125-471: Edgar Allan Poe ( né Edgar Poe ; January 19, 1809 – October 7, 1849) was an American writer , poet , editor , and literary critic who is best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales involving mystery and the macabre . He is widely regarded as one of the central figures of Romanticism and Gothic fiction in the United States, and of early American literature . Poe
250-436: A Presbyterian wedding ceremony performed by Amasa Converse at their Richmond boarding house, with a witness falsely attesting Clemm's age as 21. In 1838, Poe relocated to Philadelphia , where he lived at four different residences between 1838 and 1844, one of which at 532 N. 7th Street has been preserved as a National Historic Landmark . That same year, Poe's only novel, The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket
375-415: A Rasmussen aneurysm , resulting in massive bleeding. Tuberculosis may become a chronic illness and cause extensive scarring in the upper lobes of the lungs. The upper lung lobes are more frequently affected by tuberculosis than the lower ones. The reason for this difference is not clear. It may be due to either better air flow, or poor lymph drainage within the upper lungs. In 15–20% of active cases,
500-442: A woman's surname at birth that has been replaced or changed. In most English-speaking cultures, it is specifically applied to a woman's maiden name after her surname has changed due to marriage. The term né can be used to denote a man's surname at birth that has subsequently been replaced or changed. The diacritic mark (the acute accent ) over the e is considered significant to its spelling, and ultimately its meaning, but
625-547: A 40-page collection of poetry titled Tamerlane and Other Poems , attributed only to "A Bostonian". 50 copies were printed, and the book received virtually no attention. Poe's 1st Regiment of Artillery was posted to Fort Moultrie in Charleston, South Carolina , before embarking on the brig Waltham on November 8, 1827. Poe was promoted to "artificer", an enlisted tradesman tasked with preparing shells for artillery. His monthly pay doubled. Poe served for two years, attaining
750-569: A common ancestor, remains unclear. A comparison of the genes of M. tuberculosis complex (MTBC) in humans to MTBC in animals suggests humans did not acquire MTBC from animals during animal domestication, as researchers previously believed. Both strains of the tuberculosis bacteria share a common ancestor, which could have infected humans even before the Neolithic Revolution . Skeletal remains show some prehistoric humans (4000 BC ) had TB, and researchers have found tubercular decay in
875-544: A diamond ring on every finger. It is believed that only twelve copies have survived of Poe's first book Tamerlane and Other Poems . In December 2009, one copy sold at Christie's auctioneers in New York City for $ 662,500, a record price paid for a work of American literature. Eureka: A Prose Poem , an essay written in 1848, included a cosmological theory that presaged the Big Bang theory by 80 years, as well as
1000-464: A dormitory. Allan did send additional money and clothes, but Poe's debts increased. Poe gave up on the university after a year, but did not feel welcome to return to Richmond, especially when he learned that his sweetheart, Royster, had married another man, Alexander Shelton. Instead, he traveled to Boston in April 1827, sustaining himself with odd jobs as a clerk and newspaper contributor. Poe started using
1125-477: A few stories with a Philadelphia publication and began work on his only drama, Politian . The Baltimore Saturday Visiter awarded him a prize in October 1833 for his often overlooked short story " MS. Found in a Bottle ". The tale brought him to the attention of John P. Kennedy , a Baltimorean of considerable means who helped Poe place some of his other stories and introduced him to Thomas W. White, editor of
1250-560: A form of electoral fraud in which citizens were forced to vote for a particular candidate, sometimes leading to violence and even murder. Immediately after Poe's death, his literary rival Rufus Wilmot Griswold , wrote a slanted, high-profile obituary under a pseudonym, filled with falsehoods that cast Poe as a lunatic, and which described him as a person who "walked the streets, in madness or melancholy, with lips moving in indistinct curses, or with eyes upturned in passionate prayers, (never for himself, for he felt, or professed to feel, that he
1375-539: A grudge against Poe since 1842. Griswold somehow became Poe's literary executor and attempted to destroy his enemy's reputation after his death. Griswold wrote a biographical article of Poe called "Memoir of the Author", which he included in an 1850 volume of the collected works. There he depicted Poe as a depraved, drunken, drug-addled madman, including some of Poe's "letters" as evidence. Many of his claims were either outright lies or obvious distortions; for example, there
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#17327655542631500-599: A lack of money. He frequently quarreled with John Allan over the funds needed to continue his education as well as his gambling debts. In 1827, having enlisted in the United States Army under the assumed name of Edgar A. Perry, he published his first collection, Tamerlane and Other Poems , which was credited only to "a Bostonian". Poe and Allan reached a temporary rapprochement after the death of Allan's wife Frances in 1829. However, Poe later failed as an officer cadet at West Point , declared his intention to become
1625-675: A little more pains over it: the result hardly does credit to the method." Biographer Joseph Wood Krutch described the essay as "a rather highly ingenious exercise in the art of rationalization". During his lifetime, Poe was mostly recognized as a literary critic. The vast majority of Edgar Allan Poe's writings are nonfictional. Contemporary critic James Russell Lowell called him, “the most discriminating, philosophical, and fearless critic upon imaginative works who has written in America,” suggesting—rhetorically—that he occasionally used prussic acid instead of ink. Poe's often caustic reviews earned him
1750-500: A living as a writer were mostly unsuccessful. However, he eventually managed to earn a living by his pen alone, becoming one of the first American authors to do so. His efforts were initially hampered by the lack of an international copyright law . American publishers often chose to sell unauthorized copies of works by British authors rather than pay for new work written by Americans, regardless of merit. The initially anemic reception of Edgar Allan Poe's work may also have been influenced by
1875-433: A major role in popularizing cryptograms in newspapers and magazines. Two ciphers he published in 1841 under the name "W. B. Tyler" were not solved until 1992 and 2000 respectively. One was a quote from Joseph Addison 's play Cato ; the other is probably based on a poem by Hester Thrale . Birth name#Maiden and married names A birth name is the name given to a person upon birth. The term may be applied to
2000-685: A microscope. Since MTB retains certain stains even after being treated with acidic solution, it is classified as an acid-fast bacillus . The most common acid-fast staining techniques are the Ziehl–Neelsen stain and the Kinyoun stain , which dye acid-fast bacilli a bright red that stands out against a blue background. Auramine-rhodamine staining and fluorescence microscopy are also used. The M. tuberculosis complex (MTBC) includes four other TB-causing mycobacteria : M. bovis , M. africanum , M. canettii , and M. microti . M. africanum
