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Eastern Lombard is a group of closely related variants of Lombard , a Gallo-Italic language spoken in Lombardy , mainly in the provinces of Bergamo , Brescia and Mantua , in the area around Cremona and in parts of Trentino . Its main variants are Bergamasque and Brescian.

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55-412: Edolo ( Camunian : Édol ) is a town and comune in the province of Brescia , Lombardy , northern Italy , located in the upper Camonica valley. Edolo is neighbour to the comuni of Corteno Golgi , Incudine , Lovero , Malonno , Monno , Ponte di Legno , Saviore dell'Adamello , Sernio , Sonico , Temù , Tovo di Sant'Agata , Vezza d'Oglio and Vione . Edolo houses the northern terminus of

110-410: A in the following syllable ( Germanic a-mutation ) although that had already happened significantly earlier: Another example of a regular change is the sibilant assimilation of Sanskrit in which if there were two different sibilants as the onset of successive syllables, a plain /s/ was always replaced by the palatal /ɕ/ : Lag assimilation to an adjacent segment is tolerably common and often has

165-548: A change results in a single segment with some of the features of both components, it is known as coalescence or fusion. Assimilation occurs in two different types: complete assimilation, in which the sound affected by assimilation becomes exactly the same as the sound causing assimilation, and partial assimilation, in which the sound becomes the same in one or more features but remains different in other features. Tonal languages may exhibit tone assimilation (in effect tonal umlaut), but sign languages also exhibit assimilation when

220-501: A cold as there had never been before. The she-blackbird did not know how to cope with her brood in the nest, so she sheltered in the hood of a chimney, and the smoke turned all the birds black; so when they came out the blackbirds did not have white feathers anymore, but black ones. And January, very happy, said: "This time it was me that fooled you, blackbird: you were white and I turned you black, this will teach you to stop teasing me." Assimilation (linguistics) Assimilation

275-455: A consonant. For example: The approximants /j/ and /w/ are distinct phonemes from the vocalic sounds /i/ , /u/ . This can be seen in the following examples: Locally, the alveolar fricative [s] is replaced by the glottal fricative [h] . This mainly happens in the prealpine valleys of the provinces of Bergamo and Brescia; thus Brèssa ("Brescia") is pronounced [ˈbrɛhɔ] instead of [ˈbrɛsɔ] . However, even in areas where this phenomenon

330-435: A different test, Read also found that many of the children believed that words like train and chicken both started with /tʃ/ . Anticipatory assimilation at a distance is rare and usually merely an accident in the history of a specific word. However, the diverse and common assimilations known as umlaut in which the phonetics of a vowel are influenced by the phonetics of a vowel in a following syllable, are common and in

385-468: A distance is rare and usually sporadic (except when part of a broader change, as for the Sanskrit śaśa - example, above): Greek leirion > Lat. līlium "lily". In vowel harmony , a vowel's phonetic features are often influenced by those of a preceding vowel. For example, most Finnish case markers come in two forms, with /ɑ/ (written a ) and /æ/ (written ä ), depending on whether

440-598: A following consonant. Thus, the /n/ in /nk/ and /nɡ/ is a velar [ŋ] , the /n/ in /nv/ and /nf/ is a labiodental [ɱ] . Within a word, the phoneme /n/ is never transcribed before /p/ and /b/ , where /m/ is written instead. Nasal assimilation, including /n/ to /m/ , also takes place across word boundaries. For example: Eastern Lombard has 9 vocalic sounds: Only three vocalic phonemes occur in unstressed final syllables: /a/ in open syllables only, and /o/ and /e/ in both open and closed syllables. Other vowels can occur in final syllables in loanwords. Locally,

495-536: A following sound, but they may also assimilate to a preceding one. Assimilation most commonly occurs between immediately adjacent-sounds but may occur between sounds that are separated by others. Assimilation can be synchronic , an active process in a language at a given point in time, or diachronic , a historical sound change . A related process is coarticulation in which one segment influences another to produce an allophonic variation, such as vowels becoming nasalized before nasal consonants ( /n, m, ŋ/ ) when

