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100-574: The kings of Elam were the rulers of Elam , an ancient civilization and kingdom in south-western Iran . The earliest known Elamite dynasty was the Awan dynasty , which came to power in the Early Dynastic period . Elam was conquered by the Akkadian Empire in the 24th century BC and was then ruled by a sequence of Akkadian-appointed governors before independence was restored a little over

200-585: A language isolate unrelated to any other languages. According to Daniel T. Potts, Walther Hinz was less cautious in suggesting that the Elamites were ‘Proto-Lurs’, that is, the ancestors of inhabitants of modern-day Lurestan in western Iran. The Elamite language endonym of Elam as a country appears to have been Hatamti ( [REDACTED] in Linear Elamite ), or Haltamti ( Cuneiform Elamite : 𒁹𒄬𒆷𒁶𒋾 halatamti ). Exonyms included

300-593: A Hellenized version of Elam, and that Akkadian-language sources from Babylonia refer to Elymais as "Elam" and its people as "Elamites". Though the coins of Elymais were struck in Greek, it is possible that Greek was simply a monetary language and that the spoken language in Elam was still the ancient Elamite language . This is reinforced by several of the rulers bearing Elamite names, such as Kamnaskires, Pittit and Anzaze. The name Kamnaskires, borne by several kings, derives from

400-405: A Persian or Parthian realm, evidence such as the hostility between Elymais and Persian/Parthian rulers and the continued worship of otherwise non-Iranian (perhaps traditional Elamite) deities in the region suggests that the populace of Elymais were descendants of the old Elamites. The connection is further supported by the etymological connection between Elam and Elymais, Elymais probably simply being

500-618: A century later. After the reign of the powerful Elamite king Puzur-Inshushinak , Elam was conquered again c.  2100 BC by the Sumerian Third Dynasty of Ur . Native Elamite rule was after a few decades restored under the Shimashki dynasty during the reign of Ur III king Ibbi-Sin . In c. 2004 BC the Shimashki king Kindattu sacked Ur, whereafter Elam became fully independent. The Sukkulmah dynasty , perhaps

600-455: A few exceptions, had no known familial connections to each other. The sequence below follows the Elamite rulers of Susa and is tentative, with approximate regnal dates, due to the small number of surviving sources. In the mid-2nd century BC, the kingdom of Elymais established control of large parts of ancient Elam, centered in the region of Khuzestan . Though in the past suggested to have been

700-418: A group of five rulers of uncertain affiliation. They are identified by their use of the older title, "king of Susa and of Anshan", and by calling themselves "servant of Kirwashir ", an Elamite deity, thereby introducing the pantheon of the highlands to Susiana. The city of Susa itself is one of the oldest in the world dating back to around 4200 BC. Since its founding Susa was known as a central power location for

800-514: A late version of Elamite. Because of the limited surviving source material, the names and dates of the kings of Elymais largely follows evidence from coinage, with some details also known from surviving Babylonian and Parthian documentation. After the end of the Kamnaskirid dynasty in the late first century AD, around the year 76, Elymais was ruled by a cadet branch of the Arsacid dynasty,

900-557: A new army to help the Babylonians and Chaldeans against the Assyrians at the battle of Halule in 691. Both sides claimed the victory in their annals, but Babylon was destroyed by Sennacherib only two years later, and its Elamite allies defeated in the process. The reigns of Humban-Haltash I (688–681 BC) and Humban-Haltash II (680–675 BC) saw a deterioration of Elamite-Babylonian relations, and both of them raided Sippar . At

1000-492: A petty king in the first half of the 6th century). Elamite royalty in the final century preceding the Achaemenids was fragmented among different small kingdoms, the united Elamite nation having been destroyed and colonised by the Assyrians. The three kings at the close of the 7th century (Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, Khallutush-In-Shushinak and Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak) still called themselves "king of Anzan and of Susa" or "enlarger of

1100-556: A proposal that Atta-hushu and Sumu-abum of Babylon were co-temporal. Though they are grouped together by historians as a dynasty for convenience, there is no evidence that the five kings assigned to the Kidinuid dynasty were related to each other. The chronological sequence of the five kings is not certain either, but Kidinu was traditionally believed to have been the earliest and the group is thus referred to as "Kidinuid". In terms of historical periodization, this period of Elamite history

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1200-575: A related lineage, was established in another part of Elam shortly thereafter, and after a period of overlap gradually overtook the Shimashki dynasty. The Sukkalmah dynasty was followed by the Kidinuid and Igihalkid dynasties, whereafter the Elamite kingdom reached the height of its power under the Shutrukid dynasty . Powerful Shutrukid kings, such as Shutruk-Nahhunte I and Shilhak-Inshushinak , exerted dominion over not only Elam itself but also over Babylonia . The kingdom may have disintegrated following

1300-475: A response to invasion from Sumer during the Old Elamite period. Elamite strength was based on an ability to hold these various areas together under a coordinated government that permitted the maximum interchange of the natural resources unique to each region. Traditionally, this was done through a federated governmental structure. The Proto-Elamite city of Susa was founded around 4000 BC in the watershed of