2125-679: A page saying, "To the U.S. Corps of Cadets this volume is respectfully dedicated". It once again reprinted the somewhat lengthy poems, “Tamerlane,” and “Al Araaf,” while also including six previously unpublished poems, conspicuous among which are, “ To Helen ", and " The City in the Sea ". Poe returned to Baltimore and to his aunt, brother, and cousin in March 1831. His elder brother Henry had been seriously ill for some time, in part due to complications resulting from alcoholism, and he died on August 1, 1831. After his brother's death, Poe's earnest attempts to make
2250-597: A period." Around this time, Poe attempted to secure a position in the administration of John Tyler , claiming that he was a member of the Whig Party . He hoped to be appointed to the United States Custom House in Philadelphia with help from President Tyler's son Robert , an acquaintance of Poe's friend Frederick Thomas. However, Poe failed to appear for a meeting with Thomas to discuss
2375-409: A person's name include middle names , diminutive forms, changes relating to parental status (due to one's parents' divorce or adoption by different parents), and gender transition . The French and English-adopted née is the feminine past participle of naître , which means "to be born". Né is the masculine form. The term née , having feminine grammatical gender , can be used to denote
2500-504: A relationship with his childhood sweetheart Sarah Elmira Royster. On October 3, 1849, Poe was found semiconscious in Baltimore , "in great distress, and... in need of immediate assistance", according to Joseph W. Walker, who found him. He was taken to Washington Medical College , where he died on Sunday, October 7, 1849, at 5:00 in the morning. Poe was not coherent long enough to explain how he came to be in his dire condition and why he
2625-511: A review of his poetry by influential critic John Neal , which prompted Poe to dedicate one of the poems to Neal in his second book, Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane and Minor Poems , published in Baltimore in 1829. Poe traveled to West Point and matriculated as a cadet on July 1, 1830. In October 1830, Allan married his second wife Louisa Patterson. This marriage and the bitter quarrels with Poe over children born to Allan out of extramarital affairs led to
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#17327655542632750-407: A small decrease in case numbers. Some countries have legislation to involuntarily detain or examine those suspected to have tuberculosis, or involuntarily treat them if infected. The only available vaccine as of 2021 is bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG). In children it decreases the risk of getting the infection by 20% and the risk of infection turning into active disease by nearly 60%. It
2875-484: A system of student self-government, allowing students to choose their own studies, make their own arrangements for boarding, and report all wrongdoing to the faculty. The unique system was rather chaotic, and there was a high dropout rate. During his time there, Poe lost touch with Royster and also became estranged from his foster father over gambling debts. He claimed that Allan had not given him sufficient money to register for classes, purchase texts, or procure and furnish
3000-425: A third volume of poems, simply titled, Poems . The book was financed with help from his fellow cadets at West Point, some of whom donated as much as 75 cents to the cause. The total raised was approximately $ 170. They may have been expecting verses similar to the satirical ones Poe had written about commanding officers in the past. The book was printed by Elam Bliss of New York, labeled as "Second Edition", and included
3125-401: A tuberculosis infection does become active, it most commonly involves the lungs (in about 90% of cases). Symptoms may include chest pain and a prolonged cough producing sputum. About 25% of people may not have any symptoms (i.e., they remain asymptomatic). Occasionally, people may cough up blood in small amounts, and in very rare cases, the infection may erode into the pulmonary artery or
3250-545: A two-story brick house called Moldavia. Poe may have become engaged to Sarah Elmira Royster before he registered at the University of Virginia in February 1826 to study ancient and modern languages. The university was in its infancy, established on the ideals of its founder, Thomas Jefferson . It had strict rules against gambling, horses, guns, tobacco, and alcohol, but these rules were mostly ignored. Jefferson enacted
3375-894: A writer, primarily of poems, and parted ways with Allan. Poe switched his focus to prose, and spent the next several years working for literary journals and periodicals, becoming known for his own style of literary criticism. His work forced him to move between several cities, including Baltimore , Philadelphia , and New York City . In 1836, when he was 27, he married his 13-year-old cousin, Virginia Clemm . She died of tuberculosis in 1847. In January 1845, he published his poem " The Raven " to instant success. He planned for years to produce his own journal The Penn , later renamed The Stylus . But before it began publishing, Poe died in Baltimore in 1849, aged 40, under mysterious circumstances . The cause of his death remains unknown and has been attributed to many causes, including disease, alcoholism, substance abuse , and suicide. Poe's works influenced
3500-639: A year later from pulmonary tuberculosis . Poe was then taken into the home of John Allan, a successful merchant in Richmond, Virginia , who dealt in a variety of goods, including cloth, wheat, tombstones, tobacco, and slaves. The Allans served as a foster family and gave him the name "Edgar Allan Poe", although they never formally adopted him. The Allan family had Poe baptized into the Episcopal Church in 1812. John Allan alternately spoiled and aggressively disciplined his foster son. The family sailed to
3625-398: Is Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), a small, aerobic , nonmotile bacillus . The high lipid content of this pathogen accounts for many of its unique clinical characteristics. It divides every 16 to 20 hours, which is an extremely slow rate compared with other bacteria, which usually divide in less than an hour. Mycobacteria have an outer membrane lipid bilayer. If a Gram stain
3750-432: Is spread from one person to the next through the air when people who have active TB in their lungs cough, spit, speak, or sneeze . People with latent TB do not spread the disease. Active infection occurs more often in people with HIV/AIDS and in those who smoke . Diagnosis of active TB is based on chest X-rays , as well as microscopic examination and culture of bodily fluids. Diagnosis of latent TB relies on
3875-491: Is a growing problem, with increasing rates of multiple drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). In 2018, one quarter of the world's population was thought to have a latent infection of TB. New infections occur in about 1% of the population each year. In 2022, an estimated 10.6 million people developed active TB, resulting in 1.3 million deaths, making it the second leading cause of death from an infectious disease after COVID-19 . As of 2018, most TB cases occurred in