550-487: A frequent assimilation of /kt/ and /bt/ was rather reinterpreted as reflecting /tt/. The structural sequence /kt/ is now all but absent in Italian, since all items in popular speech underwent the same restructuring, /kt/ > /tt/. On the rare occasion that Italian /kt/ is encountered, however, the same assimilation that triggered the restructuring can occur at the phonetic level. For example, the medical term ictus 'stroke',

605-517: A further variant [ruˈba] is also possible, though in this case, a difference is noticed by speakers but it is considered a local variant and no loss of intelligibility results. The sounds [e] and [ɛ] also no longer contrast in unstressed syllables, and therefore the word vedèl ("calf") can be pronounced [veˈdɛl] or [vɛˈdɛl] . However, when affected by vowel harmony (see below ), the unstressed sounds [e] / [ɛ] , [o] / [ɔ] , and [ø] become [i] , [u] , and [y] respectively. In conclusion, it

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660-814: A laud known as Mayor gremeza il mund no pothevela ancor aver , a manuscript found in Bovegno ( Trompia valley), and dating from the fourteenth century. Today, literary production has increased in volume and mainly consists in light comedies and poem collections (Angelo Canossi is an example for poetry in the Brescian dialect). The following tale is in Brescian: I mèrli 'na ólta i ghìa le pène biànche, ma chèl envéren lé l'éra stàt en bèl envéren e lé, la mèrla, la gà dìt: "Zenér de la màla gràpa, per tò despèt gó i uzilì 'ndela gnàta." A lü, 'l Zenér, gh'è nìt adòs 'n pó de ràbia, e 'l gà dìt: "Spèta, mèrla, che te la faró mé adès

715-428: A nonadjacent one. Those radical asymmetries might contain hints about the mechanisms involved, but they are not obvious. If a sound changes with reference to a following segment, it is traditionally called "regressive assimilation". Changes with reference to a preceding segment are traditionally called "progressive". Many find those terms confusing, as they seem to mean the opposite of the intended meaning. Accordingly,

770-483: A post-alveolar affricate instead, resulting in the all-postalveolar consonant clusters [tʃɹ] and [dʒɹ] . This phenomenon also occurs in /str/ , resulting in the all-postalveolar consonant cluster [ʃtʃɹ] . The affrication of /tr, dr/ has been seen in American English, British English, Australian English, and New Zealand English. It is suspected that this change has occurred due to assimilation. One of

825-411: A province of Brescia, the sounds [o] and [ø] are regularly replaced by [u] and [y] in pretonic position: Since in unstressed position these vocalic sounds are not contrastive, these local variants do not compromise reciprocal intelligibility. Certain varieties of Eastern Lombard (mostly in Brescian area) exhibit a process of regressive vowel harmony involving the feature of vowel height. When

880-408: A relatively recent direct borrowing from Latin, is usually pronounced [ˈiktus] in deliberate speech, but [ˈittus] is frequent in more casual registers. There has been a notable change recognized across a variety of English dialects regarding the pronunciation of the /tr/ and /dr/ consonant clusters . Starting around the mid-20th century, the alveolar stop in /tr, dr/ has slowly been replaced by

935-414: A sequence of nasal+occlusive falls in contact with another occlusive or a fricative, the first occlusive is completely elided and the nasal undergoes partial assimilation. In this case no lengthening occurs. For example: But when an occlusive precedes /z/ , assimilation involves both consonants and the result is an affricate sound: The phoneme /n/ can undergo assimilation in place of articulation with

1045-480: A tiˌram en ˈdʒir] Once upon a time blackbirds had white feathers, but in that time winter had been mild and a she-blackbird scorned January saying: "Bad-headed January, in spite of you I have got a brood in my nest." Hearing this, January got angry and he said: "Just wait a bit, you she-blackbird, I will fool you and I will turn you from white into black." Then he said: "I have got two, and I will borrow one, and I will turn you from white to black." And he brought forth