1400-464: A series of bitter internal civil wars which also spread to Babylonia. The Iranian Medes , Parthians , Persians and Sagartians , who had been largely subject to Assyria since their arrival in the region around 1000 BC, quietly took full advantage of the anarchy in Assyria, and in 616 BC freed themselves from Assyrian rule. The Medians took control of Elam during this period. Cyaxares the king of

1500-533: A treaty forced upon them by Ashur-Dan I . Kutir-Nakhkhunte's son Khutelutush-In-Shushinak was probably born of Kutir-Nakhkhunte and his own daughter, Nakhkhunte-utu. He was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar I of Babylon, who sacked Susa and returned the statue of Marduk , but who was then himself defeated by the Assyrian king Ashur-resh-ishi I . He fled to Anshan, but later returned to Susa, and his brother Shilhana-Hamru-Lagamar may have succeeded him as last king of

1600-491: Is conventionally called the "Hubanid dynasty", after the common name element Humban (sometimes rendered Huban ). Although Humban-haltash III is sometimes identified as the last king of Elam, material and documentation evidence suggests that some parts of Elam, including the region surrounding Susa, remained under the control of Elamite rulers until the time of the Achaemenid Empire. Most of these late rulers, with

1700-602: Is conventionally divided into three periods, spanning more than two millennia. The period before the first Elamite period is known as the proto-Elamite period: Proto-Elamite civilization grew up east of the Tigris and Euphrates alluvial plains; it was a combination of the lowlands and the immediate highland areas to the north and east. At least three proto-Elamite states merged to form Elam: Anshan , Awan , and Shimashki. References to Awan are generally older than those to Anshan, and some scholars suggest that both states encompassed

1800-545: Is conventionally referred to as Middle Elamite I (ME I). The second dynasty of the Middle Elamite period is typically referred to as the Igihalkid dynasty, after its founder Igi-halki. In terms of historical periodization, this period of Elamite history is conventionally referred to as Middle Elamite II (ME II). It is not clear how the Igihalkid dynasty came to an end, but Kidin-Hutran III, who died at some point in

1900-765: Is coterminous with Elam is to misunderstand the artificiality and indeed the alienness of Elam as a construct imposed from without on the peoples of the southwestern highlands of the Zagros mountain range, the coast of Fars and the alluvial plain drained by the Karun-Karkheh river system. Prehistorically the area was well settled during the Ubaid period and shared many aspects of Ubaid cultures. Knowledge of Elamite history remains largely fragmentary, reconstruction being based on mainly Mesopotamian ( Sumerian , Akkadian , Assyrian and Babylonian ) sources. The history of Elam

2000-695: The Ancient Near East . In classical literature , Elam was also known as Susiana ( US : / ˌ s uː ʒ i ˈ æ n ə / UK : / ˌ s uː z i ˈ ɑː n ə / ; Ancient Greek : Σουσιανή Sousiānḗ ), a name derived from its capital Susa . Elam was part of the early urbanization of the Near East during the Chalcolithic period (Copper Age). The emergence of written records from around 3000 BC also parallels Sumerian history, where slightly earlier records have been found. In

2100-595: The Hittite Empire in 1595 BC. The Kassite king of Babylon Kurigalzu II who had been installed on the throne by Ashur-uballit I of the Middle Assyrian Empire (1366–1020 BC), temporarily occupied Elam around 1320 BC, and later (c. 1230 BC) another Kassite king, Kashtiliash IV , fought Elam unsuccessfully. Kassite-Babylonian power waned, as they became dominated by the northern Mesopotamian Middle Assyrian Empire . Kiddin-Khutran of Elam repulsed

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2200-532: The Medes , Persians , Parthians and Sagartians entered into an alliance with a coalition of fellow former vassals of Assyria, including Nabopolassar of Babylon and Chaldea , and also the Scythians and Cimmerians , against Sin-shar-ishkun of Assyria, who was faced with unremitting civil war in Assyria itself. This alliance then attacked a disunited and war weakened Assyria, and between 616 BC and 599 BC at

2300-641: The Median dominated Iranian peoples , and was incorporated into the Median Empire (612–546 BC) and then the succeeding Achaemenid Empire (546–332 BC), with Assyria suffering the same fate. (see Achaemenid Assyria , Athura). The prophet Ezekiel describes the status of their power in the 12th year of the Hebrew Babylonian Captivity in 587 BC: There is Elam and all her multitude, All around her grave, All of them slain, fallen by

2400-604: The Neo-Assyrian Empire until the late 7th century. More details are known from the late 8th century BC, when the Elamites were allied with the Chaldean chieftain Merodach-baladan to defend the cause of Babylonian independence from Assyria. Humban-nikash I (743–717 BC) supported Merodach-baladan against Sargon II , apparently without success; while his successor, Shutruk-Nahhunte II (716–699 BC),

2500-840: The Sukkalmah dynasty (c. 1970 – c. 1770 BC) after "Great regents", the title borne by its members, also called the Epartid dynasty after the name of its founder Ebarat/ Eparti, was roughly contemporary with the Old Assyrian Empire , and Old Babylonian period in Mesopotamia, being younger by approximately sixty years than the Akkadian-speaking Old Assyrian Empire in Upper Mesopotamia , and almost seventy-five years older than