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4000-449: Is able to reproduce inside the macrophage and will eventually kill the immune cell. The primary site of infection in the lungs, known as the Ghon focus , is generally located in either the upper part of the lower lobe, or the lower part of the upper lobe . Tuberculosis of the lungs may also occur via infection from the blood stream. This is known as a Simon focus and is typically found in
4125-784: Is alleged to have begun to drink heavily due to the stress he suffered as a result of her illness. He then left Graham's and attempted to find a new position, for a time again angling for a government post. He finally decided to return to New York where he worked briefly at the Evening Mirror before becoming editor of the Broadway Journal , and later its owner. There Poe alienated himself from other writers by, among other things, publicly accusing Henry Wadsworth Longfellow of plagiarism , though Longfellow never responded. Poe later emended his accusations by expressing his belief that many writers, having absorbed ideas from others in
4250-653: Is also rare and is seen almost only in immunodeficient people, although its prevalence may be significantly underestimated. Other known pathogenic mycobacteria include M. leprae , M. avium , and M. kansasii . The latter two species are classified as " nontuberculous mycobacteria " (NTM) or atypical mycobacteria. NTM cause neither TB nor leprosy , but they do cause lung diseases that resemble TB. When people with active pulmonary TB cough, sneeze, speak, sing, or spit, they expel infectious aerosol droplets 0.5 to 5.0 μm in diameter. A single sneeze can release up to 40,000 droplets. Each one of these droplets may transmit
4375-465: Is an oversimplification. Poe was increasingly unstable after his wife's death. He attempted to court the poet Sarah Helen Whitman , who lived in Providence, Rhode Island . Their engagement failed, purportedly because of Poe's drinking and erratic behavior. There is also strong evidence that Whitman's mother intervened and did much to derail the relationship. Poe then returned to Richmond and resumed
4500-444: Is difficult, as is diagnosing the disease in those who have a weakened immune system. A diagnosis of TB should, however, be considered in those with signs of lung disease or constitutional symptoms lasting longer than two weeks. A chest X-ray and multiple sputum cultures for acid-fast bacilli are typically part of the initial evaluation. Interferon-γ release assays (IGRA) and tuberculin skin tests are of little use in most of
4625-409: Is little to no evidence that Edgar Allan Poe was a drug addict. Griswold's book was denounced by those who knew Poe well, including John Neal, who published an article defending Poe and attacking Griswold as a " Rhadamanthus , who is not to be bilked of his fee, a thimble-full of newspaper notoriety". Griswold's book nevertheless became a popularly accepted biographical source. This was in part because it
4750-509: Is not widespread, but it is a significant cause of tuberculosis in parts of Africa. M. bovis was once a common cause of tuberculosis, but the introduction of pasteurized milk has almost eliminated this as a public health problem in developed countries. M. canettii is rare and seems to be limited to the Horn of Africa , although a few cases have been seen in African emigrants. M. microti
4875-489: Is often used to screen people at high risk for TB. Those who have been previously immunized with the Bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccine may have a false-positive test result. The test may be falsely negative in those with sarcoidosis , Hodgkin's lymphoma , malnutrition , and most notably, active tuberculosis. Interferon gamma release assays , on a blood sample, are recommended in those who are positive to
5000-501: Is performed, MTB either stains very weakly "Gram-positive" or does not retain dye as a result of the high lipid and mycolic acid content of its cell wall. MTB can withstand weak disinfectants and survive in a dry state for weeks. In nature, the bacterium can grow only within the cells of a host organism, but M. tuberculosis can be cultured in the laboratory . Using histological stains on expectorated samples from phlegm (also called sputum), scientists can identify MTB under
5125-423: Is poor as of 2019 . The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) stopped recommending yearly testing of health care workers without known exposure in 2019. Tuberculosis prevention and control efforts rely primarily on the vaccination of infants and the detection and appropriate treatment of active cases. The World Health Organization (WHO) has achieved some success with improved treatment regimens, and
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5250-417: Is sometimes omitted. According to Oxford University 's Dictionary of Modern English Usage , the terms are typically placed after the current surname (e.g., " Margaret Thatcher , née Roberts" or " Bill Clinton , né Blythe"). Since they are terms adopted into English (from French), they do not have to be italicized , but they often are. In Polish tradition , the term z domu (literally meaning "of
5375-464: Is termed caseous necrosis . If TB bacteria gain entry to the blood stream from an area of damaged tissue, they can spread throughout the body and set up many foci of infection, all appearing as tiny, white tubercles in the tissues. This severe form of TB disease, most common in young children and those with HIV, is called miliary tuberculosis. People with this disseminated TB have a high fatality rate even with treatment (about 30%). In many people,
5500-420: Is the most widely used vaccine worldwide, with more than 90% of all children being vaccinated. The immunity it induces decreases after about ten years. As tuberculosis is uncommon in most of Canada, Western Europe, and the United States, BCG is administered to only those people at high risk. Part of the reasoning against the use of the vaccine is that it makes the tuberculin skin test falsely positive, reducing
5625-676: The Southern Literary Messenger in Richmond. In 1835, Poe became assistant editor of the Southern Literary Messenger , but White discharged him within a few weeks, allegedly for being drunk on the job. Poe then returned to Baltimore , where he obtained a license to marry his cousin Virginia on September 22, 1835, though it is unknown if they were actually married at that time. He was 26 and she
5750-464: The Jesuits at St. John's College, now Fordham University . Virginia died at the cottage on January 30, 1847. Biographers and critics often suggest that Poe's frequent theme of the "death of a beautiful woman" stems from the repeated loss of women throughout his life, including his wife. However, as Poe was a prolific writer before Virginia's death, others have suggested that this explanation of his work
5875-650: The Panic of 1837 . There was a booming growth in American periodicals around this time, fueled in part by new technology, but many did not last beyond a few issues. Publishers often refused to pay their writers or paid them much later than they promised, and Poe repeatedly resorted to humiliating pleas for money and other assistance.After his early attempts at poetry, Poe turned his attention to prose, perhaps based on John Neal's critiques in The Yankee magazine. He placed
