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75-520: Kongu Cheras Chera Perumals The Chera dynasty ( or Cēra , IPA: [t͡ʃeːɾɐr] ), was a Sangam age Tamil dynasty which unified various regions of the western coast and western ghats in southern India to form the early Chera empire. The dynasty, known as one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam alongside the Chola and Pandya , has been documented as early as

150-578: A complex nature was followed by the Kerala joint families. Trippappur, Desinganad, Chiravay and Elayadam branches of the family were called "swaroopams". The swaroopams were further divided into matrilineal descent groups (the thavazhis). Sources refer to the ruler of Venad as controlling parts of Trivandrum district , Kollam and presumably parts of Alleppey and Kottayam districts (and Kanyakumari district in later times). The autonomous chiefdom ("nadu") of Venad came to occupy pre-eminent importance in

225-643: A decade of lyrics; but of these two have not till now been discovered. Kannanar also lauds the Chera for conquering enemies from Kumari to the Himalayas (and carving the Chera bow emblem on the Himalayas). Nedum Cheral Athan, famous for his hospitality, gifted Kannanar with a part of Umbar Kattu. The greatest of his enemies were the Kadambus (possibly Kadambas ) whom he defeated in battles. Nedum Cheral Athan

300-456: A linear or in a monochromatic way. Each ruling family had its own political prestige and influence in southern India over their life spans. ISO 15919 ISO 15919 is an international standard on the romanization of many Brahmic scripts , which was agreed upon in 2001 by a network of the national standards institutes of 157 countries. However, the Hunterian transliteration system is

375-468: A little later. The reverse side of both coins are blank. The impure silver coins bearing Brahmi legends "Kollippurai", "Kollipporai", "Kol-Irumporai" and "Sa Irumporai" were also discovered from Karur . The portrait coins are generally considered as imitation of Roman coins. All legends, assumed to be the names of the Chera rulers, were in Tamil-Brahmi characters on the obverse. Reverse often contained

450-546: A number of punch marked coins discovered from Amaravati riverbed. The square coins of copper and its alloys or silver have also been discovered. Most of these early square coins show a bow and arrow, the traditional emblem of the Cheras on the obverse, with or without any legend. Silver-punch marked coins, an imitation of the Maurya coins, and with a Chera bow on the reverse, have been reported. Hundreds of copper coins, attributed to

525-532: A person wearing a Roman-type bristled-crown helmet was also discovered from Amaravati riverbed in Karur. Reverse side of the coin depicts a bow and arrow, the traditional symbol of the Chera family. A large body of Tamil works collectively known as the Sangam (Academy) texts ( c.  2nd century BCE - 3rd century CE) describes a number of Chera, Pandya and Chola rulers. Among them, the most important sources for

600-613: A strong case of identification with the location. Roman coins have over a period of time been discovered in large numbers from central Kerala and the Coimbatore-Karur region (from locations such as Kottayam-Kannur, Valluvally, Iyyal, Vellalur and Kattankanni). A number of coins, assumed to be of the Cheras, mostly found in the Amaravati riverbed in Tamil Nadu, are a major source of early Chera historiography. This includes

675-717: A successful military expedition to Pandya and Chola lands in the early 14th century CE. The Venad ruler Vira Udaya Marthanda Varma (1516–1535) acknowledged the supremacy of the Vijayanagara rulers. Minor battles with Vijayanagara forces in the subsequent period are also recorded. In the 17th century, the rulers of Venad paid an annual tribute to the Nayaks of Madurai . The medieval feudal relations and political authority were dismantled Marthanda Varma (1729–1758), often credited as "the Maker of Travancore ". Travancore became

750-457: A temple ( virakkallu ) for the goddess Pattini (Kannaki) at Vanchi . A certain king called Gajabahu, often identified with Gajabahu , king of Sri Lanka (2nd century CE), was present at the Pattini festival at Vanchi. In this context, Chenguttuvan can be dated to either the first or last quarter of the 2nd century CE. as per akananuru Kaluvul was a velir chieftain of Kamur who fought against

825-585: Is a tradition that Vira Kerala, a ruler of Kollam in early 12th century, was a son of the last Chera king. After the dissolution of the Chera/Perumal kingdom (c. 12th century), Venad survived, and emerged as a powerful principality in southern India, as result of the wars of conquest and well as the Indian Ocean spice trade. Venad, now known as the kingdom of the Cheras or the Kulasekharas,