2600-622: The Sumerian names ELAM.MA 𒉏𒈠𒆠 and ELAM , the Akkadian Elamû (masculine/neuter) and Elamītu (feminine) meant "resident of Susiana, Elamite". The Sumerian term elam also referred to the highlands. In prehistory, Elam was centered primarily in modern Khuzestān and Ilam . The name Khuzestān is derived ultimately from Old Persian : 𐎢𐎺𐎩 ( hūja ) meaning Susa/Elam. This became Middle Persian : 𐭧𐭥𐭰 ( hūz ) "Susiana", and in modern Persian : خوز ( xuz ), compounded with

2700-495: The Sumerian king list . Elamite history can only be traced from records dating to beginning of the Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC) onwards. The Proto-Elamite states in Jiroft and Zabol (not universally accepted), present a special case because of their great antiquity. In ancient Luristan , bronze-making tradition goes back to the mid-3rd millennium BC, and has many Elamite connections. Bronze objects from several cemeteries in

2800-643: The Sumerians of Mesopotamia and also Gutians from northwestern Iran, alternating with periods of peace and diplomatic approaches. The Elamite state of Simashki at this time also extended into northern Iran, and possibly even as far as the Caspian Sea. Shu-Sin of Ur gave one of his daughters in marriage to a prince of Anshan . But the power of the Sumerians was waning; Ibbi-Sin in the 21st century did not manage to penetrate far into Elam, and in 2004 BC,

2900-529: The Uruk period . Proto-Elamite influence from Mesopotamia in Susa becomes visible from about 3200 BC, and texts in the still undeciphered Proto-Elamite writing system continue to be present until about 2700 BC. The Proto-Elamite period ends with the establishment of the Awan dynasty . The earliest known historical figure connected with Elam is the king Enmebaragesi of Kish (c. 2650 BC?), who subdued it, according to

3000-640: The 12th century BC, gold and silver figurines of Elamite worshippers are shown carrying a sacrificial goat. These divine and royal statues were meant to assure the king of the enduring protection of the deity, well-being and a long life. Works which showed a ruler and his performance of a ritual action were intended to eternalize the effectiveness of such deeds. Found near the Temple of Inshushinak in Susa , these statuettes would have been considered charged with beneficial power. While archaeologists cannot be certain that

3100-473: The Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (668–627 BC), who sent wheat to Susiana during a famine. But these friendly relations were only temporary, and Urtaku was killed in battle during a failed Elamite attack on Assyria. His successor Tepti-Humban-Inshushinak (664–653 BC) attacked Assyria, but was defeated and killed by Ashurbanipal following the battle of the Ulaï in 653 BC; and Susa itself was sacked and occupied by

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3200-455: The Assyrians. In this same year the Assyrian vassal Median state to the north fell to the invading Scythians and Cimmerians under Madyes , and displacing another Assyrian vassal people, the Parsu ( Persians ) to Anshan which their king Teispes captured that same year, turning it for the first time into an Indo-Iranian kingdom under Assyrian dominance that would a century later become

3300-686: The Awan dynasty collapsed as Elam was temporarily overrun by the Guti , another pre-Iranic people from what is now north west Iran who also spoke a language isolate . About a century later, the Sumerian king Shulgi of the Neo-Sumerian Empire retook the city of Susa and the surrounding region. During the first part of the rule of the Simashki dynasty, Elam was under intermittent attack from

3400-605: The Babylonian king Marduk-balassu-iqbi against the Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad V ( r.  824–811 BC). An Elamite ambassador to Assyria is also attested in the reign of the Assyrian king Adad-nirari III ( r.  811–783 BC). Elam was clearly a consolidated kingdom with strong royal authority by the first half of the 8th century BC, when the country and its rulers once more begin to appear frequently in Mesopotamian texts. The earliest known dynasty of rulers from

3500-620: The Elamite kapniškir , meaning "treasurer". Circumstantial evidence also supports the continuity of the Elamite language; in the Acts of the Apostles in the Bible, written in the late 1st century AD, Elamite is referenced as a distinct and living language and some evidence thereafter suggests it survived for far longer. In Arabic sources as late as the 10th century AD there are references to an "incomprehensible" language in Elam dubbed Khūzī , perhaps

3600-824: The Elamite dynasty were referred to as "great king" and "father" by kings in Syria and Mesopotamia and were the only kings that the Mesopotamian Kings considered to be higher in status than themselves. Siwe-Palar-Khuppak , who for some time was the most powerful person in the area, respectfully addressed as "Father" by Mesopotamian kings such as Zimrilim of Mari , Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria , and even Hammurabi of Babylon. During his reign alone, Elam interfered extensively with Mesopotamian politics, allowing messengers and envoys to travel far west to Emar and Qatna in Syria. His messenger reached Emar and sent his three servants to King Amut-piʾel II of Qatna (1772–1762 BC), and