6000-458: The lymphatic system (in scrofula of the neck), the genitourinary system (in urogenital tuberculosis ), and the bones and joints (in Pott disease of the spine), among others. A potentially more serious, widespread form of TB is called "disseminated tuberculosis"; it is also known as miliary tuberculosis . Miliary TB currently makes up about 10% of extrapulmonary cases. The main cause of TB
6125-463: The pseudonym Henri Le Rennet during this period. As Poe was unable to support himself, he decided to enlist in the United States Army as a private on May 27, 1827, using the name "Edgar A. Perry". Although he claimed that he was 22 years old , he was actually 18. He first served at Fort Independence in Boston Harbor for five dollars a month. That same year, his first book was published,
6250-536: The surname , the given name , or the entire name. Where births are required to be officially registered, the entire name entered onto a birth certificate or birth register may by that fact alone become the person's legal name . The assumption in the Western world is often that the name from birth (or perhaps from baptism or brit milah ) will persist to adulthood in the normal course of affairs—either throughout life or until marriage. Some reasons for changes of
6375-420: The tuberculin skin test (TST) or blood tests. Prevention of TB involves screening those at high risk, early detection and treatment of cases, and vaccination with the bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine. Those at high risk include household, workplace, and social contacts of people with active TB. Treatment requires the use of multiple antibiotics over a long period of time. Antibiotic resistance
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#17327655542636500-587: The Allans in 1820. In 1824, he served as the lieutenant of the Richmond youth honor guard as the city celebrated the visit of the Marquis de Lafayette . In March 1825, Allan's uncle and business benefactor William Galt died, who was said to be one of the wealthiest men in Richmond, leaving Allan several acres of real estate. The inheritance was estimated at $ 750,000 (equivalent to $ 20,000,000 in 2023). By summer 1825, Allan celebrated his expansive wealth by purchasing
6625-582: The English language, and noted its influence on later authors such as Doyle, Henry James , B. Traven , and David Morrell . Horror author and historian H. P. Lovecraft was heavily influenced by Poe's horror tales, dedicating an entire section of his long essay, " Supernatural Horror in Literature ", to his influence on the genre. In his letters, Lovecraft described Poe as his "God of Fiction". Lovecraft's earliest stories are clearly influenced by Poe. At
6750-732: The Inner Life in 1863, in which she claimed to have "received" new compositions by Poe. However, the writings appeared to be simple revisions of previously published poems. Poe has also received criticism. This is partly because of the negative perception of his personal character and its influence upon his reputation. William Butler Yeats was occasionally critical of Poe and once called him "vulgar". Transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson reacted to "The Raven" by saying, "I see nothing in it", and derisively referred to Poe as "the jingle man". Aldous Huxley wrote that Poe's writing "falls into vulgarity" by being "too poetical"—the equivalent of wearing
6875-698: The Mantoux test. These are not affected by immunization or most environmental mycobacteria , so they generate fewer false-positive results. However, they are affected by M. szulgai , M. marinum , and M. kansasii . IGRAs may increase sensitivity when used in addition to the skin test, but may be less sensitive than the skin test when used alone. The US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) has recommended screening people who are at high risk for latent tuberculosis with either tuberculin skin tests or interferon-gamma release assays . While some have recommend testing health care workers, evidence of benefit for this
7000-572: The Mountains of Madness directly quotes him. Lovecraft made extensive use of Poe's concept of the “unity of effect” in his fiction. Alfred Hitchcock once said, "It's because I liked Edgar Allan Poe's stories so much that I began to make suspense films". Many references to Poe's works are present in Vladimir Nabokov 's novels. Other writers inspired by Poe's poetry and fiction include, but are not limited to, Ray Bradbury, Stephen King, and
7125-511: The Penn Magazine, a Monthly Literary journal to be edited and published in the city of Philadelphia by Edgar A. Poe." However, Poe died before the journal could be produced. Poe left Burton's after a year and found a position as writer and co-editor at Graham's Magazine , which was a successful monthly publication. In the last number of Graham's for 1841, Poe was among the co-signatories to an editorial note of celebration concerning
7250-794: The United Kingdom in 1815, and Poe attended a grammar school for a short period in Irvine, Ayrshire , Scotland, where Allan was born, before rejoining the family in London in 1816. There he studied at a boarding school in Chelsea until summer 1817. He was subsequently entered at the Reverend John Bransby 's Manor House School in Stoke Newington , then a suburb 4 miles (6 km) north of London. Poe moved to Richmond with
7375-516: The United States test positive via the tuberculin test. Tuberculosis has been present in humans since ancient times . Tuberculosis has existed since antiquity . The oldest unambiguously detected M. tuberculosis gives evidence of the disease in the remains of bison in Wyoming dated to around 17,000 years ago. However, whether tuberculosis originated in bovines, then transferred to humans, or whether both bovine and human tuberculosis diverged from
7500-528: The United States. Poe was particularly esteemed in France, in part due to early translations of his work by Charles Baudelaire . Baudelaire's translations became definitive renditions of Poe's work in Continental Europe. Poe's early mystery tales featuring the detective, C. Auguste Dupin , though not numerous, laid the groundwork for similar characters that would eventually become famous throughout
7625-617: The WHO regions of South-East Asia (44%), Africa (24%), and the Western Pacific (18%), with more than 50% of cases being diagnosed in seven countries: India (27%), China (9%), Indonesia (8%), the Philippines (6%), Pakistan (6%), Nigeria (4%), and Bangladesh (4%). By 2021, the number of new cases each year was decreasing by around 2% annually. About 80% of people in many Asian and African countries test positive, while 5–10% of people in
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#17327655542637750-688: The active disease. Use of certain medications, such as corticosteroids and infliximab (an anti-αTNF monoclonal antibody), is another important risk factor, especially in the developed world . Other risk factors include: alcoholism , diabetes mellitus (3-fold increased risk), silicosis (30-fold increased risk), tobacco smoking (2-fold increased risk), indoor air pollution , malnutrition, young age, recently acquired TB infection, recreational drug use, severe kidney disease, low body weight, organ transplant, head and neck cancer, and genetic susceptibility (the overall importance of genetic risk factors remains undefined ). Tobacco smoking increases