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900-659: Is described in the table below. The table below shows the differences between ISO 15919, UNRSGN and IAST for Devanagari transliteration. Only certain fonts support all Latin Unicode characters for the transliteration of Indic scripts according to this standard. For example, Tahoma supports almost all the characters needed. Arial and Times New Roman font packages that come with Microsoft Office 2007 and later also support most Latin Extended Additional characters like ḍ, ḥ, ḷ, ḻ, ṁ, ṅ, ṇ, ṛ, ṣ and ṭ. There

975-963: Is no standard keyboard layout for ISO 15919 input but many systems provide a way to select Unicode characters visually. ISO/IEC 14755 refers to this as a screen-selection entry method . Venad Maritime contacts Sangam period Tamilakam Cheras Spice trade Ays Ezhil Malai Confluence of religions Mamankam festival Calicut Venad - Kingdom of Quilon Valluvanad Kolattunadu Cochin Arakkal kingdom Minor principalities Age of Discovery Portuguese period Dutch period Rise of Travancore Mysorean invasion British Period Battle of Tirurangadi Malabar District North Malabar South Malabar Battle of Quilon Communism in Kerala Lakshadweep Economy Architecture Venad

1050-623: Is said to have conquered an island, which had the kadambu tree as its guardian, by crossing the ocean. Poet Mamular also sings of his conquest of Mantai. He also punished and extracted ransom from the Yavanas. Chola Neytalankanal Ilam Set Chenni captured Pamalur, which belonged to the Chera Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan. The Chera fought the Cholas at Por (and both combatants died in the battle) Kauthamanar Headquarters

1125-452: Is used by some historians to date the events described in the early Tamil texts to c.  1st - 2nd century CE. Despite its dependency on numerous conjectures, the method is considered as the sheet anchor for the purpose of dating the events in the early Tamil texts. Ilango Adigal author of the legendary Tamil epic poem Chilapathikaram describes Chenguttuvan as his elder brother. He also mentions Chenguttuvan's decision to propitiate

1200-715: The Age of Discovery , thus opening a direct sea route from Europe to India . They were the first Europeans to establish a trading center in Tangasseri , Kollam in 1502, which became the centre of their trade in pepper. It was the beginning of Portuguese era in Venad. Well into the modern period, Venad remained one of the chief monarchies of Kerala , along with Kingdoms of Kannur (Kolathunadu), Kozhikode (Zamorin) and Kochi (Perumpadappu). Padmanabhaswamy Temple in Trivandrum

1275-575: The Chera Perumal kingdom and Kongu Chera kingdom (c. 9th–12th century CE). The exact nature of the relationships between the various branches of Chera rulers are unclear. After this, the present day parts of Kerala and Kongunadu became autonomous. Some of the major dynasties of medieval south India - Chalukya, Pallava, Pandya, Rashtrakuta, and Chola - seem to have conquered the Kongu Chera country. Kongu Cheras appear to have been absorbed into

1350-693: The Cholas and the Pandyas . The kingdom was attacked, and eventually forced into submission, by the Cholas in the early 11th century CE (in order to break the monopoly of trade with the Middle East). When the Perumal kingdom was eventually dissolved in the 12th century most of its autonomous chiefdoms became independent. The extent and nature of state formation of the Chera kingdoms, from the ancient period to early modern period, cannot be interpreted either in

1425-516: The Graeco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to the Cheras as Keprobotras . All these Graeco-Roman names are evidently corruptions of "Kedala Puto/Kerala Putra" probably received through relations with northern India . The term Chera , derived from Dravidian words Cheran (meaning island), is a Classical Tamil name of Sri Lanka that takes root from the term "Chera". Recent studies on ancient south Indian history suggest that

1500-578: The Nayaks of Madurai . The primary objective of the submission was to strengthen the position of the king against the regional nobles (such as "the Ettuvittil Pillamar") and other "hostile elements" in Venad. In the early 18th century CE, the Travancore royal family adopted some members from the royal family of Kolathunadu based at Kannur , and Parappanad based in present-day Malappuram district . Marthanda Varma (1729–1758), of