3700-559: The Elamites and for later Persian dynasties. Susa's power would peak during the Middle Elamite period, when it would be the region's capital. Of the Igehalkids (c. 1400 – 1210 BC), ten rulers are known, though their number was possibly larger. Some of them married Kassite princesses. The Kassites were also a language isolate speaking people from the Zagros Mountains who had taken Babylonia shortly after its sacking by

3800-550: The Elamites defeated the Kassites permanently, killing the Kassite king of Babylon, Zababa-shuma-iddin , and replacing him with his eldest son, Kutir-Nakhkhunte, who held it no more than three years before being ejected by the native Akkadian-speaking Babylonians . The Elamites then briefly came into conflict with Assyria , managing to take the Assyrian city of Arrapha (modern Kirkuk ) before being ultimately defeated and having

3900-415: The Elamites, allied with the people of Susa and led by king Kindattu , the sixth king of Simashki, managed to sack Ur and lead Ibbi-Sin into captivity, ending the third dynasty of Ur . The Akkadian kings of Isin , successor state to Ur, managed to drive the Elamites out of Ur, rebuild the city, and to return the statue of Nanna that the Elamites had plundered. The succeeding dynasty, often called

4000-538: The Elamites, overthrew Rim-Sin of Larsa, and established a short lived Babylonian Empire in Mesopotamia. Little is known about the latter part of this dynasty, since sources again become sparse with the Kassite rule of Babylon (from c. 1595 BC). Many archaeological finds suggest that maritime trade along the shores of Africa and Asia started several millennia ago. Trade between the Indus Valley civilization and

4100-729: The Elder Siamun Psusennes II Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef ( Sargonid dynasty ) Tiglath-Pileser Shalmaneser Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon Sennacherib Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Elam Elam ( / ˈ iː l ə m / )

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4200-529: The Elymaei") as primarily the highland area of Khuzestan. Disagreements over the location also exist in the Jewish historical sources says Daniel T. Potts. Some ancient sources draw a distinction between Elam as the highland area of Khuzestan, and Susiana as the lowland area. Yet in other ancient sources 'Elam' and 'Susiana' seem equivalent. The uncertainty in this area extends also to modern scholarship. Since

4300-587: The Indus were found in Susa in the excavation of the tell of the citadel. In particular, carnelian beads with an etched design in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley, and made according to a technique of acid-etching developed by the Harappans . Exchanges seem to have waned after 1900 BC, together with the disappearance of the Indus valley civilization. The Middle Elamite period began with

4400-588: The Iranian plateau, and military expeditions to the area became more common. With the collapse of Akkad under Sargon's great-great-grandson, Shar-kali-sharri , Elam declared independence under the last Awan king, Kutik-Inshushinak (c. 2240 – c. 2220 BC), and threw off the Akkadian language, promoting in its place the brief Linear Elamite script. Kutik-Inshushinnak conquered Susa and Anshan, and seems to have achieved some sort of political unity. Following his reign,

4500-638: The Iranian plateau. Assyrian sources beginning around 800 BC distinguish the "powerful Medes", i.e. the actual Medes , Persians , Parthians , Sagartians , etc. Among these pressuring tribes were the Parsu , first recorded in 844 BC as living on the southeastern shore of Lake Urmiah , but who by the end of this period would cause the Elamites' original home, the Iranian Plateau, to be renamed Persia proper. These newly arrived Iranian peoples were also conquered by Assyria, and largely regarded as vassals of

4600-562: The Kassites by defeating Enlil-nadin-shumi in 1224 BC and Adad-shuma-iddina around 1222–1217 BC. Under the Igehalkids, Akkadian inscriptions were rare, and Elamite highland gods became firmly established in Susa. Under the Shutrukids (c. 1210 – 1100 BC), the Elamite empire reached the height of its power. Shutruk-Nakhkhunte and his three sons, Kutir-Nakhkhunte II, Shilhak-In-Shushinak, and Khutelutush-In-Shushinak were capable of frequent military campaigns into Kassite Babylonia (which

4700-541: The Neo-Elamite period is conventionally referred to simply as the First Neo-Elamite dynasty. Though sometimes grouped together with the earlier Neo-Elamite kings in a single dynasty, there is no evidence for any kinship between Humban-menanu and Humban-haltash I and Babylonian sources appear to clearly distinguish the two as separate, suggesting that Humban-haltash I founded a new dynastic line. His dynasty

4800-512: The Old Babylonian Empire . This period is said by many to be confusing and difficult to reconstruct. It was apparently founded by Eparti I. During this time, Susa was under Elamite control, but Akkadian-speaking Mesopotamian states such as Larsa and Isin continually tried to retake the city. Around 1850 BC Kudur-Mabuk , apparently king of another Akkadian state to the north of Larsa, managed to install his son, Warad-Sin , on

4900-688: The Old Elamite period ( Middle Bronze Age ), Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau , centered in Anshan , and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. Its culture played a crucial role during the Persian Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded Elam, when the Elamite language remained among those in official use. Elamite is generally considered

