67-398: An erne is a sea eagle , or an eagle more broadly. Erne may refer to: Sea eagle A sea eagle or fish eagle (also called erne or ern , mostly in reference to the white-tailed eagle) is any of the birds of prey in the subfamily Haliaeetinae of the bird of prey family Accipitridae . Ten extant species exist, currently described with this label. The subfamily has
134-650: A 2021 study published in Frontiers in Forests and Global Change , roughly 3% of the planet's terrestrial surface is ecologically and faunally intact, meaning areas with healthy populations of native animal species and little to no human footprint. Many of these intact ecosystems were in areas inhabited by indigenous peoples. According to a 2018 study in Nature , 87% of the oceans and 77% of land (excluding Antarctica) have been altered by anthropogenic activity, and 23% of
201-435: A combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land. It is viewed as any change or disturbance to the land perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. Natural hazards are excluded as a cause; however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and bush fires. This is considered to be an important topic of the 21st century due to the implications land degradation has upon agronomic productivity ,
268-570: A four-year study in November 2006, which predicted that, at prevailing trends, the world would run out of wild-caught seafood in 2048. The scientists stated that the decline was a result of overfishing , pollution and other environmental factors that were reducing the population of fisheries at the same time as their ecosystems were being degraded. Yet again the analysis has met criticism as being fundamentally flawed, and many fishery management officials, industry representatives and scientists challenge
335-608: A global overpopulation scenario is unlikely. Other projections have the population continuing to grow into the next century. While some studies, including the British government's 2021 Economics of Biodiversity review, posit that population growth and overconsumption are interdependent, critics suggest blaming overpopulation for environmental issues can unduly blame poor populations in the Global South or oversimplify more complex drivers, leading some to treat overconsumption as
402-445: A hydrological result it is found that: These may be called direct effects. Effects on soil and water quality are indirect and complex, and subsequent impacts on natural, ecological and socio-economic conditions are intricate. In some, but not all instances, water logging and soil salinization can result. However, irrigation can also be used, together with soil drainage, to overcome soil salinization by leaching excess salts from
469-555: A modern sea eagle. The genus was present in the middle Miocene (12–16 Mya) with certainty. The origin of the sea eagles and fishing eagles is probably in the general area of the Bay of Bengal . During the Eocene / Oligocene , as the Indian subcontinent slowly collided with Eurasia , this was a vast expanse of fairly shallow ocean; the initial sea eagle divergence seems to have resulted in
536-450: A population of six billion their biomass exceeded that of any other large land dwelling animal species that had ever existed by over 100 times. However, attributing overpopulation as a cause of environmental issues is controversial. Demographic projections indicate that population growth is slowing and world population will peak in the 21st century, and many experts believe that global resources can meet this increased demand, suggesting
603-442: A rate almost 32 times greater than those of the developing world, who make up the majority of the human population. Human civilization has caused the loss of 83% of all wild mammals and half of plants. The world's chickens are triple the weight of all the wild birds, while domesticated cattle and pigs outweigh all wild mammals by 14 to 1. Global meat consumption is projected to more than double by 2050, perhaps as much as 76%, as
670-464: A separate issue. Advocates for further reducing fertility rates, among them Rodolfo Dirzo and Paul R. Ehrlich , argue that this reduction should primarily affect the "overconsuming wealthy and middle classes," with the ultimate goal being to shrink "the scale of the human enterprise" and reverse the "growthmania" which they say threatens biodiversity and the "life-support systems of humanity." The environmental impact of agriculture varies based on
737-401: A significant reach, with a scholarly article in 2005 reporting that they were "found in riverine and coastal habitat[s] throughout the world". However, Haliaeetinae inhabited areas have experienced particular threats given the context of human impacts on the environment . The genus Haliaeetus was introduced in 1809 by French naturalist Marie Jules César Savigny in his chapter on birds in
SECTION 10
#1732771814148804-518: A smaller, darker beak like the tropical species. The rate of molecular evolution in Haliaeetus is fairly slow, as is to be expected in long-lived birds which take years to successfully reproduce. In the mtDNA cytochrome b gene, a mutation rate of 0.5–0.7% per million years (if assuming an Early Miocene divergence) or maybe as little as 0.25–0.3% per million years (for a Late Eocene divergence) has been shown. The Haliaeetinae subfamily