1575-650: The Pandya kingdom in the medieval period. The rulers of Venad, known in the medieval period as Venad Cheras or the Kulasekharas , claimed their ancestry from the Chera/Perumals. As early as the 10th century, the powerful chiefs of Venad used the surname suffix "Varma", denoting the Kshatriya status of the ruling line. Panankavil Palace, whose location remains a mystery, was the royal residence of

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1650-630: The "national system of romanization in India " and a United Nations expert group noted about ISO 15919 that "there is no evidence of the use of the system either in India or in international cartographic products." Another standard, United Nations Romanization Systems for Geographical Names (UNRSGN), was developed by the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names (UNGEGN) and covers many Brahmic scripts. The ALA-LC romanization

1725-536: The 1st century CE, in the Periplus of the 1st century CE, and by Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE. There are brief references in the present forms of the works by author and commentator Katyayana (c. 3rd - 4th century BCE), author and philosopher Patanjali (c. 5th century BCE) and Maurya statesman and philosopher Kautilya (Chanakya) ( c.  3rd - 4th century BCE ) [though Sanskrit grammarian Panini (c. 6th - 5th century BCE) does not mention either

1800-580: The 4th to 3rd centuries BCE. Their governance extended over diverse territories until the 12th century CE. The Chera country was geographically well placed to profit from maritime trade via the extensive Indian Ocean networks . Exchange of spices, especially black pepper , with Middle Eastern and Graeco-Roman merchants are attested in several sources. The Cheras of the early historical period (c. second century BCE – c. third century CE) are known to have had their original centre at Kuttanad in Kerala, and harbours at Muchiri (Muziris) and Thondi (Tyndis) on

1875-633: The 7th and 8th centuries CE. While the Pallava and Pandya rulers in Tamil Nadu emerged into established kingship by c. 5th - 6th centuries CE, the formation of the monarchical polity in Kerala took place not before c. 9th century CE. The Chera Perumals are known to have ruled what is now Kerala between c. 9th and 12th century CE. Scholars tend to identify Alvar saint Kulasekhara and Nayanar saint Cherman Perumal (literally "the Chera king") with some of

1950-532: The Aranattar-malai inscription of Pugalur ( c.  2nd century CE ). Described as the descendant of Nedum Cheral Athan . The following Cheras are knowns from Purananuru collection (some of the names are re-duplications) . After the 5th century   CE, the Chera family's political prestige and influence declined considerably. Comparatively little is known about Cheras during this period. Cheras of Kongu country ( Karur ) initially appear as

2025-538: The Ays retained their lost lands from the Pandyas during the so-called Kalabhra period). The ancient political and cultural history of Venad was almost entirely independent from that of the rest of Kerala. The Chera dynasty governed the area of Malabar Coast between Kanyakumari in the south to Kasaragod in the north. This included Palakkad Gap , Coimbatore , Salem , and Kolli Hills . The region around Coimbatore

2100-648: The Cheras are the Pathitrupattu , the Akananuru , and the Purananuru . The Pathitrupattu , the fourth book in the Ettuthokai anthology, mentions a number of rulers and heirs-apparent of the Chera family. Each ruler is praised in ten songs sung by a court poet. However, the book is not worked into connected history and settled chronology so far. A method known as Gajabahu-Chenguttuvan synchronism ,

2175-458: The Cheras, have been discovered from Pattanam in central Kerala. Bronze dyes for minting punch marked coins were discovered from a riverbed in Karur. Other discoveries include a coin with a portrait and the Brahmi legend "Mak-kotai" above it and another one with a portrait and the legend " Kuttuvan Kotai " above it. Both impure silver coins are tentatively dated to c.  1st century CE or

2250-551: The Indian Ocean coast ( Kerala ) and Kongunadu . They governed the area of Malabar Coast between Alappuzha in the south to Kasaragod in the north. The region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Cheras during the Sangam period between c.  1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap , the principal trade route between the Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu . However

2325-551: The Indian spices and textiles. It appears that the whole region of medieval Venad was part of the Ay country in early historic south India (c. 1st – 4th century CE). Veliyans belonging to the Ay family were the hill chiefs of the "Vel country". Towards the close of the early historic period the Pandya supremacy might have extended to Kanyakumari in Ay territory (through it is likely that