5000-500: The Shimashki dynasty are known by name from the same ancient king list also listing the kings of the Awan dynasty. The king Ebarti II, attached to the Shimashki dynasty in the king list tablet between Tan-Ruhuratir I and Idattu II, has in this list been placed in the succeeding Sukkalmah dynasty, which traced its descent from him. The rulers of the Shimashki dynasty are beyond the king list confirmed by their own inscriptions and by surviving sources from Mesopotamia. Though later portions of

5100-489: The Shimashki realm, which was continued under Kindattu, who sacked Ur and ended the Third Dynasty of Ur. After Kindattu's sack of Ur, Elam became fully independent under the Shimashki rulers. The Sukkalmah dynasty came to power shortly after the fall of the Third Dynasty of Ur, though it overlapped with the Shimashki dynasty for well over a century. The dynastic shift probably reflects a gradual change in power, perhaps

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5200-465: The Shutrukid dynasty. Following Khutelutush-In-Shushinak, the power of the Elamite empire began to wane seriously, as after the death of this ruler, Elam disappears into obscurity for more than three centuries. Very little is known of this period. Anshan was still at least partially Elamite. There appear to have been unsuccessful alliances of Elamites, Babylonians, Chaldeans and other peoples against

5300-473: The Sukkalmah period is not entirely clear; whereas some scholars believe there to have been a single line of rulers reigning in sequence, others believe, due to the different titles and capitals attested, that rulership was exercised as a triumvirate, with the paramount ruler (the sukkalmah at Susa) ruling together with junior rulers ( sukkal s) of "Elam" and "Shimashki". The sequence of rulers below follows

5400-427: The Sumerian king Ur-Nammu in c. 2112 BC. Though somewhat tenuous, Sumerian rule in Elam was strong enough for the kings of Ur to engage in diplomacy with other Iranian regions. Sumerian imperialism was eventually met with Elamite resistance, most notably in the region of Shimashki, from which a new dynasty (though its precise boundaries are not clear) extended its rule into the lands surrounding Susa. Twelve kings of

5500-510: The beginning of Esarhaddon 's reign in Assyria (681–669 BC), Nabu-zer-kitti-lišir, an ethnically Elamite governor in the south of Babylonia, revolted and besieged Ur , but was routed by the Assyrians and fled to Elam where the king of Elam, fearing Assyrian repercussions, took him prisoner and put him to the sword. Urtaku (674–664 BC) for some time wisely maintained good relations with

5600-402: The cities of Mesopotamia and Elam, can be inferred from numerous find of Indus artifacts, particularly in the excavation at Susa . Various objects made with shell species that are characteristic of the Indus coast, particularly Trubinella pyrum and Fasciolaria trapezium , have been found in the archaeological sites of Mesopotamia and Susa dating from around 2500–2000 BC. Carnelian beads from

5700-435: The defeat of Hutelutush-Inshushinak by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar I in the late 12th century BC, but a new line of rulers are attested in Elam from the early 8th century BC onwards. The so-called Neo-Elamite kingdom came under the rule of the Hubanid dynasty in the early 7th century BC, which initiated a short period of intense internal conflict and meddling in Assyrian and Babylonian affairs. The Neo-Elamite kingdom

5800-448: The discovery of ancient Anshan , and the realization of its great importance in Elamite history, the definitions were changed again. Some modern scholars argued that the center of Elam lay at Anshan and in the highlands around it, and not at Susa in lowland Khuzistan. Potts disagrees suggesting that the term 'Elam' was primarily constructed by the Mesopotamians to describe the area in general terms, without referring specifically either to

5900-423: The early reign of the Babylonian king Adad-shuma-usur ( r.   1216–1187 BC), is generally regarded to have been the last member. The third and last dynasty of the Middle Elamite period is typically referred to as the Shutrukid dynasty, after its founder Shutruk-Nahhunte I. In terms of historical periodization, this period of Elamite history is conventionally referred to as Middle Elamite III (ME III). Though

6000-402: The entire Elamite kingdom. Its use as a dynastic name comes from both Old Babylonian sources, which designated the kings of the earliest Elamite dynasty as belonging to the "Awan dynasty", and a native Elamite king list of the Awan and succeeding Shimashki dynasties. The rulers preceding Hishep-ratep and Luh-ishan fall into the Early Dynastic period , though their historicity beyond appearing in

6100-428: The first millennium. In general, any gold or silver statuettes which represent the king making a sacrifice not only served a religious function, but was also a display of wealth. Shu-Sin Following an open revolt of his Amorite subjects, he directed the construction of a fortified wall between the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers in his fourth year, intending it to hold off any further Amorite attacks. He

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6200-511: The first two dynasties, those of Awan (or Avan ; c. 2400 – c. 2100 BC) and Simashki (c. 2100 – c. 1970 BC), are known from a list from Susa dating to the Old Babylonian period . Two Elamite dynasties said to have exercised brief control over parts of Sumer in very early times include Awan and Hamazi ; and likewise, several of the stronger Sumerian rulers, such as Eannatum of Lagash and Lugal-anne-mundu of Adab , are recorded as temporarily dominating Elam. The Awan dynasty (2350–2150 BC)