7875-495: The appointment in mid-September 1842, claiming to have been sick, though Thomas believed that he had been drunk. Poe was promised an appointment, but all positions were eventually filled by others. One evening in January 1842, Virginia showed the first signs of consumption, or tuberculosis , while singing and playing the piano, which Poe described as the breaking of a blood vessel in her throat. She only partially recovered, and Poe
8000-458: The arrival of streptomycin and other antibiotics, although the disease remained a significant threat. In 1946, the development of the antibiotic streptomycin made effective treatment and cure of TB a reality. Prior to the introduction of this medication, the only treatment was surgical intervention, including the " pneumothorax technique", which involved collapsing an infected lung to "rest" it and to allow tuberculous lesions to heal. Because of
8125-423: The bacterium is enveloped by the macrophage and stored temporarily in a membrane-bound vesicle called a phagosome. The phagosome then combines with a lysosome to create a phagolysosome. In the phagolysosome, the cell attempts to use reactive oxygen species and acid to kill the bacterium. However, M. tuberculosis has a thick, waxy mycolic acid capsule that protects it from these toxic substances. M. tuberculosis
8250-427: The beat generation's Allen Ginsberg. In Japan, Edogawa Ranpo was so inspired by Poe that his pen name is a rendering of his name into Japanese. Poe's works have spawned many imitators. One trend among Poe's more ardent fans has been the tendency to employ clairvoyants or psychics to "channel” original poems from Poe's spirit. One of the most notable of these manuscripts was by Lizzie Doten , who published, Poems from
8375-425: The body. Most infections show no symptoms, in which case it is known as latent tuberculosis . Around 10% of latent infections progress to active disease that, if left untreated, kill about half of those affected. Typical symptoms of active TB are chronic cough with blood-containing mucus , fever , night sweats , and weight loss . Infection of other organs can cause a wide range of symptoms. Tuberculosis
8500-403: The brain" or "cerebral inflammation", common euphemisms for death from disreputable causes such as alcoholism. The actual cause of death remains a mystery. Speculation has included delirium tremens , heart disease , epilepsy , syphilis , meningeal inflammation , cholera , carbon monoxide poisoning , and rabies . One theory dating from 1872 suggests that Poe's death resulted from cooping ,
8625-425: The cattle and human tuberculosis diseases were similar, which delayed the recognition of infected milk as a source of infection. During the first half of the 1900s, the risk of transmission from this source was dramatically reduced after the application of the pasteurization process. Koch announced a glycerine extract of the tubercle bacilli as a "remedy" for tuberculosis in 1890, calling it "tuberculin". Although it
8750-485: The cause of pulmonary tuberculosis. J. L. Schönlein first published the name "tuberculosis" (German: Tuberkulose ) in 1832. Between 1838 and 1845, John Croghan, the owner of Mammoth Cave in Kentucky from 1839 onwards, brought a number of people with tuberculosis into the cave in the hope of curing the disease with the constant temperature and purity of the cave air; each died within a year. Hermann Brehmer opened
8875-713: The day after her burial. Perhaps softened by his wife's death, Allan agreed to support Poe's desire to receive an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York . Poe was finally discharged on April 15, 1829, after securing a replacement to finish his enlistment. Before entering West Point, he moved to Baltimore, where he stayed with his widowed aunt, Maria Clemm, her daughter Virginia Eliza Clemm (Poe's first cousin), his brother Henry, and his invalid grandmother Elizabeth Cairnes Poe. That September, Poe received "the very first words of encouragement I ever remember to have heard" in
9000-711: The declaration of a global health emergency by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1993. There is a popular misconception that tuberculosis is purely a disease of the lungs that manifests as coughing . Tuberculosis may infect many organs, even though it most commonly occurs in the lungs (known as pulmonary tuberculosis). Extrapulmonary TB occurs when tuberculosis develops outside of the lungs, although extrapulmonary TB may coexist with pulmonary TB. General signs and symptoms include fever, chills , night sweats, loss of appetite , weight loss, and fatigue . Significant nail clubbing may also occur. If
9125-587: The density and rotation of planets. Poe had a keen interest in cryptography . He had placed a notice of his abilities in the Philadelphia paper Alexander's Weekly (Express) Messenger , inviting submissions of ciphers which he proceeded to solve. In July 1841, Poe had published an essay called "A Few Words on Secret Writing" in Graham's Magazine . Capitalizing on public interest in the topic, he wrote " The Gold-Bug " incorporating ciphers as an essential part of
9250-640: The developing world. IGRA have similar limitations in those with HIV. A definitive diagnosis of TB is made by identifying M. tuberculosis in a clinical sample (e.g., sputum, pus , or a tissue biopsy ). However, the difficult culture process for this slow-growing organism can take two to six weeks for blood or sputum culture. Thus, treatment is often begun before cultures are confirmed. Nucleic acid amplification tests and adenosine deaminase testing may allow rapid diagnosis of TB. Blood tests to detect antibodies are not specific or sensitive , so they are not recommended. The Mantoux tuberculin skin test
9375-454: The development of literature throughout the world and even impacted such specialized fields as cosmology and cryptography . Since his death, he and his writings have appeared throughout popular culture in such fields as art, photography, literary allusions, music, motion pictures, and television . Several of his homes are dedicated museums. In addition, The Mystery Writers of America presents an annual Edgar Award for distinguished work in
9500-557: The disease became common among the urban poor. In 1815, one in four deaths in England was due to "consumption". By 1918, TB still caused one in six deaths in France. After TB was determined to be contagious, in the 1880s, it was put on a notifiable-disease list in Britain. Campaigns started to stop people from spitting in public places, and the infected poor were "encouraged" to enter sanatoria that resembled prisons. The sanatoria for
9625-620: The disease, since the infectious dose of tuberculosis is very small (the inhalation of fewer than 10 bacteria may cause an infection). People with prolonged, frequent, or close contact with people with TB are at particularly high risk of becoming infected, with an estimated 22% infection rate. A person with active but untreated tuberculosis may infect 10–15 (or more) other people per year. Transmission should occur from only people with active TB – those with latent infection are not thought to be contagious. The probability of transmission from one person to another depends upon several factors, including