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2400-591: The Kuttuvan successfully intervened in a succession dispute in the Chola territory and established his relative Nalam Killi on the Chola throne. The rivals of Killi were defeated in the battle of Nerivayil, Uraiyur. The Kadambas are described as the arch enemies of the Chera ruler. Kuttuvan was able to defeat them in the battle of Idumbil, Valayur (Viyalur). The "fort" of Kodukur in which the Kadamba warriors took shelter

2475-631: The Malabar and Kerala parts became autonomous of Karur. The Perumal kingdom derived most of its wealth from maritime trade relations (the spice trade) with the Middle East. The port of Kollam , in the kingdom, was a major point in overseas India trade to the West and the East Asia. Political units known as "nadus", controlled by powerful hereditary chiefs or by households, occupied central importance in

2550-513: The Pandya political system by 10th/11th century CE. Even after the dissolution of the Perumal kingdom, royal inscriptions and temple grants, especially from outside Kerala proper, continued to refer the country and the people as the "Cheras or Keralas". The rulers of Venad (the Venad Cheras or the "Kulasekharas"), based out of the port of Kollam in south Kerala, claimed their ancestry from

2625-534: The Pandyas. A new calendar was known as the "Kollam Era", was established in 825 CE at port Kollam . The exact events that lead to the foundation of the era is still matter of scholarly debate. According to historians, it commemorated the foundation of Kollam harbour city after the liberation of Venad from the Pandya rule (and hence beginning of Chera influence). The Kollam Syrian plates (c. 849 CE and c. 883 CE) of Venad chieftain Ayyan Adikal, does mention

2700-654: The Perumals. Cheranad was also the name of an erstwhile province in the kingdom of Zamorin of Calicut , which had included parts of present-day Tirurangadi and Tirur Taluks of Malappuram district in it. Later it became a Taluk of Malabar District , when Malabar came under the British Raj . The headquarters of Cheranad Taluk was the town of Tirurangadi . Later the Taluk was merged with Eranad Taluk. The term Chera — and its variant form "Keralaputas" — stands for

2775-549: The Sangam epic poem Cilappatikaram . After the end of the early historical period, around the 3rd-5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Cheras' power declined considerably. Cheras of the Kongu country are known to have controlled eastern Kerala and only a few kilometres of current western Tamil Nadu in the early medieval period. Present-day central Kerala and Kongu Cheras detached around 8th–9th century CE to form

2850-617: The Sangam texts (and the possible hero of the lost first decade of Pathitrupattu ). Uthiyan Cheral was also known as "Vanavaramban" ( Purananuru ) . His headquarters were at Kuzhumur near Kuttanad ( Akananuru ). He is described as the Chera ruler who prepared food ("the Perum Chotru") for Pandavas and the Kauravas at the Kurukshetra War ( Purananuru and Akananuru ). He Married Nallini, daughter of Veliyan Venman, and

2925-546: The Vel chieftains related to the Ay lineage of the early historic south India (c. 1st – 4th century CE). Venad – ruled by hereditary "Venad Adikal" – appears as an autonomous chiefdom in the kingdom of the Chera/Perumals of Kodungallur from around 8th – 9th century CE. It came to occupy a position of pre-eminent importance in the structuring of the Perumal kingdom. The country was intermittently and partially subject to

3000-404: The Venad rulers at Kollam. Venad had a kind of chiefly rule with principles of succession, indicated by the term kuru , that is, the rights of the chief and the order of succession within the chief's household. Rulers of the extended Venad royal family lived at different locations in the kingdom. Migrations and setting up new palaces continued into the early modern period. Political authority of

3075-633: The [Ay] king of Kupaka" presently Keezhperoor (this event is dated c. 1018-19 CE ). Eventually the Chera-Perumal kingdom also submitted to the Chola rule (early 11th century CE). Cherar ruler Rama Kulasekhara , a contemporary of Chola Kulothunga (1070 -1120 CE), is seen organising the defence against the Cholas at Kollam in early 12th century CE. The prosecution of the Pandya-Chola wars necessitated long residence of Chera/Perumal king of Kodungallur Rama Kulasekhara at Kollam. There

