuha , Abhimanyu enters it but is surrounded and attacked by Kaurava princes. Arjuna joins to help him. Bhima appears and attacks the Kauravas. Duryodhana sends a huge force of war elephants at Bhima, who leaves his chariot and attacks them singlehandedly with his iron mace . The elephants scatter and stampede into the Kaurava forces. Duryodhana orders an all-out attack on Bhima, who kills eight of Duryodhana's brothers before being struck by an arrow from Dushasana,
10810-600: The palace household expenses. Women were exposed to education, a fact testified by the presence of many women poets in the Sangam works – some of them include Avvaiyar, Mudatamakkanniar, Kaakkaippaadiniyaar, Naachchellayaar, Naagaiyaar, Nanmullaiyaar, Ponmudiyaar, Ilaveyiniyaar and Nappasaliyaar. A variety of clothing was used by people during this age, including those made of cotton and silk. People living in hilly and deserted areas wore dresses made of foliage and flowers. Sheaths of grassy weeds (Korai) were used for making dress by
10925-488: The peace and prosperity that arose beginning with the reign of Roman Emperor Augustus (27 BCE – 14 CE) and ending with the Antonine plague . According to Strabo : At any rate, when Gallus was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the Nile as far as Syene and the frontiers of Kingdom of Aksum ( Ethiopia ), and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos to
11040-610: The region; there were perhaps up to 500,000 slaves in various Dutch colonies during the 17th and 18th centuries in the Indian Ocean. For example, some 4000 African slaves were used to build the Colombo fortress in Dutch Ceylon . Bali and neighbouring islands supplied regional networks with c. 100,000–150,000 slaves 1620–1830. Indian and Chinese slave traders supplied Dutch Indonesia with perhaps 25,000 slaves during 17th and 18th centuries. The East India Company (EIC)
11155-572: The remains of carts belonging to the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP). Several authors proposed to relate the Rig Vedic culture and the war to the OCP, instead of the PGW. While the carts are dated to 1800–1500 BCE (±150), Gupta and Mani state that "in the present state of archaeological evidence OCP seems to be a stronger contender for the Mahābhārata association", dating the war to
11270-429: The rule of Nedunjeliyan II . The Nedunalvadai by Nakkirar contains a description of the king's palace. The Purananuru and Agananuru collections of the third century BCE contain poems sung in praise of various Pandyan kings and also poems that were composed by the kings themselves. Kaliththokai mentions that many Dravidian tribes such as Maravar , Eyinar, Oliar, Oviar, Aruvalur and Parathavar migrated to
11385-593: The rule of an independent chieftain, Akutai. He defeated Akutai and moved the capital of Pandyan kingdom to Madurai. This king also defeated an invading army from the Deccan Plateau and hence was called Aariyap Padaikadantha Pandyan . He was succeeded by his son Pudappandiyan , who expanded the kingdom by conquering Ollaiyur (near modern-day Pudukkottai ) – an act that earned him the name Ollaiyur Thantha Pudappandian . Both Pudappandiyan and his predecessor, Nedunj Cheliyan I, were poets themselves who contributed to
11500-543: The second-eldest Kaurava, in the chest and sits down in his chariot dazed. At the end of the fourth day, Duryodhana goes to Bhisma and asks him how could the Pandavas, facing a superior force against them, have the upper hand. Bhishma says that the Pandavas have justice on their side and advises Duryodhana to seek peace. The Pandava Army suffers from Bhishma's attacks. Satyaki is being beaten by Drona , but Bhima drives by and rescues him. Arjuna kills thousands of soldiers sent by Duryodhana to attack him. Bhima engages Bhishma in
11615-469: The side of dharma. However, as he is being helped by Duryodhana, Karna says to Krishna that he would battle against the Pandavas as he had a debt to pay. Duryodhana and Arjuna go to Krishna at Dvaraka to ask for his and his army's help. Duryodhana arrives first and finds Krishna asleep. Duryodhana chooses a seat at Krishna's head and waits for him to awaken, while Arjuna sits and waits at Krishna's feet. When Krishna woke up, he saw Arjuna first and gave him
11730-637: The southern tip of present-day India were the main centers of this trade, along with Kodumanal , an inland city. The Periplus Maris Erythraei describes Greco-Roman merchants selling in Barbaricum "thin clothing, figured linens, topaz , coral , storax , frankincense , vessels of glass, silver and gold plate, and a little wine" in exchange for " costus , bdellium , lycium , nard , turquoise , lapis lazuli , Seric skins, cotton cloth, silk yarn, and indigo ". In Barygaza, they would buy wheat, rice, sesame oil, cotton and cloth. Trade with Barigaza, under
11845-617: The subcontinent, whereas formerly, under the Ptolemies , only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise. Strabo's mention of the vast increase in trade following the Roman annexation of Egypt indicates that the monsoon was known and utilized for trade in his time. So much gold was used for this trade, and apparently recycled by the Kushan Empire (Kushans) for their own coinage, that Pliny