9750-463: The emergence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB), surgery has been re-introduced for certain cases of TB infections. It involves the removal of infected chest cavities ("bullae") in the lungs to reduce the number of bacteria and to increase exposure of the remaining bacteria to antibiotics in the bloodstream. Hopes of eliminating TB ended with the rise of drug-resistant strains in the 1980s. The subsequent resurgence of tuberculosis resulted in
9875-419: The explorations into the possibilities of hot air balloons as featured in such works as, " The Balloon-Hoax ". Much of Poe's work coincided with themes that readers of his day found appealing, though he often professed to abhor the tastes of the majority of the people who read for pleasure in his time. In his critical works, Poe investigated and wrote about many of the pseudosciences that were then popular with
10000-552: The first TB sanatorium in 1859 in Görbersdorf (now Sokołowsko ) in Silesia . In 1865, Jean Antoine Villemin demonstrated that tuberculosis could be transmitted, via inoculation, from humans to animals and among animals. (Villemin's findings were confirmed in 1867 and 1868 by John Burdon-Sanderson . ) Robert Koch identified and described the bacillus causing tuberculosis, M. tuberculosis , on 24 March 1882. In 1905, he
10125-622: The first genuine success in immunization against tuberculosis in 1906, using attenuated bovine-strain tuberculosis. It was called bacille Calmette–Guérin (BCG). The BCG vaccine was first used on humans in 1921 in France, but achieved widespread acceptance in the US, Great Britain, and Germany only after World War II. By the 1950s mortality in Europe had decreased about 90%. Improvements in sanitation, vaccination, and other public-health measures began significantly reducing rates of tuberculosis even before
10250-460: The first plausible solution to Olbers' paradox . Poe eschewed the scientific method in Eureka and instead wrote from pure intuition . For this reason, he considered it a work of art, not science, but insisted that it was still true and considered it to be his career masterpiece. Even so, Eureka is full of scientific errors. In particular, Poe's suggestions ignored Newtonian principles regarding
10375-425: The foster father finally disowning Poe. Poe then decided to leave West Point by intentionally getting court-martialed . On February 8, 1831, he was tried for gross neglect of duty and disobedience of orders for refusing to attend formations, classes, and church. Knowing he would be found guilty, Poe pleaded not guilty to the charges in order to induce dismissal. Poe left for New York in February 1831 and then released
10500-533: The highest mark of genius. In Poe's conception of the artist's life, the attainment of the concretization of beauty should be the ultimate goal. That which is unique is alone of value. Works with obvious meanings, he wrote, cease to be art. He believed that any work worthy of being praised should have as its focus a single specific effect. That which does not tend towards the effect is extraneous. In his view, every serious writer must carefully calculate each sentiment and idea in his or her work to ensure that it strengthens
10625-431: The host's immune system. Macrophages and dendritic cells in the granulomas are unable to present antigen to lymphocytes; thus the immune response is suppressed. Bacteria inside the granuloma can become dormant, resulting in latent infection. Another feature of the granulomas is the development of abnormal cell death ( necrosis ) in the center of tubercles . To the naked eye, this has the texture of soft, white cheese and
10750-467: The house", de domo in Latin ) may be used, with rare exceptions, meaning the same as née . Pulmonary tuberculosis Tuberculosis ( TB ), also known colloquially as the " white death ", or historically as consumption , is an infectious disease usually caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) bacteria . Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs , but it can also affect other parts of
10875-433: The imperfections in works other critics considered perfect, so as to hasten the evolution of literature, and in particular, American literature. A so-called “favorite target” of Poe's criticism was Boston's acclaimed poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , who was defended by his friends, literary and otherwise, in what was later called, “The Longfellow War". Poe accused Longfellow of "the heresy of the didactic", writing poetry that
11000-400: The infected macrophages. When other macrophages attack the infected macrophage, they fuse together to form a giant multinucleated cell in the alveolar lumen. The granuloma may prevent dissemination of the mycobacteria and provide a local environment for interaction of cells of the immune system. However, more recent evidence suggests that the bacteria use the granulomas to avoid destruction by
11125-439: The infection spreads outside the lungs, causing other kinds of TB. These are collectively denoted as extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Extrapulmonary TB occurs more commonly in people with a weakened immune system and young children. In those with HIV, this occurs in more than 50% of cases. Notable extrapulmonary infection sites include the pleura (in tuberculous pleurisy), the central nervous system (in tuberculous meningitis ),
11250-613: The infection waxes and wanes. Tissue destruction and necrosis are often balanced by healing and fibrosis . Affected tissue is replaced by scarring and cavities filled with caseous necrotic material. During active disease, some of these cavities are joined to the air passages ( bronchi ) and this material can be coughed up. It contains living bacteria and thus can spread the infection. Treatment with appropriate antibiotics kills bacteria and allows healing to take place. Upon cure, affected areas are eventually replaced by scar tissue. Diagnosing active tuberculosis based only on signs and symptoms
11375-491: The life from the other family members. Although Richard Morton established the pulmonary form associated with tubercles as a pathology in 1689, due to the variety of its symptoms, TB was not identified as a single disease until the 1820s. Benjamin Marten conjectured in 1720 that consumptions were caused by microbes which were spread by people living close to each other. In 1819, René Laennec claimed that tubercles were
11500-401: The majority of his fellow Americans. They included, but were not limited to, the fields of astrology, cosmology, phrenology , and physiognomy . Poe's writings often reflect the literary theories he introduced in his prolific critical works and expounded on in such essays as, " The Poetic Principle ". He disliked didacticism and imitation masquerading as influence, believing originality to be
11625-484: The middle and upper classes offered excellent care and constant medical attention. What later became known as the Alexandra Hospital for Children with Hip Disease (tuberculous arthritis) was opened in London in 1867. Whatever the benefits of the "fresh air" and labor in the sanatoria, even under the best conditions, 50% of those who entered died within five years ( c. 1916). Robert Koch did not believe