871-467: A substitute for those synthetic fertilizers that require considerable fossil fuel use for manufacture, grazing use for wildlife habitat enhancement, and carbon sequestration in response to grazing practices, among others. Conversely, according to some studies appearing in peer-reviewed journals, the growing demand for meat is contributing to significant biodiversity loss as it is a significant driver of deforestation and habitat destruction. Moreover,
938-518: A variety of factors from the soil, to water, the air, animal and soil diversity, plants, and the food itself. Some of the environmental issues that are related to agriculture are climate change , deforestation , genetic engineering, irrigation problems, pollutants, soil degradation , and waste . The environmental impact of fishing can be divided into issues that involve the availability of fish to be caught, such as overfishing , sustainable fisheries , and fisheries management ; and issues that involve
1005-461: A wide range of species, including many endangered animals , ranging from birds to rhinos and tigers. Since 2000, 47% of deforestation has been for the purpose of growing oil palm plantations, with around 877,000 acres being affected per year. Natural forests are extremely biodiverse , with a wide range of organisms using them as their habitat. But oil palm plantations are the opposite. Studies have shown that oil palm plantations have less than 1% of
1072-540: Is a concern, especially where intensive livestock production is carried out. In the US, in a comparison of 32 industries, the livestock industry was found to have a relatively good record of compliance with environmental regulations pursuant to the Clean Water Act and Clean Air Act, but pollution issues from large livestock operations can sometimes be serious where violations occur. Various measures have been suggested by
1139-470: Is a growing gap between how many fish are available to be caught and humanity's desire to catch them, a problem that gets worse as the world population grows. Similar to other environmental issues , there can be conflict between the fishermen who depend on fishing for their livelihoods and fishery scientists who realize that if future fish populations are to be sustainable then some fisheries must reduce or even close. The journal Science published
1206-522: Is a non-profit organisation that has developed criteria that its members (of which, as of 2018, there are over 4,000) must follow to produce, source and use sustainable palm oil (Certified Sustainable Palm Oil; CSPO). Currently, 19% of global palm oil is certified by the RSPO as sustainable. The CSPO criteria states that oil palm plantations cannot be grown in the place of forests or other areas with endangered species, fragile ecosystems, or those that facilitate
1273-622: Is a significant factor in contemporary biodiversity loss . A 2021 report in Frontiers in Conservation Science proposed that population size and growth are significant factors in biodiversity loss , soil degradation and pollution . Some scientists and environmentalists, including Pentti Linkola , Jared Diamond and E. O. Wilson , posit that human population growth is devastating to biodiversity . Wilson for example, has expressed concern that when Homo sapiens reached
1340-416: Is an especially threatened collection of creatures within the broader Accipitridae species, according to the academic journal Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution , given the " anthropogenic factors " involved. The publication reported in 2005 that prior trends had meant that sea eagles could be "found in riverine and coastal habitat[s] throughout the world". In terms of international scientific campaigns,
1407-444: Is based on the farmer's production methods, and "effect-based", which is the impact that farming methods have on the farming system or on emissions to the environment. An example of a means-based indicator would be the quality of groundwater that is affected by the amount of nitrogen applied to the soil . An indicator reflecting the loss of nitrate to groundwater would be effect-based. The environmental impact of agriculture involves
SECTION 20
#17327718141481474-403: Is currently contributing relatively little to global warming. Although reduction of methane emissions would have a rapid effect on warming, the expected effect would be small. Other anthropogenic GHG emissions associated with livestock production include carbon dioxide from fossil fuel consumption (mostly for production, harvesting and transport of feed), and nitrous oxide emissions associated with
1541-654: Is now also used in food, cosmetic and other types of products in other nations as well. Over one-third of vegetable oil consumed globally is palm oil. The consumption of palm oil in food, domestic and cosmetic products all over the world means there is a high demand for it. To meet this, oil palm plantations are created, which means removing natural forests to clear space. This deforestation has taken place in Asia, Latin America and West Africa, with Malaysia and Indonesia holding 90% of global oil palm trees. These forests are home to