6300-415: The historical record of Elam is extremely scant for well over three centuries, a period often called the "Elamite Dark Ages". As a result, the political organization and administration of Elam in the early Neo-Elamite period is more or less completely unknown. Some form of Elamite royal authority appears to have been active from at least the late 9th century BC onwards, since Elamite troops were sent to support

6400-486: The king list cannot be verified. If real, the first king mentioned in the king list (Peyli) could speculatively be placed sometime in between c.  2550  – c.  2400 BC . The Awan dynasty was not an entirely contiguous family line and was for a little over a century interrupted by governors appointed by the Akkadian Empire . After the reign of Puzur-Inshushinak there was renewed Mesopotamian control of Elam under Third Dynasty of Ur , an empire established by

6500-488: The king of Qatna also sent two messengers to Elam. The Elamite rulers had become increasingly involved in Mesopotamian politics during the Sukkalmah dynasty . In fact, Rim-Sin of Larsa himself was of Elamite descent, notwithstanding his Akkadian name. Kudur-Nahhunte , who plundered the temples of southern Mesopotamia, the north being under the control of the Old Assyrian Empire . But Elamite influence in southern Mesopotamia did not last. Around 1760 BC, Hammurabi drove out

6600-438: The king of Ur destroyed Simanum 4 Year Szu-Sin the king of Ur built the amurru wall (called) 'muriq-tidnim / holding back the Tidanum' 6 Year Szu-Sin the king of Ur erected a magnificent stele for Enlil and Ninlil 7 Year Szu-Sin, the king of Ur, king of the four quarters, destroyed the land of Zabszali 9 Year Szu-Sin the king of Ur built the temple of Szara in Umma There is vast number of artifacts with inscriptions in

6700-418: The king, they chased his daughter away from her residence." Shu-Sin subsequently conquered Šimānum and restored his daughter there. The year names for the reign of Shu-sin are all known and give an information about the events of his reign. The most important ones are: 1 Year Szu-Sin became king 2 Year Szu-Sin the king of Ur made / caulked the boat of Enki (called the) 'ibex of the abzu' 3 Year Szu-Sin

6800-451: The kingdom of Anzan and of Susa", at a time when the Achaemenid Persians were already ruling Anshan under Assyrian dominance. The various Assyrian Empires , which had been the dominant force in the Near East , Asia Minor , the Caucasus , North Africa , Arabian peninsula and East Mediterranean for much of the period from the first half of the 14th century BC, began to unravel after the death of Ashurbanipal in 631 BC, descending into

6900-467: The last Elamite to claim the old title "king of Anshan and Susa", was murdered by his brother Hallutash-Inshushinak I , who managed to briefly capture the Assyrian governor of Babylonia Ashur-nadin-shumi and the city of Babylon in 694 BC. Sennacherib soon responded by invading and ravaging Elam. Khallushu was in turn assassinated by Kutir-Nahhunte III , who succeeded him but soon abdicated in favor of Humban-numena III (692–689 BC). Khumma-Menanu recruited

7000-416: The last extensive records of the dynasty are from the time of Hutelutush-Inshushinak in the late 12th century BC, sparse later texts suggest that the Shutrukid dynasty might have stayed in power until the middle or late 11th century BC. The Neo-Elamite period spans the centuries from the fall of the Shutrukid dynasty to the rise of the Achaemenid Empire . After the defeat of Hutelutush-Inshushinak in 1100 BC,

7100-440: The list might record sequential rule, it is likely that the rulers recorded before Kindattu were contemporary rivals or co-rulers, rather than rulers in sequence, since Girnamme, Tazitta I and Ebarti I all appear in the inscriptions of Shu-Sin of Ur ( r.   2037–2028 BC). Ebarti I appears to have been the most prominent of the three, though they all belonged to the same family lineage. Ebarti I initiated an age of expansion of

7200-411: The location where these figures were found indicates a date before or in the time of the Elamite king Shilhak-Inshushinak, stylistic features can help ground the figures in a specific time period. The hairstyle and costume of the figures which are strewn with dots and hemmed with short fringe at the bottom, and the precious metals point to a date in the latter part of the second millennium BC rather than to

7300-405: The lowlanders or the highlanders, Elam is not an Iranian term and has no relationship to the conception which the peoples of highland Iran had of themselves. They were Anshanites, Marhashians, Shimashkians, Zabshalians, Sherihumians, Awanites, etc. That Anshan played a leading role in the political affairs of the various highland groups inhabiting southwestern Iran is clear. But to argue that Anshan

7400-457: The most probable sequence of Sukkalmah rulers, per Peyronel (2018), with additional rulers inserted in their chronological placements per Potts (1999). It is impossible to establish the length of any of their reigns, though they can at times be chronologically pinpointed through synchronisms with Mesopotamian rulers. Some internal order can however be imposed in the later portion using cuneiform documents and sealings. These sources have also supported

7500-1545: The name of Shu-sin. ( Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi ( Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon

7600-516: The nucleus of the Achaemenid dynasty . The Assyrians successfully subjugated and drove the Scythians and Cimmerians from their Iranian colonies, and the Persians , Medes and Parthians remained vassals of Assyria. A brief respite to the Elamites was provided by the civil war between Ashurbanipal and his own brother Shamash-shum-ukin , whom their father Esarhaddon had installed as