11750-469: The mystery genre. Edgar Poe was born in Boston , Massachusetts , on January 19, 1809, the second child of American actor David Poe Jr. and English -born actress Elizabeth Arnold Hopkins Poe . He had an elder brother, Henry , and a younger sister, Rosalie . Their grandfather, David Poe, had emigrated from County Cavan , Ireland, around 1750. His father abandoned the family in 1810, and his mother died
11875-460: The nature of decomposition , the popular concerns of Poe's day about premature burial , the reanimation of the dead, are all at length explored in his more notable works. Many of his writings are generally considered to be part of the dark romanticism genre, which is said to be a literary reaction to transcendentalism , which Poe strongly criticized. He referred to followers of the transcendental movement, including Emerson, as "Frog-Pondians", after
12000-596: The newly infected person becomes infectious enough to transmit the disease to others. A number of factors make individuals more susceptible to TB infection and/or disease. The most important risk factor globally for developing active TB is concurrent HIV infection; 13% of those with TB are also infected with HIV. This is a particular problem in sub-Saharan Africa , where HIV infection rates are high. Of those without HIV infection who are infected with tuberculosis, about 5–10% develop active disease during their lifetimes; in contrast, 30% of those co-infected with HIV develop
12125-599: The number of infectious droplets expelled by the carrier, the effectiveness of ventilation, the duration of exposure, the virulence of the M. tuberculosis strain , the level of immunity in the uninfected person, and others. The cascade of person-to-person spread can be circumvented by segregating those with active ("overt") TB and putting them on anti-TB drug regimens. After about two weeks of effective treatment, subjects with nonresistant active infections generally do not remain contagious to others. If someone does become infected, it typically takes three to four weeks before
12250-464: The past, often confuse the source of their ideas with their original thoughts, but most of his contemporaries found that interpretation incomprehensible, and continued to be antagonistic towards Poe. On January 29, 1845, Poe's poem," The Raven ,” appeared in the Evening Mirror and quickly became a popular sensation. It made Poe a household name almost instantly, though at the time, he was paid only $ 9 (equivalent to $ 294 in 2023) for its publication. It
12375-436: The pond on Boston Common , and ridiculed their writings as "metaphor—run mad," lapsing into "obscurity for obscurity's sake" or "mysticism for mysticism's sake". However, Poe once wrote in a letter to Thomas Holley Chivers that he did not dislike transcendentalists, "only the pretenders and sophists among them". Beyond the horror stories he is most famous for, Poe also wrote a number of satires , humor tales, and hoaxes. He
12500-583: The rank of sergeant major for artillery, the highest rank that a non-commissioned officer could achieve. He then sought to end his five-year enlistment early. Poe revealed his real name and his actual circumstances to his commanding officer, Lieutenant Howard, who promised to allow Poe to be honorably discharged if he reconciled with Allan. Poe then wrote a letter to Allan, who was unsympathetic and spent several months ignoring Poe's pleas. Allan may not have written to Poe to inform him of his foster mother's illness. Frances Allan died on February 28, 1829. Poe visited
12625-432: The reputation of being a "tomahawk man". Poe's idea of criticism was not to praise prose or poetry that was obviously successful, and therefore could speak for itself, but to draw attention to what was not successful in the writings of even those he highly respected, his aim being to elevate the art of literature as a whole. Poe felt no need to praise what was already so obviously praiseworthy. Rather, he attempted to point out
12750-435: The risk of developing active TB increases to nearly 10% a year. If effective treatment is not given, the death rate for active TB cases is up to 66%. TB infection begins when the mycobacteria reach the alveolar air sacs of the lungs, where they invade and replicate within endosomes of alveolar macrophages . Macrophages identify the bacterium as foreign and attempt to eliminate it by phagocytosis . During this process,
12875-414: The risk of infections (in addition to increasing the risk of active disease and death). Additional factors increasing infection susceptibility include young age. About 90% of those infected with M. tuberculosis have asymptomatic , latent TB infections (sometimes called LTBI), with only a 10% lifetime chance that the latent infection will progress to overt, active tuberculous disease. In those with HIV,
13000-549: The spines of Egyptian mummies dating from 3000 to 2400 BC. Genetic studies suggest the presence of TB in the Americas from about AD 100. Before the Industrial Revolution , folklore often associated tuberculosis with vampires . When one member of a family died from the disease, the other infected members would lose their health slowly. People believed this was caused by the original person with TB draining
13125-538: The story. Poe's success with cryptography relied not so much on his deep knowledge of that field (his method was limited to the simple substitution cryptogram ) as on his knowledge of the magazine and newspaper culture. His keen analytical abilities, which were so evident in his detective stories, allowed him to see that the general public was largely ignorant of the methods by which a simple substitution cryptogram can be solved, and he used this to his advantage. The sensation that Poe created with his cryptography stunts played
13250-465: The test's usefulness as a screening tool. Several vaccines are being developed. Intradermal MVA85A vaccine in addition to BCG injection is not effective in preventing tuberculosis. Public health campaigns which have focused on overcrowding, public spitting and regular sanitation (including hand washing) during the 1800s helped to either interrupt or slow spread which when combined with contact tracing, isolation and treatment helped to dramatically curb
13375-502: The theme of the piece. Poe describes the method he employed while composing his most famous poem, “The Raven,” in an essay entitled " The Philosophy of Composition .” However, many of Poe's critics have questioned whether the method enunciated in the essay was formulated before the poem was written, or afterward, or, as T. S. Eliot is quoted as saying, "It is difficult for us to read that essay without reflecting that if Poe plotted out his poem with such calculation, he might have taken
13500-565: The top of the lung. This hematogenous transmission can also spread infection to more distant sites, such as peripheral lymph nodes, the kidneys, the brain, and the bones. All parts of the body can be affected by the disease, though for unknown reasons it rarely affects the heart , skeletal muscles , pancreas , or thyroid . Tuberculosis is classified as one of the granulomatous inflammatory diseases. Macrophages , epithelioid cells , T lymphocytes , B lymphocytes , and fibroblasts aggregate to form granulomas, with lymphocytes surrounding