1608-418: Is still not the best option) is through agroforestry , whereby the plantations are made up of multiple types of plants used in trade – such as coffee or cocoa . While these are more biodiverse than monoculture plantations, they are still not as effective as natural forests. In addition to this, agroforestry does not bring as many economic benefits to workers, their families and the surrounding areas. The RSPO
1675-540: The Description de l'Égypte . The two fish eagles in the genus Ichthyophaga were found to lie within Haliaeetus in a genetic study in 2005. They were then moved accordingly. They are very similar to the tropical Haliaeetus species. A prehistoric (i.e. extinct before 1500) form from Maui in the Hawaiian Islands may represent a species or subspecies in this genus. The relationships to other genera in
1742-482: The Agricultural Revolution but also applies broadly to all major human impacts on the environment. Many of the actions taken by humans that contribute to a heated environment stem from the burning of fossil fuel from a variety of sources, such as: electricity, cars, planes, space heating, manufacturing, or the destruction of forests. Overconsumption is a situation where resource use has outpaced
1809-665: The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) protects all entities in the broader species, including sea eagles. Sea eagles vary in size, from Sanford's sea eagle , averaging 2–2.7 kilograms (4.4–6.0 lb), to Steller's sea eagle , weighing up to 9 kg (20 lb). At up to 6.9 kg (15 lb 3 oz), the white-tailed eagle is the largest eagle in Europe. Bald eagles can weigh up to 6.3 kg (13 lb 14 oz), making them
1876-516: The amphibian crisis being a few broader examples of an almost universal, cosmopolitan decline in biodiversity. Human overpopulation (and continued population growth ) along with overconsumption , especially by the super- affluent , are considered to be the primary drivers of this rapid decline. The 2017 World Scientists' Warning to Humanity stated that, among other things, this sixth extinction event unleashed by humanity could annihilate many current life forms and consign them to extinction by
1943-641: The extinction of species at an alarming rate. Humans are the cause of the current mass extinction , called the Holocene extinction , driving extinctions to 100 to 1000 times the normal background rate. Though most experts agree that human beings have accelerated the rate of species extinction, some scholars have postulated without humans, the biodiversity of the Earth would grow at an exponential rate rather than decline. The Holocene extinction continues, with meat consumption , overfishing , ocean acidification and
2010-528: The extinction of wildlife; and pollution. It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. As indicated by the I=PAT equation, environmental impact (I) or degradation is caused by the combination of an already very large and increasing human population (P), continually increasing economic growth or per capita affluence (A), and the application of resource-depleting and polluting technology (T). According to
2077-538: The 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services by IPBES also warns that ever increasing land use for meat production plays a significant role in biodiversity loss. A 2006 Food and Agriculture Organization report, Livestock's Long Shadow , found that around 26% of the planet's terrestrial surface is devoted to livestock grazing. Palm oil is a type of vegetable oil, found in oil palm trees, which are native to West and Central Africa. Initially used in foods in developing countries, palm oil
Erne - Misplaced Pages Continue
2144-467: The African and Madagascar fish eagles, each of these consists of a white- and a tan-headed species. Human impact on the environment 1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias Human impact on
2211-598: The FAO estimated that 18% of global anthropogenic GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions (estimated as 100-year carbon dioxide equivalents) are associated in some way with livestock production. FAO data indicate that meat accounted for 26% of global livestock product tonnage in 2011. Globally, enteric fermentation (mostly in ruminant livestock) accounts for about 27% of anthropogenic methane emissions , Despite methane's 100-year global warming potential , recently estimated at 28 without and 34 with climate-carbon feedbacks, methane emission
2278-854: The UN Environment Programme) estimated that 6 million hectares of agricultural land per year had been lost to soil degradation since the mid-1940s, and she noted that this magnitude is similar to earlier estimates by Dudal and by Rozanov et al. Such losses are attributable not only to soil erosion , but also to salinization, loss of nutrients and organic matter, acidification, compaction, water logging and subsidence. Human-induced land degradation tends to be particularly serious in dry regions. Focusing on soil properties, Oldeman estimated that about 19 million square kilometers of global land area had been degraded; Dregne and Chou, who included degradation of vegetation cover as well as soil, estimated about 36 million square kilometers degraded in