11960-524: The town of Pattanam (near Cranganore) have elicited recent archeological interest in finding a probable location of this port city. According to the Periplus , numerous Greek seamen managed an intense trade with Muziris: Then come Naura and Tyndis, the first markets of Damirica (Limyrike), and then Muziris and Nelcynda, which are now of leading importance. Tyndis is of the Kingdom of Cerobothra ; it
12075-554: The trade to the maritime routes as possible. Arsinoe was eventually overshadowed by the rising prominence of Myos Hormos. The navigation to the northern ports, such as Arsinoe-Clysma, became difficult in comparison to Myos Hormos due to the northern winds in the Gulf of Suez . Venturing to these northern ports presented additional difficulties such as shoals , reefs and treacherous currents . Myos Hormos and Berenice appear to have been important ancient trading ports, possibly used by
12190-517: The various market-towns. Those bound for this market-town from Egypt make the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi. Muziris is a lost port city on the southwestern coast of India which was a major center of trade in the ancient Tamil land between the Chera kingdom and the Roman Empire. Its location is generally identified with modern-day Cranganore (central Kerala). Large hoards of coins and innumerable shards of amphorae found at
12305-623: The war make up more than a quarter of the Mahabharata . These chapters are considered among the oldest in the Mahabharata . The historicity of the war remains the subject of scholarly discussion. The Battle of the Ten Kings , mentioned in the Rigveda , may have formed the core of the Kurukshetra war's story. The war was greatly expanded and modified in the Mahabharata 's account, which makes it dubious. Attempts have been made to assign
12420-426: The war marks the transition to Kali Yuga and dates it to 3102 BCE . A number of other proposals have been put forward: Indian archeologist B. B. Lal used the same approach with a more conservative assumption of the average reign to estimate a date of 836 BCE and correlated it with archaeological evidence from Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites, the association being strong between PGW artifacts and places mentioned in
12535-475: The west, a fact testified by western classical writers such as Pliny the Elder (1st century CE), Strabo , Ptolemy and the author of the Periplus . The Pandyan country was well known for pearl fishery, with Korkai being the principal center of the trade. Some of the exports were pearls, spices, ivory and shells, while the imports included horses, gold, glass and wine. The origin of the word "Pandya" has been
12650-591: The western shores of the Indian Ocean from the 8th century, if not earlier. A Swahili stone mosque dating to the 8th–15th centuries has been found in Shanga , Kenya. Trade across the Indian Ocean gradually introduced the Arabic script, and rice as a staple in Eastern Africa. Muslim merchants traded an estimated 1000 African slaves annually between 800 and 1700, a number that grew to c. 4000 during
12765-512: The wind. Cots were in common use – the rich had luxurious beds decked with swan's feathers and flowers, while the common people had beds woven with the straw of maize and the poorest people used beds made of grass or hay. Indian Ocean trade Indian Ocean trade has been a key factor in East–West exchanges throughout history. Long-distance maritime trade by Austronesian trade ships and South Asian and Middle Eastern dhows , made it
12880-547: Was also a great warrior and carried the devastation into enemy territories. He performed yagas with the aid of Brahmin priests, similar to the tradition in northern India at that time. The next king in the hierarchy was Nedunj Cheliyan III , who is considered the greatest of all the early Pandyan kings. Since the Pandyan kingdom was considerably larger than a few generations ago, he had to defend it against many neighbors invading from various fronts. Not only did he succeed in defending his territory, he also seems to have advanced into
12995-596: Was established during the same period and in 1622 one of its ships carried slaves from the Coromandel Coast to Dutch East Indies . The EIC mostly traded in African slaves but also some Asian slaves purchased from Indian, Indonesian and Chinese slave traders. The French established colonies on the islands of Réunion and Mauritius in 1721; by 1735 some 7,200 slaves populated the Mascarene Islands ,
13110-410: Was further west. From here he expanded the Pandyan kingdom almost to the western coast, which earned him the title Vidambalamba Ninra Pandyan (the Pandyan whose kingdom was washed by two seas). Since he was responsible for expanding the Pandyan kingdom by annexing several kingdoms, he was also called Pannadu Thantha Pandyan (the Pandyan who annexed many lands). His successor, Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi ,
13225-425: Was secured from all directions. To keep this promise, Bhishma used the boon of Ichcha Mrityu (self-wished death) given to him by his father. After the war ended, when Hastinapura had become safe from all sides and after giving lessons on politics and Vishnu Sahasranama to the Pandavas, Bhishma dies on the first day of Uttarayana . With Bhishma unable to continue, Karna joins the battlefield. Duryodhana makes Drona
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