13625-467: The transmission of both tuberculosis and other airborne diseases which led to the elimination of tuberculosis as a major public health issue in most developed economies. Other risk factors which worsened TB spread such as malnutrition were also ameliorated, but since the emergence of HIV a new population of immunocompromised individuals was available for TB to infect. During the HIV/AIDS epidemic in
13750-419: The tremendous success the magazine had achieved in the past year: "Perhaps the editors of no magazine, either in America or in Europe, ever sat down, at the close of a year, to contemplate the progress of their work with more satisfaction than we do now. Our success has been unexampled, almost incredible. We may assert without fear of contradiction that no periodical ever witnessed the same increase during so short
13875-453: The volumes received generally mixed reviews. In June 1840, Poe published a prospectus announcing his intentions to start his own journal called The Stylus , although he originally intended to call it The Penn , since it would have been based in Philadelphia. He bought advertising space for the prospectus in the June 6, 1840, issue of Philadelphia's Saturday Evening Post : "Prospectus of
14000-478: The works of Jules Verne , who wrote a sequel to Poe's novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket called An Antarctic Mystery , also known as The Sphinx of the Ice Fields . And as the author H. G. Wells noted, " Pym tells what a very intelligent mind could imagine about the south polar region a century ago". In 2013, The Guardian cited Pym as one of the greatest novels ever written in
14125-424: The world. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle said, "Each [of Poe's detective stories] is a root from which a whole literature has developed.... Where was the detective story until Poe breathed the breath of life into it?" The Mystery Writers of America have named their awards for excellence in the mystery genre "The Edgars ". Poe's work also influenced writings that would eventually come to be called "science fiction", notably
14250-516: Was a master of sarcasm. For comic effect, he often used irony and ludicrous extravagance in a deliberate attempt to liberate the reader from cultural and literary conformity. " Metzengerstein " is the first story that Poe is known to have published, and his first foray into horror, but it was originally intended as a burlesque satirizing the popular genres of Poe's time. Poe was also one of the forerunners of American science fiction , responding in his voluminous writing to such emerging literary trends as
14375-507: Was already damned)". The long obituary appeared in the New York Tribune , signed, “Ludwig" on the day Poe was buried in Baltimore . It was further published throughout the country. The obituary began, "Edgar Allan Poe is dead. He died in Baltimore the day before yesterday. This announcement will startle many, but few will be grieved by it." "Ludwig" was soon identified as Griswold, an editor, critic, and anthologist who had borne
14500-526: Was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for this discovery. In Europe, rates of tuberculosis began to rise in the early 1600s to a peak level in the 1800s, when it caused nearly 25% of all deaths. In the 18th and 19th century, tuberculosis had become epidemic in Europe , showing a seasonal pattern. Tuberculosis caused widespread public concern in the 19th and early 20th centuries as
14625-401: Was born in Boston . He was the second child of actors David and Elizabeth "Eliza" Poe . His father abandoned the family in 1810, and when Eliza died the following year, Poe was taken in by John and Frances Allan of Richmond, Virginia . They never formally adopted him, but he lived with them well into young adulthood. Poe attended the University of Virginia , but left after only a year due to
14750-717: Was concurrently published in The American Review: A Whig Journal under the pseudonym "Quarles". The Broadway Journal failed in 1846, and Poe then moved to a cottage in Fordham, New York , in the Bronx . That home, now known as the Edgar Allan Poe Cottage , was relocated in later years to a park near the southeast corner of the Grand Concourse and Kingsbridge Road. Nearby, Poe befriended
14875-478: Was not effective, it was later successfully adapted as a screening test for the presence of pre-symptomatic tuberculosis. World Tuberculosis Day is marked on 24 March each year, the anniversary of Koch's original scientific announcement. When the Medical Research Council formed in Britain in 1913, it initially focused on tuberculosis research. Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin achieved
15000-400: Was one of the country's first successful practitioners of the short story , and is generally considered to be the inventor of the detective fiction genre. In addition, he is credited with contributing significantly to the emergence of science fiction . He is the first well-known American writer to earn a living by writing alone, which resulted in a financially difficult life and career. Poe
15125-513: Was only 13. Poe was reinstated by White after promising to improve his behavior, and he returned to Richmond with Virginia and her mother. He remained at the Messenger until January 1837. During this period, Poe claimed that its circulation increased from 700 to 3,500. He published several poems, and many book reviews, critiques, essays, and articles, as well as a few stories in the paper. On May 16, 1836, he and Virginia were officially married at
15250-487: Was preachy, derivative, and thematically plagiarized. Poe correctly predicted that Longfellow's reputation and style of poetry would decline, concluding, "We grant him high qualities, but deny him the Future". Poe became known as the creator of a type of fiction that was difficult to categorize and nearly impossible to imitate. He was one of the first American authors of the 19th century to become more popular in Europe than in
15375-495: Was published and widely reviewed. In the summer of 1839, he became assistant editor of Burton's Gentleman's Magazine . He published numerous articles, stories, and reviews, enhancing the reputation he had established at the Messenger as one of America's foremost literary critics. Also in 1839, the collection Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque was published in two volumes, though Poe received little remuneration from it and
15500-516: Was the only full biography available and was widely reprinted, and in part because readers thrilled at the thought of reading works by an "evil" man. Letters that Griswold presented as proof were later revealed as forgeries . Poe's best-known fiction works have been labeled as Gothic horror, and adhere to that genre's general propensity to appeal to the public's taste for the terrifying or psychologically intimidating. His most recurrent themes seem to deal with death. The physical signs indicating death,
15625-418: Was wearing clothes that were not his own. He is said to have repeatedly called out the name "Reynolds" on the night before his death, though it is unclear to whom he was referring. His attending physician said that Poe's final words were, "Lord help my poor soul". All of the relevant medical records have been lost, including Poe's death certificate . Newspapers at the time reported Poe's death as "congestion of
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