2345-694: The US Environmental Protection Agency, among others, which can help reduce livestock damage to streamwater quality and riparian environments. Changes in livestock production practices influence the environmental impact of meat production, as illustrated by some beef data. In the US beef production system, practices prevailing in 2007 are estimated to have involved 8.6% less fossil fuel use, 16% less greenhouse gas emissions (estimated as 100-year carbon dioxide equivalents), 12% less withdrawn water use and 33% less land use, per unit mass of beef produced, than in 1977. From 1980 to 2012 in
2412-760: The US, sampling for erosion estimates by the US NRCS (Natural Resources Conservation Service) is statistically based, and estimation uses the Universal Soil Loss Equation and Wind Erosion Equation . For 2010, annual average soil loss by sheet, rill and wind erosion on non-federal US land was estimated to be 10.7 t/ha on cropland and 1.9 t/ha on pasture land; the average soil erosion rate on US cropland had been reduced by about 34% since 1982. No-till and low-till practices have become increasingly common on North American cropland used for production of grains such as wheat and barley. On uncultivated cropland,
2479-627: The US, while population increased by 38%, the small ruminant inventory decreased by 42%, the cattle-and-calves inventory decreased by 17%, and methane emissions from livestock decreased by 18%; yet despite the reduction in cattle numbers, US beef production increased over that period. Some impacts of meat-producing livestock may be considered environmentally beneficial . These include waste reduction by conversion of human-inedible crop residues to food, use of livestock as an alternative to herbicides for control of invasive and noxious weeds and other vegetation management, use of animal manure as fertilizer as
2546-506: The amount of water use assignable to such production is seldom estimated. For example, "green water" use is evapotranspirational use of soil water that has been provided directly by precipitation; and "green water" has been estimated to account for 94% of global beef cattle production's " water footprint ", and on rangeland, as much as 99.5% of the water use associated with beef production is "green water". Impairment of water quality by manure and other substances in runoff and infiltrating water
2613-417: The changes in quantity and quality of soil and water as a result of irrigation and the ensuing effects on natural and social conditions at the tail-end and downstream of the irrigation scheme. The impacts stem from the changed hydrological conditions owing to the installation and operation of the scheme. An irrigation scheme often draws water from the river and distributes it over the irrigated area. As
2680-498: The consequences of habitat fragmentation is important for the preservation of biodiversity and enhancing the functioning of the ecosystem. Both agricultural plants and animals depend on pollination for reproduction. Vegetables and fruits are an important diet for human beings and depend on pollination. Whenever there is habitat destruction, pollination is reduced and crop yield as well. Many plants also rely on animals and most especially those that eat fruit for seed dispersal. Therefore,
2747-451: The destruction of habitat for animal severely affects all the plant species that depend on them. Biodiversity generally refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth, and is represented by the number of different species there are on the planet. Since its introduction, Homo sapiens (the human species) has been killing off entire species either directly (such as through hunting) or indirectly (such as by destroying habitats ), causing
Erne - Misplaced Pages Continue
2814-542: The end of this century. A 2022 scientific review published in Biological Reviews confirms that a biodiversity loss crisis caused by human activity, which the researchers describe as a sixth mass extinction event, is currently underway. A June 2020 study published in PNAS argues that the contemporary extinction crisis "may be the most serious environmental threat to the persistence of civilization, because it
2881-590: The environment (or anthropogenic environmental impact ) refers to changes to biophysical environments and to ecosystems , biodiversity , and natural resources caused directly or indirectly by humans . Modifying the environment to fit the needs of society (as in the built environment ) is causing severe effects including global warming , environmental degradation (such as ocean acidification ), mass extinction and biodiversity loss , ecological crisis , and ecological collapse . Some human activities that cause damage (either directly or indirectly) to