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3150-403: The borders of Venad. His successor Chera Udaya Marthanda Varma (1383–1444) is credited for the extent of the rule of Venad into interior Tirunelveli region. Vira Udaya Marthanda Varma (1516–1535) acknowledged the supremacy of the Vijayanagara rulers. Minor battles with Vijayanagara forces in the subsequent period are also recorded. The Portuguese arrived at Kappad Kozhikode in 1498 during

3225-456: The bow and arrow symbol. An alliance between the Cholas is evident from a joint coin bearing the Chola tiger on the obverse and the Chera bow and arrow on the reverse. Lakshmi-type coins of possible Sri Lankan origin have also been discovered from Karur. The macro analysis of the Mak-kotai coin shows close similarities with the contemporary Roman silver coin. A silver coin with the portrait of

3300-523: The bow and arrow, Roman amphorae and Roman coins. An ancient route, from the harbours in Kerala (such as Muchiri or Thondi) through the Palghat Gap to Karur in interior Tamil Nadu can be traced with the help of archaeological evidence. Historians have yet to precisely locate Muziris, known in Tamil as "Muchiri", a base of the Chera rulers. Archaeological excavations at Pattanam (near Cochin ) suggest

3375-401: The chera supremacy. Perum chera irumporai along with fourteen chieftains attacked kamur but perum chera irumporai was impressed with Kaluvuls resistance in battle field and let him rule kamur and accepted friendship from him. .Some of the velirs under Kaluvul joined the chera after the defeat. Uthiyan Cheral Athan is generally considered as the earliest known ruler of the Chera family from

3450-406: The conflict and a prolonged Pandya-Ay/Chera struggle followed. By the middle of the 9th century CE, as a result of the encroachment of the Pandyas and Cheras, the ancient Ay country was partitioned into two portions. Venad (Vel+natu = the country of the Vel people) with its base at Kollam came under influence of the Cheras while the Ay country , or what was left of it, came under the influence of

3525-635: The conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe." The Chera Perumal kingdom had alternating friendly or hostile relations with

3600-602: The earliest Perumals. The exact nature of the relation between the Cheras of Kongu and the Chera Perumals remains obscure. The Later arrived Nambutiris from Northern land asked for a regent of the Chera king from Karur in Coimbatore and were granted lands from Tamil kings hailing from Pundurai . Hence the Tamil kings lost their power to Newly arrived Namboothris who created Zamorin and started to call themselves title 'Punthurakkon' (King from Punthura). After this,

3675-484: The grandson of Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai. Arunattarmalai, Velayudhampalayam A short Brahmi inscription, containing the word Chera ("Kadummi Pudha Chera") was found at Edakkal in the Western Ghats. Recent archaeological discoveries increasingly confirm Karur as a political, economic and cultural centre of ancient south India. Excavations at Karur yielded huge quantities of copper coins with Chera symbols such as

3750-480: The grandson of Ko Athan Cheral of the Irumporai clan. Inscribed portrait coins with Brahmi legends give a number of Chera names, with the Chera symbols of the bow and the arrow depicted in the reverse. The anthologies of early Sangham texts are a major source of information about the early Cheras. Cenguttuvan , or the good Chera, is famous for the traditions surrounding Kannaki , the principal female character of

3825-497: The idol of goddess Pattini. Controlled the port of Naravu. He married the sister of the wife of Nedum Cheral Athan. Selva Kadumko defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas . Father of Perum Cheral Irumporai. Died at Chikkar Palli. Identified with Mantharan Poraiyan Kadumko. Pasum Put-Poraiyan and Perumput-Poraiyan. He is sometimes identified as the Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai mentioned in

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3900-444: The most dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in the battle of Purakkad in 1755. The name Venad is believed to be derived from the Tamil words Vēḷ+nāṭu meaning the territory of the Vel chieftains. The earliest preserved Tamil compositions - datable to c. 1st – 4th century CE – attests presence of hill chiefs such as the "Vels" in southern Kerala. Rulers of Venad trace their ancestry to

3975-433: The people or the land]. Archaeologists have found epigraphic and numismatic evidence of the Early Cheras. Two almost identical inscriptions discovered from Pugalur (near Karur ) dated to c.  1st - 2nd century CE, describe three generations of Chera rulers of the Irumporai lineage. They record the construction of a rock shelter for Jains on the occasion of the investiture of Ilam Kadungo, son of Perum Kadungo , and