7700-468: The powerful Neo Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC); the Babylonian king Mar-biti-apla-ushur (984–979 BC) was of Elamite origin, and Elamites are recorded to have fought unsuccessfully with the Babylonian king Marduk-balassu-iqbi against the Assyrian forces under Shamshi-Adad V (823–811 BC). The later Neo-Elamite period is characterized by a significant migration of Indo-European speaking Iranians to

7800-568: The region date to the Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia) I, and to Ur-III period c. 2900–2000 BC. These excavations include Kalleh Nisar, Bani Surmah, Chigha Sabz, Kamtarlan, Sardant, and Gulal-i Galbi. The Old Elamite period began around 2700 BC. Historical records mention the conquest of Elam by Enmebaragesi , the Sumerian king of Kish in Mesopotamia . Three dynasties ruled during this period. Twelve kings of each of

7900-652: The rise of the Anshanite dynasties around 1500 BC. Their rule was characterized by an "Elamisation" of Susa, and the kings took the title "king of Anshan and Susa". While the first of these dynasties, the Kidinuids continued to use the Akkadian language frequently in their inscriptions, the succeeding Igihalkids and Shutrukids used Elamite with increasing regularity. Likewise, Elamite language and culture grew in importance in Susiana. The Kidinuids (c. 1500 – 1400 BC) are

8000-417: The river Karun . It is considered to be the site of Proto-Elamite cultural formation. During its early history, it fluctuated between submission to Mesopotamian and Elamite power. The earliest levels (22–17 in the excavations conducted by Le Brun, 1978) exhibit pottery that has no equivalent in Mesopotamia, but for the succeeding period, the excavated material allows identification with the culture of Sumer of

8100-581: The rule of a cadet branch of the Parthian Arsacid dynasty . Following the fall of the Parthian Empire and the rise of the succeeding Sasanian Empire in the early 3rd century AD, Elymais was conquered and abolished as a distinct kingdom, marking the final end of Elamite political history. The Awan dynasty is the earliest known royal dynasty of Elam. "Awan" was a native Elamite term, referring mainly to modern Khuzestan but also perhaps to

8200-463: The rule of the Third Dynasty of Ur. The transition from the Shimashki to the Sukkalmah age is obscure. It seems that the two sequences of rulers were connected; the first Sukkalmah ruler, Ebarti II, is in inscriptions referenced as the father of the succeeding Shilhaha but also appears in a king list recording the Shimashki kings and is identified in some later sources as "king of Anshan and Susa", not as sukkalmah . The political structure of Elam during

8300-1403: The ruling dynasty of the Parthian Empire . Coins minted by the Arsacid kings of Elymais are highly similar to the coins minted by the Kamnaskirid rulers, though differ in including inscriptions in both Greek and Aramaic , rather than just Greek. ( Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi ( Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon

8400-479: The same territory, in different eras (see Hanson, Encyclopædia Iranica). To this core Shushiana was periodically annexed and broken off. In addition, some Proto-Elamite sites are found well outside this area, spread out on the Iranian plateau ; such as Warakshe , Sialk (now a suburb of the modern city of Kashan ) and Jiroft in Kerman Province . The state of Elam was formed from these lesser states as

8500-472: The sword, Who have gone down uncircumcised to the lower parts of the earth, Who caused their terror in the land of the living; Now they bear their shame with those who go down to the Pit. ( Ezekiel 32:24) Their successors Khumma-Menanu and Shilhak-In-Shushinak II bore the simple title "king", and the final king Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak used no honorific at all. In 540 BC, Achaemenid rule began in Susa. Elymaïs

8600-534: The temples of Elam to naught; their gods and goddesses I scattered to the winds. The tombs of their ancient and recent kings I devastated, I exposed to the sun, and I carried away their bones toward the land of Ashur. I devastated the provinces of Elam and on their lands I sowed salt. The devastation was a little less complete than Ashurbanipal boasted, and a weak and fragmented Elamite rule was resurrected soon after with Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, son of Humban-umena III (not to be confused with Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, son of Indada,

8700-413: The throne of Larsa, and Warad-Sin's brother, Rim-Sin , succeeded him and conquered much of southern Mesopotamia for Larsa . Notable Eparti dynasty rulers in Elam during this time include Suruhduh/Siruk-tuh/Sirukdukh (c. 1850 BC), who entered various military coalitions to contain the power of the south Mesopotamian states. Siruk-tuh was the king of Elam when Hammurabi first ruled, he and later kings of

8800-409: The title of king, but rather sukkalmah ("grand regent") and sukkal ("regent") of Elam, Shimashki or Susa. The use of sukkalmah , from which the dynasty received its name, originates from Mesopotamia, where it was used as a title ranking below king. In Elam, its usage as the term for the region's paramount ruler might derive from the title possibly being used by the vassals or governors in Susa during

8900-467: The toponymic suffix -stån "place". In geographical terms, Susiana basically represents the Iranian province of Khuzestan around the river Karun . In ancient times, several names were used to describe this area. The ancient geographer Ptolemy was the earliest to call the area Susiana , referring to the country around Susa. Another ancient geographer, Strabo , viewed Elam and Susiana as two different geographic regions. He referred to Elam ("land of