2948-468: The environment on a global scale include population growth , neoliberal economic policies and rapid economic growth , overconsumption , overexploitation , pollution , and deforestation . Some of the problems, including global warming and biodiversity loss, have been proposed as representing catastrophic risks to the survival of the human species. The term anthropogenic designates an effect or object resulting from human activity . The term
3015-457: The environment, and its effects on food security . It is estimated that up to 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded. Biomass of mammals on Earth Environmental impacts associated with meat production include use of fossil energy , water and land resources, greenhouse gas emissions, and in some instances, rainforest clearing, water pollution and species endangerment, among other adverse effects. Steinfeld et al. of
3082-430: The eventual loss of resource bases. Humanity's overall impact on the planet is affected by many factors, not just the raw number of people. Their lifestyle (including overall affluence and resource use) and the pollution they generate (including carbon footprint ) are equally important. In 2008, The New York Times stated that the inhabitants of the developed nations of the world consume resources like oil and metals at
3149-415: The family are less clear; they have long been considered closer to the genus Milvus (kites) than to the true eagles in the genus Aquila on the basis of their morphology and display behaviour; more recent genetic evidence agrees with this, but points to their being related to the genus Buteo (buzzards/hawks), as well, a relationship not previously thought close. A 2005 molecular study found that
3216-471: The findings, although the debate continues. Many countries, such as Tonga, the United States, Australia and New Zealand, and international management bodies have taken steps to appropriately manage marine resources. The UN's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) released their biennial State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture in 2018 noting that capture fishery production has remained constant for
3283-460: The four tropical (and Southern Hemisphere subtropical ) species living around the Indian Ocean today. The Central Asian Pallas's sea eagle's relationships to the other taxa is more obscure; it seems closer to the three Holarctic species which evolved later and may be an early offshoot of this northward expansion; it does not have the hefty yellow bill of the northern forms, retaining
3350-415: The genus is paraphyletic and subsumes Ichthyophaga , the species diverging into a temperate and tropical group. Haliaeetus is possibly one of the oldest genera of living birds. A distal left tarsometatarsus (DPC 1652) recovered from early Oligocene deposits of Fayyum , Egypt ( Jebel Qatrani Formation , about 33 million years ago (Mya)) is similar in general pattern and some details to that of
3417-422: The global population rises to more than 9 billion, which will be a significant driver of further biodiversity loss and increased Greenhouse gas emissions. Some scholars, environmentalists and advocates have linked human population growth or population size as a driver of environmental issues, including some suggesting this indicates an overpopulation scenario. In 2017, over 15,000 scientists around
SECTION 50
#17327718141483484-438: The impact of fishing on other elements of the environment, such as by-catch and destruction of habitat such as coral reefs . According to the 2019 Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services report , overfishing is the main driver of mass species extinction in the oceans. These conservation issues are part of marine conservation , and are addressed in fisheries science programs. There
3551-526: The large-scale depletion of fresh water resources such as aquifers, lakes, and rivers. As a result of this massive diversion of freshwater, lakes, rivers, and creeks are running dry, severely altering or stressing surrounding ecosystems, and contributing to the extinction of many aquatic species. Lal and Stewart estimated global loss of agricultural land by degradation and abandonment at 12 million hectares per year. In contrast, according to Scherr, GLASOD (Global Assessment of Human-Induced Soil Degradation, under
3618-412: The largest eagle native to North America. There are exceptional records of even heavier individuals in both the white-tailed and bald eagles, although not surpassing the largest Steller's sea eagles. The white-bellied sea eagle can weigh up to 4.5 kg (9 lb 15 oz). They are generally overall brown (from rich brown to dull grey-brown), often with white to the head, tail or underparts. Some of
3685-517: The last two decades but unsustainable overfishing has increased to 33% of the world's fisheries. They also noted that aquaculture, the production of farmed fish, has increased from 120 million tonnes per year in 1990 to over 170 million tonnes in 2018. Populations of oceanic sharks and rays have been reduced by 71% since 1970, largely due to overfishing. More than three-quarters of the species comprising this group are now threatened with extinction. The environmental impact of irrigation includes