1100-637: A té, e se te sét biànca mé te faró ègner négra." E pò dòpo 'l gà dit amò: "Dù ghe i ó e giü 'n prèstet el töaró e se te sét biànca, mé te faró ní négra." E alùra 'l gà fàt nì fò 'n frèt che se n'ìa mài vést giü compàgn. Lé la mèrla la saìa piö che fà cói sò uzilì ndèla gnàta, e isé l'è nàda a rifügiàs endèla càpa del camì; dré al camì va sö 'l föm e lùr i uzilì i è déentàcc töcc négher, e quànche i è nicc fò de là, la mèrla la gh'ìa mìa piö le pène biànche, ma la ghe i éra négre. Alùra Zenér, töt sudisfàt, el gà dìt: "Tò mèrla, che te l'ó fàda mé staólta: se te se stàda biànca mé t'ó fàt ní négra e isé te làset lé de seghetà

1155-473: A variety of alternative terms have arisen, not all of which avoid the problem of the traditional terms. Regressive assimilation is also known as right-to-left, leading, or anticipatory assimilation. Progressive assimilation is also known as left-to-right, perseveratory, preservative, lagging, or lag assimilation. The terms anticipatory and lag are used here. Occasionally, two sounds (invariably adjacent) may influence each other in reciprocal assimilation. When such

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1210-494: A voiceless obstruent: This does not apply across word boundaries, so that the placename Grodzisk Wielkopolski is pronounced [ˈɡrɔdʑizɡ vjɛlkɔˈpɔlskʲi] , not [ˈɡrɔdʑisk fjɛlkɔˈpɔlskʲi] . In that context, /v/ patterns with other voiced obstruents. Because of a similar process, Proto-Indo-Iranian * ćw became sp in Avestan : Old Avestan aspa 'horse' corresponds to Sanskrit aśva Lag assimilation at

1265-499: Is a palato-alveolar sound; its palatal feature is derived from /j/ while its alveolar is from /t/. Another English example is ‘would you’ -> /wʊd ju/ -> [wʊdʒu]. There are examples in other languages, such as Chumburung where /ɪ̀wú ɪ̀sá/ -> /ɪ̀wúɪ̀sá/ becomes [ɪ̀wɪ́sá] - ‘three horns’. In this case, /ɪ/ is retained in the coalescence and the rising tone on /u/ appears on the coalesced sound. There are two major types of coalescence: reductive and unreductive. Reductive coalescence

1320-445: Is a sound change in which some phonemes (typically consonants or vowels ) change to become more similar to other nearby sounds. A common type of phonological process across languages, assimilation can occur either within a word or between words. It occurs in normal speech but becomes more common in more rapid speech . In some cases, assimilation causes the sound spoken to differ from the normal pronunciation in isolation, such as

1375-809: Is also present in Eastern Lombard and is represented in this article with the sequence of signs ⟨-sgi-⟩ , for example: The grammatical system of Eastern Lombard is similar to other those of other Romance languages. The word order is SVO (subject–verb–object) and it has a moderate inflection system: verbs are declined for mood , tense and aspect and agree with their subject in person and number . Nouns are classified as either masculine or feminine and can be marked as singular or plural. Adjectives and pronouns agree with any nouns they modify in gender and number. Eastern Lombard also prefers prepositions over case marking . The oldest known text written in Eastern Lombard consists of fragments of

1430-437: Is called final devoicing . The phoneme /ʃ/ only occurs in loanwords, often borrowings from Italian. For example, scià , "to ski" (from Italian sciare ) is pronounced /ʃiˈa/ . The phoneme /tʃ/ is pronounced [j] before a consonant. This never occurs inside a word as the segment /tʃ/ + consonant doesn't exist in Eastern Lombard. However, it does occur when /tʃ/ appears word-finally preceding another word which begins with

1485-634: Is often called as dialetti ( lit. ' dialects ' ), understood to mean not a variety of Italian , but a local language that is part of the Romance languages dialect continuum that pre-dates the establishment of Tuscan-based Italian. Eastern Lombard and Italian have only limited mutual intelligibility , like many other Romance languages spoken in Italy. Eastern Lombard does not have any official status either in Lombardy or anywhere else:

1540-436: Is often pronounced / ˈ h æ m b æ ɡ / in rapid speech because the [ m ] and [ b ] sounds are both bilabial consonants , and their places of articulation are similar. However, the sequence [ d ] - [ b ] has different places but similar manner of articulation ( voiced stop ) and is sometimes elided , which sometimes causes the canonical [n] phoneme to assimilate to [m] before

1595-475: Is possible to say that only five contrastive vowel qualities are found in unstressed syllables: [o] / [ɔ] / [(u)] , [ø] / [(y)] , [a] , [e] / [ɛ] , [i] (but with the [i] not completely separated from [e] / [ɛ] ). Some examples: The situation can differ for other Eastern Lombard varieties, however, and the rules of the unstressed vowel system vary according to the area. For example, in Franciacorta ,

1650-466: Is pronounced [hæŋkɚtʃif] , handbag in rapid speech is pronounced [hæmbæɡ] ). In Italian , voiceless stops assimilated historically to a following /t/ : Italian otto , letto and sotto are examples of historical restructuring: otto and letto no longer contain /kt/ pronounced [tt], and sotto is no longer the structure /bt/ subject to the partial assimilation of devoicing of /b/ and full assimilation to produce [tt]. Over time, phonetic [tt] as

1705-450: Is rendered by means of the usual Italian orthography rules: ⟨c⟩ before front vowels and ⟨ci⟩ before non-front vowels). A consonant sequence that is peculiar to Lombard is that of a voiceless alveolar fricative followed by a voiceless postalveolar affricate , [stʃ] . This article adopts the convention of representing this sound as ⟨s·c⟩ , although other texts may follow different traditions (so

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1760-526: Is the rule, there are some interesting exceptions to take in account. Words like grassie ("thanks") are never pronounced [ˈɡrahje] . At present, the most common pronunciation is [ˈɡrasje] but a more genuine outcome (and often preferred by aged people) would be [ˈɡrahtʃe] . Other examples for this feature: Regressive assimilation at word boundaries is common in Eastern Lombard. Assimilation can be either complete or partial. Complete assimilation occurs when two occlusive sounds fall in contact. In this case

1815-518: Is the type of coalescence where sound segments are reduced after fusion is made. For example, in Xhosa, /i - lˈalaini/ becomes /e - lˈoleni/ (side). The /a-i/ segment in the first form reduces to /e/. On the other hand non-reductive coalescence have no reduction in sound segments even though there is evidence of fusion. For example, in Shona, [v_á] [tengesa] (they sell) becomes [ku] [téngésá] (to sell). Here,

1870-750: The Brescia–Iseo–Edolo railway operated by Trenord . It is also the location of the Edolo Pumped Storage Plant . Despite Edolo's close distance (32 km by road) to Tirano and the border with Switzerland , there is no train connection between the two towns. In the summer, a bus service connects Edolo (for trains towards Brescia) and Tirano (for the Rhaetian Railway towards the Bernina Pass ). Camunian dialect In Italian-speaking contexts, Eastern Lombard

1925-447: The [b] . The pronunciations / ˈ h æ n b æ ɡ / or / ˈ h æ n d b æ ɡ / are, however, common in normal speech. In contrast, the word "cupboard", although it is historically a compound of "cup" / k ʌ p / and "board" / b ɔːr d / , is always generally pronounced / ˈ k ʌ b ər d / , and almost never / ˈ k ʌ p b ɔːr d / . Like in those examples, sound segments typically assimilate to

1980-423: The soft palate (velum) opens prematurely or /b/ becoming labialized as in "boot" [bʷuːt̚] or "ball" [bʷɔːɫ] in some accents. This article describes both processes under the term assimilation . The physiological or psychological mechanisms of coarticulation are unknown, and coarticulation is often loosely referred to as a segment being "triggered" by an assimilatory change in another segment. In assimilation,