9000-438: The two dynasties began as a single royal family of co-rulers in different geographical regions. The Sukkalmah period was one of the most prosperous in Elamite history, marked by unprecedented prestige and influence. Elam was frequently a powerbroker in Mesopotamian politics, entering into uneasy alliances with various states and rulers. Several new developments also took place within Elam during this time. Notably, rulers did not use

9100-727: The vassal king of Babylon. The Elamites gave support to Shamash-shum-ukin, but also engaged in fighting among themselves. Babylon was besieged in midsummer of 650 BC, and fell by 648 BC; Shamash-shum-ukin died in a fire. The Elamite kingdom was greatly weakened by rebellions and civil wars; kings from 651 to 640 had short reigns before being usurped, overthrown, or captured by the Assyrians. Having dealt with his brother, Ashurbanipal sensed an opportunity to devastate Elam. In 646 BC Ashurbanipal devastated Susiana with ease, and sacked Susa. He installed several vassal kings such as Tammaritu , although these quickly broke off relations with Assyria over their pillages. The last Elamite king, Humban-Haltash III ,

9200-786: The very latest, had conquered its vast empire which stretched from the Caucasus Mountains to Egypt , Libya and the Arabian Peninsula , and from Cyprus and Ephesus to Persia and the Caspian Sea . The major cities in Assyria itself were gradually taken; Arrapha (modern Kirkuk ) and Kalhu (modern Nimrud ) in 616 BC, Ashur , Dur-Sharrukin and Arbela (modern Erbil ) in 613, Nineveh falling in 612, Harran in 608 BC, Carchemish in 605 BC, and finally Dur-Katlimmu by 599 BC. Elam, already largely destroyed and subjugated by Assyria, thus became easy prey for

9300-638: Was also being ravaged by the empire of Assyria during this period), and at the same time were exhibiting vigorous construction activity—building and restoring luxurious temples in Susa and across their Empire. Shutruk-Nakhkhunte raided Babylonia, carrying home to Susa trophies like the statues of Marduk and Manishtushu , the Manishtushu Obelisk , the Stele of Hammurabi and the stele of Naram-Sin . In 1158 BC, after much of Babylonia had been annexed by Ashur-Dan I of Assyria and Shutruk-Nakhkhunte,

9400-414: Was an ancient civilization centered in the far west and southwest of modern-day Iran , stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of southern Iraq . The modern name Elam stems from the Sumerian transliteration elam(a) , along with the later Akkadian elamtu , and the Elamite haltamti. Elamite states were among the leading political forces of

9500-466: Was captured in 640 BC by Ashurbanipal, who annexed and destroyed the country. In a tablet unearthed in 1854 by Austen Henry Layard , Ashurbanipal boasts of the destruction he had wrought: Susa, the great holy city, abode of their Gods, seat of their mysteries, I conquered. I entered its palaces, I opened their treasuries where silver and gold, goods and wealth were amassed ... I destroyed the ziggurat of Susa. I smashed its shining copper horns. I reduced

9600-565: Was effectively destroyed by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal in 646 BC, though Elamite rulers continued to govern the Elamite heartland until the rise and early years of the Achaemenid Empire in the late 6th century BC. The Elamites created a new kingdom, Elymais , around 147 BC. Initially ruled by the Kamnaskirid dynasty , Elymais often fell under the control of the Parthian Empire as a vassal state, and eventually came under

9700-542: Was partly contemporary with that of the Mesopotamian emperor Sargon of Akkad , who not only defeated the Awan king Luh-ishan and subjected Susa , but attempted to make the East Semitic Akkadian the official language there. From this time, Mesopotamian sources concerning Elam become more frequent, since the Mesopotamians had developed an interest in resources (such as wood, stone, and metal) from

9800-410: Was routed by Sargon's troops during an expedition in 710, and another Elamite defeat by Sargon's troops is recorded for 708. The Assyrian dominion over Babylon was underlined by Sargon's son Sennacherib , who defeated the Elamites, Chaldeans and Babylonians and dethroned Merodach-baladan for a second time, installing his own son Ashur-nadin-shumi on the Babylonian throne in 700. Shutruk-Nakhkhunte II,

9900-431: Was succeeded by his son Ibbi-Sin . An erotic poem addressed to Shu-Sin by a female speaker is preserved in a cuneiform tablet called Istanbul 2461 . The poem's speaker expresses her strong desires and longings for the king. An inscription states that he gave his daughter in marriage to the ruler of Šimānum "His daughter was given as a bride to Simanum. Simanum, Habura, and the surrounding districts rebelled against

10000-535: Was the location of the death of Antiochus III the Great who was killed while pillaging a temple of Bel in 187 BC. Following the rise and fall of the Achaemenid Empire and the Seleucid Empire , a new dynasty of Elamite rulers established Elymais from 147 BC to 224 AD, usually under the suzerainty of the Parthian Empire , until the advent of the unified Sasanian Empire in 224 AD. Dated to approximately

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