3752-407: The needs of local communities. It also calls for a reduction in pesticides and fires, along with several rules for ensuring the social wellbeing of workers and the local communities. Human activity is causing environmental degradation , which is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat destruction ;
3819-448: The planet's landmass remains as wilderness . Habitat fragmentation is the reduction of large tracts of habitat leading to habitat loss . Habitat fragmentation and loss are considered as being the main cause of the loss of biodiversity and degradation of the ecosystem all over the world. Human actions are greatly responsible for habitat fragmentation, and loss as these actions alter the connectivity and quality of habitats. Understanding
3886-429: The plant diversity seen in natural forests, and 47–90% less mammal diversity. This is not because of the oil palm itself, but rather because the oil palm is the only habitat provided in the plantations. The plantations are therefore known as a monoculture , whereas natural forests contain a wide variety of flora and fauna, making them highly biodiverse. One of the ways palm oil could be made more sustainable (although it
3953-404: The recent average total soil loss has been 2.2 t/ha per year. In comparison with agriculture using conventional cultivation, it has been suggested that, because no-till agriculture produces erosion rates much closer to soil production rates, it could provide a foundation for sustainable agriculture. Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by
4020-447: The species have an all-yellow beak as adults, which is unusual among eagles. Their diets consist mainly of fish, aquatic birds, and small mammals. Nests are typically very large and positioned in a tree, but sometimes on a cliff. The tail is entirely white in adult Haliaeetus species except for Sanford's, white-bellied, and Pallas's. Three species pairs exist: white-tailed and bald eagles, Sanford's and white-bellied sea eagles, and
4087-544: The sustainable capacity of the ecosystem. It can be measured by the ecological footprint , a resource accounting approach which compares human demand on ecosystems with the amount of planet matter ecosystems can renew. Estimates by the Global Footprint Network indicate that humanity's current demand is 70% higher than the regeneration rate of all of the planet's ecosystems combined. A prolonged pattern of overconsumption leads to environmental degradation and
SECTION 60
#17327718141484154-461: The use of nitrogenous fertilizers, growing of nitrogen-fixing legume vegetation and manure management. Management practices that can mitigate GHG emissions from production of livestock and feed have been identified. Considerable water use is associated with meat production, mostly because of water used in production of vegetation that provides feed. There are several published estimates of water use associated with livestock and meat production, but
4221-496: The vicinity of the root zone. Irrigation can also be done extracting groundwater by (tube)wells . As a hydrological result it is found that the level of the water descends. The effects may be water mining , land/soil subsidence , and, along the coast, saltwater intrusion . Irrigation projects can have large benefits, but the negative side effects are often overlooked. Agricultural irrigation technologies such as high powered water pumps, dams, and pipelines are responsible for
4288-425: The wide variety of agricultural practices employed around the world. Ultimately, the environmental impact depends on the production practices of the system used by farmers. The connection between emissions into the environment and the farming system is indirect, as it also depends on other climate variables such as rainfall and temperature. There are two types of indicators of environmental impact: "means-based", which
4355-546: The world issued a second warning to humanity which asserted that rapid human population growth is the "primary driver behind many ecological and even societal threats." According to the Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services , released by the United Nations ' Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in 2019, human population growth
4422-439: The world's dry regions. Despite estimated losses of agricultural land, the amount of arable land used in crop production globally increased by about 9% from 1961 to 2012, and is estimated to have been 1.396 billion hectares in 2012. Global average soil erosion rates are thought to be high, and erosion rates on conventional cropland generally exceed estimates of soil production rates, usually by more than an order of magnitude. In
4489-466: Was first used in the technical sense by Russian geologist Alexey Pavlov , and it was first used in English by British ecologist Arthur Tansley in reference to human influences on climax plant communities . The atmospheric scientist Paul Crutzen introduced the term " Anthropocene " in the mid-1970s. The term is sometimes used in the context of pollution produced from human activity since the start of
#147852