2035-423: The umlaut is adopted to represent the rounded vowels /ø/ and /y/ : Note that grave and acute accents are also used to indicate the stressed syllable in non-monosyllabic words. Since unstressed vowels are less distinctive, it is not necessary to discriminate the open/close quality. The digraph ⟨-cc⟩ is used at the end of the word to represent the sound /tʃ/ (in other positions this sound

2090-439: The area around Crema . The varieties spoken in these regions are generally mutually intelligible for speakers of neighboring areas, but this is not always true for distant peripheral areas. For instance, an inhabitant of the alpine valleys of Bergamo can hardly be understood by a rural inhabitant of the plains of Mantua . Differences include lexical, grammatical and phonetic aspects. The following notes are essentially based on

2145-453: The characteristics of neighbouring cheremes may be mixed. Anticipatory assimilation to an adjacent segment is the most common type of assimilation by far, and typically has the character of a conditioned sound change, i.e., it applies to the whole lexicon or part of it. For example, in English , the place of articulation of nasals assimilates to that of a following stop ( handkerchief

2200-412: The first occlusive is completely absorbed by the second and the resulting sound has all the features of the second consonant but is notably lengthened. For example: The same phenomenon occurs when an occlusive consonant precedes a nasal or a liquid consonant. For example: Complete assimilation can also occur when an occlusive precedes a fricative. For example: l'è ni t v ért = [ˌlɛ ni‿ˈvːert] . When

2255-523: The first papers that discussed the affrication of /tr, dr/ is "Pre-School Children's Knowledge of English Phonology" by Charles Read, published in 1971. The study discussed in this paper focuses on how children in pre-school analyze the phonetic aspect of language in order to determine the proper spelling of English words. Read noticed that many of the children involved in the study misspelled words that began with /tr, dr/ , spelling words like troubles and dragon as "chribls" and "jragin", respectively. In

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2310-497: The nature of a sound law. Proto-Indo-European * -ln- becomes -ll- in both Germanic and Italic: * ḱl̥nis "hill" > PreLat. * kolnis > Lat. collis ; > PGmc *hulliz > OE hyll /hyll/ > hill . The enclitic form of English is , eliding the vowel, becomes voiceless when adjacent to a word-final voiceless nonsibilant: it is [ɪtɪz] , that is [ðætɪz] > it's [ɪts] , that's [ðæts] . In Polish , /v/ regularly becomes /f/ after

2365-460: The nature of sound laws. Such changes abound in the histories of Germanic languages , Romance , Insular Celtic , Albanian , and many others. For example, in the history of English , a back vowel became front if a high front vowel or semivowel (*i, ī, j) was in the following syllable, and a front vowel became higher unless it was already high: On the other hand, Proto-Germanic * i and * u > e, o respectively before *

2420-655: The normal unstressed vowel variability. Verbs are affected by this process in their conjugation, when the inflection contains a stressed /i/ (there are no verbal suffixes containing a stressed /u/ ). For example: Adjectives formed with the suffix -ùs (feminine -ùza ) also exhibit this rule: Since Eastern Lombard is still principally an oral language, a commonly accepted orthography has not been established. While in recent years there has been an increasing production of texts (mainly light comedies and poem collections), each author continues to follow their own spelling rules. The most problematic and controversial issues seem to be

2475-642: The only official language in Lombardy is Italian . Eastern Lombard is a Romance language of the Gallo-Italic branch, closer to Occitan , Catalan , French , etc. than to Italian , with a Celtic substratum. Eastern Lombard is primarily spoken in Eastern Lombardy (Northern Italy ), in the provinces of Bergamo and Brescia , in the Northern region of the province of Mantua and in

2530-457: The phoneme /a/ is pronounced [ɔ] when it appears as last sound of the word in an unstressed syllable (actually slightly more close than cardinal [ɔ] ). For example: Some vowel contrasts are eliminated in unstressed syllables. For example, in the urban Brescian variety, [ɔ] and [o] no longer contrast. Thus, the word robà ("to steal") can be pronounced both [roˈba] and [rɔˈba] , with almost no difference noticed by speakers. In addition,