4050-447: The present day northern-central Kerala and Kongu region western Tamil Nadu. The rest of Kerala was under Ay dynasty (southern tip of Kerala) and Mushika dynasty (northern tip of Kerala).The political structure of the chiefdom was based on communal holding of resources and kinship-based production. The authority was determined by "the range of redistributive social relationships sustained through predatory accumulation of resources". There

4125-426: The rulers of western Tamil Nadu and central Kerala . There was a domination of present-day Kerala regions of the ancient Chera country by the Kongu Cheras/Keralas (probably via some form of viceregal rule). The family claimed that they were descended from the Cheras who flourished in pre- Pallava (early historic) south India. There are clear attestations of repeated Pandya conquests of the Kerala or Chera country in

4200-490: The ruling lineage and the country associated with them. The etymology of "Chera" is still a matter of considerable speculation among historians. One approach proposes that the word is derived from Cheral , a corruption of Charal meaning "declivity of a mountain" in Tamil , suggesting a connection with the mountainous geography of Kerala . Another theory argues that the "Cheralam" is derived from "cher" (sand) and "alam" (region), literally meaning, "the slushy land". Apart from

4275-429: The south of present-day Trivandrum – former Ay country – came under the control of the Cholas of Tanjore (under king Raja Raja I ) during early 11th century CE. There is a possibility that the Venad chieftains tried to recapture the old Ay region after the raids by Rajaraja I. Chola prince Rajadhiraja claims to have "confined the undaunted king of Venadu [back] to the Chera kingdom [from the Ay country]...and liberated

4350-490: The southern region of the present-day Kerala state (The coastal belt between Thiruvananthapuram and southern Alappuzha ) was under Ay dynasty , who was more related to the Pandya dynasty of Madurai . The early historic pre-Pallava polities are often described as a "kinship-based redistributive economies" largely shaped by "pastoral-cum-agrarian subsistence" and "predatory politics". Old Tamil Brahmi cave label inscriptions, describe Ilam Kadungo, son of Perum Kadungo , and

4425-406: The speculations mentioned, a number of other theories do appear in historical studies. In ancient non-Tamil sources, the Cheras are referred to by various names. The Cheras are referred as Kedalaputo (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor Ashoka 's Pali edicts (3rd century BCE). While Pliny the Elder and Claudius Ptolemy refer to the Cheras as Kaelobotros and Kerobottros respectively,

4500-404: The structuring of the Chera Perumal state. The rulers of the nadus usually acted with the help of a Tamil military retinue. The prominent nadus continued to exist even after the end of the Chera rule during the beginning of the 12th century. Nambudiri-Brahmin settlements of agriculturally rich areas (fertile wet land) were another major source of support to the kingdom. "A naval campaign led to

4575-411: The structuring of the Chera/Perumal kingdom. The rulers of Venad owed their importance to exchange of spices and other products with the Middle Eastern and Chinese merchants. Venetian adventurer Marco Polo claimed to have visited Venad capital Kollam, a major centre of commerce and trade with East and West Asia. European colonisers arrived at Kollam the late fifteenth century, primarily in pursuit of

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4650-451: The then Chera king Sthanu Ravi . The chief was providing land and other provisions to the Christian merchant Mar Sapir Iso at the port of Kollam. The rulers of Venad, known as "Venad Adikal", owed their importance to exchange of spices and other products with the Middle Eastern and Chinese merchants. Sulaiman al-Tajir , a Persian merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of Sthanu Ravi Varma (9th century CE), records that there

4725-427: The three major rulers – the Pandya , the Chera and the Chola – based originally in Madurai in Tamil Nadu, Vanchi , present day Karur , in Tamilnadu and Uraiyur ( Tiruchirappalli ) in Tamil Nadu, respectively. They had established outlets on the Indian Ocean namely Korkai , Muchiri (Muziris), and Kaveripattinam respectively. Territory of the Chera chiefdom of the early historical period (pre-Pallava) consisted of

4800-520: Was a medieval kingdom between the Western Ghat mountains of India with its capital at city of Quilon . It was one of the major principalities of Kerala , along with kingdoms of Kolathunadu , Zamorin , and Kochi in medieval and early modern period. Venad outlasted the Chera Perumal kingdom , gradually developed as an independent principality, known as the Chera kingdom , and grew later into modern Travancore (18th century CE). Ravi Varma Kulasekhara, most ambitious ruler of Venad, carried out