2585-426: The phonological patterning of the language, discourse styles and accent are some of the factors contributing to changes observed. There are four configurations found in assimilations: Although all four occur, changes in regard to a following adjacent segment account for virtually all assimilatory changes and most of the regular ones. Assimilations to an adjacent segment are vastly more frequent than assimilations to

2640-464: The preceding vowel is back or front. However, it is difficult to know where and how in the history of Finnish an actual assimilatory change took place. The distribution of pairs of endings in Finnish is not the operation of an assimilatory innovation, but it is probably the outbirth of such an innovation long ago. In the opposite direction, in umlaut , a vowel is modified to conform more closely to

2695-440: The prefix in- of English input pronounced with phonetic [m] rather than [n]. In this case, [n] becomes [m] since [m] is more phonetically similar to [p]. In other cases, the change is accepted as canonical for that word or phrase, especially if it is recognized in standard spelling: implosion pronounced with [m], composed of in- + -plosion (as in explosion ). English "handbag" (canonically / ˈ h æ n d b æ ɡ / )

2750-556: The representation of intervocalic /s/ and /z/ (rendered by different authors with ⟨-ss-⟩ , ⟨-s-⟩ or ⟨-z-⟩ ) and final /tʃ/ vs. /k/ (rendered with ⟨-cc⟩ , ⟨-c⟩ or ⟨-ch⟩ ). This article follows the rules of the Italian orthography , with the following exceptions. Diacritic marks are utilized for vowel sounds to distinguish /e/ from /ɛ/ and /o/ from /ɔ/ in stressed syllables. Furthermore,

2805-435: The same sequence can also be spelled ⟨s'c⟩ or ⟨s-c⟩ or even the ambiguous ⟨sc⟩ ; some authors use ⟨scc⟩ ). This sequence, which is absent in Italian, can occur at the beginning of word, as in s·cèt ("son, boy") /stʃɛt/ ; in the middle, as in brös·cia ("brush") /ˈbrøstʃa/ ; or at the end, as in giös·cc ("right, correct", plural) /ˈdʒøstʃ/ . The sequence /zdʒ/

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2860-434: The stress falls on a close vowel ( /i/ or /u/ ) the preceding vowels shift their height, becoming close as well ( /ɛ/ and /e/ become [i] , while /ɔ/ and /o/ become [u] ). The vowel /a/ is not affected by this process and acts as opaque vowel blocking the harmonization process. In Camuno, harmonization occurs almost only where the stressed vowel is an /i/ and not where it is an /u/ . This phenomenon affects all

2915-479: The variety of Eastern Lombard spoken in Brescia . The basic principle are generally valid also for the other varieties but local discrepancies can be found. Eastern Lombard has 9 vowels and 20 consonants . The voiced consonants /b/ , /d/ , /ɡ/ , /v/ , /z/ , /dʒ/ never occur at the end of a word. This phenomenon, common to other languages (including German , Catalan , Dutch , Turkish and Russian ),

2970-497: The vowel in the next syllable. Coalescence is a phonological situation whereby adjacent sounds are replaced by a single sound that shares the features of the two originally adjacent sounds. In other words, coalescence is a type of assimilation whereby two sounds fuse to become one, and the fused sound shares similar characteristics with the two fused sounds. Some examples in English include ‘don’t you’ -> /dəʊnt ju/ -> [dəʊntʃu]. In this instance, /t/ and /j/ have fused to [tʃ]. /tʃ/

3025-557: The words independent of the word's function. Because the diminutive and augmentative are formed with the suffixes -ì and -ù (feminine -ìna and -ùna ) respectively, this process is easily observable in nouns: As already mentioned, the vowel /a/ acts as opaque vowel which blocks the harmonization process: But vowels that occur after the /a/ and before the stressed vowel are still affected: In these cases variants like funtanì and üspedalì (but not üspidalì ) or murtadilìna are accepted (or locally preferred) but fall under

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