4875-643: Was approved by the Library of Congress and the American Library Association and is a US standard. The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is not a standard (as no specification exists for it) but a convention developed in Europe for the transliteration of Sanskrit rather than the transcription of Brahmic scripts. As a notable difference, both international standards, ISO 15919 and UNRSGN transliterate anusvara as ṁ , while ALA-LC and IAST use ṃ for it. However, ISO 15919 provides guidance towards disambiguating between various anusvara situations (such as labial versus dental nasalizations), which

4950-497: Was based on matrilineal inheritance. The eldest son of the sister of the ruling king, not his own son, had the legal right to ascend the throne after the death of the king. The port at Kozhikode held superior economic and political position in medieval Kerala coast, while Kannur , Kollam , and Kochi , were commercially important secondary ports, where the traders from various parts of the world would gather. Aditya Varma (1376–83) seems to have resisted some "Muslim invaders" on

5025-426: Was extensive trade between Kerala and China at that time, based at the port of Kollam . The chiefs of Venad were always determined to extend their sway into the Ay territory. There is a possibility that chieftains captured the whole region down to Kottar ( Kanyakumari ) by 10th century CE. In general, the influence of the Kerala rulers spread into the ancient Ay territory in the 10th century CE. The region to

5100-408: Was famously overrun by a Muslim adventurer. English East India Company established a factory at Vizhinjam in 1664 and a fort was built at Ajengo in 1695. Around 150 Company men from the Anjengo Factory, proceeding for an audience with the queen-mother, were lynched by a mob in "the Attingal Outbreak" of 1721. Ravi Varma, ruling from 1721 to 1729, entered into formal agreements with the Company and

5175-516: Was intermittently subject to the Pandyas during this period. Possibly with the decline of Chola power after Kulothunga , Venad Cheras gradually extended their control over the present Kanyakumari district. In the early 14th century, "Sangramadhira" Ravi Varma carried out military raids to northern edges of south India (1312–1316). His inscriptions can be found as north as Poonamallee , a suburb of Chennai . In Venad royal family, like most of other royal houses in Kerala, law of succession followed

5250-426: Was located on the mouth river Periyar. Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan is often identified with the legendary "Chenguttuvan Chera", the most illustrious ruler of the Early Cheras. Under his reign, the Chera territory extended from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai (Kerala) on the western coast. The wife of Chenguttuvan was Illango Venmal (the daughter of a Velir chief). In the early years of his rule,

5325-405: Was more than one branch of the Chera family ruling at the same time and contenting for leadership (one in central Kerala and the other one in western Tamil Nadu). The Cheras are referred to as Kedalaputo (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor Ashoka 's Pali edicts (3rd century BCE, Rock Edicts II and XII). The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by Pliny the Elder in

5400-526: Was ruled by the Cheras during Sangam period between c. 1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap , the principal trade route between the Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu . In the middle of the 8th century CE, the Pandya sacked port Vizhinjam , and took possession the Ay Vel country. This foray brought the Chera-Perumal kings of Kodungallur (Makotai) into

5475-624: Was stormed. Later the Kadambas (helped by the Yavanas) attacked Kuttuvan by sea, but the Chera ruler destroyed their fleet. Kuttuvan is said to have defeated the Kongu people and a warrior called Mogur Mannan (one of the Chera's allies was Arugai, an enemy of the Mogurs). According to Chilapathikaram , Chenguttuvan led his army to north India to get the sacred stone from the Himalayas to sculpt

5550-587: Was the father of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan ( Pathitrupattu (II) ). Uthiyan Cheral Athan is probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola Karikala at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, the Chera was wounded on the back by the Chola ruler Karikala . Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation. As the name Pathitrupattu indicates, they were ten texts, each consisting

5625-456: Was the major temple in the region. In the 17th century, the rulers of Venad paid an annual tribute to the Nayaks of Madurai. By this time, the old state of Venad was divided into several autonomous collateral branches such as Trippappoor, Elayadathu, ( Kottarakara ), Desinganad (Kallada, Kollam ), and Peraka Thavazhi ( Nedumangad ). During the "regency" of Umayamma (1677–1864), southern Venad

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