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64-512: EPLF / TPLF rebel victory EPRDF [REDACTED] EPRP [REDACTED] MEISON (from 1977) [REDACTED] EDU [REDACTED] OLF [REDACTED] WSLF [REDACTED] ALF [REDACTED] ONLF Eritrean separatists: The Ethiopian Civil War was a civil war in Ethiopia and present-day Eritrea , fought between the Ethiopian military junta known as

128-577: A broad educational policy for maintaining every language and improving literacy. It was also set out that the boundaries of an Eritrean state would be based on the colonial treaties of Italy. From 1975 to 1977, the ELF and EPLF outnumbered the Ethiopian army and overran much of Eritrea. Only Asmara, Barentu, and the ports of Assab and Massawa remained under government control. The road between them cut, however, Asmara and Massawa were under siege. The hopes of

192-412: A chain of events leading to total victory three years later. After Afabet the front became a virtually unstoppable insurgent force as it began its campaign aimed for the strategic port of Massawa . The Ethiopian army, caught in a long-simmering crisis and plagued by internal divisions, underestimated the resilience, skill, and adaptability of the rebels. Af Abet, one of the three crucial turning points in

256-519: A declaration of war by the ELF in mid-1972, leading to the "first civil war" ending inconclusively in 1974. Internal dissension within the EPLF, fueled by accusations of authoritarian practices and military shortcomings, was quelled by Isaias, resulting in the execution of eleven members in August 1974. This event contributed to the centralization and security focus of the EPLF. The Ethiopian Revolution shifted

320-581: A defensive line in 1979. The fronts faced a lull in fighting in 1980–81, with the army engaged in operations against rebels. The uneasy peace between the fronts crumbled in August 1980, leading to the "second civil war," where the ELF was decisively defeated a year later with assistance from the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF). Some ELF fighters joined the winning side, and those in Sudan were disarmed. The ELF ceased as an effective organization by

384-638: A federal democracy to represent the many ethnic groups living in the country. There is not much in-depth information available about the revolution, but the book Peasant Revolution in Ethiopia by John Young provides detailed information about the revolution, why it started, how the Derg affected the nation, and the role of the peasant population in Tigray and Eritrea. The Ethiopian Civil War left at least 1.4 million people dead, with 1 million related to famine and

448-564: A general staff headed by Sebhat Ephrem after 1987, emphasized decentralization and local initiative during defensive guerrilla tactics. Command became more centralized during conventional offensives. The insurgents relied on light and portable equipment, with the AK-47 being the primary individual weapon. Leaving the EPLF was practically impossible, and instances of kidnapping and forcible conscription were reported. Child soldiers, drafted as young as ten, were used between 1979 and 1983 but this policy

512-499: A nationalist victory raised by the insurgents’ achievements and fear of the Red Terror drove thousands of young men and women to the fronts, principally to the EPLF. As most of the new recruits were Christian, highland society was no longer peripheral to the conflict. The success of the insurgents was due more to government weakness than their own strength. A counteroffensive in 1978 led to the EPLF's strategic withdrawal, establishing

576-582: A push on the capital Addis Ababa was successful. There was some fear that Mengistu would attempt to fight to the bitter end for the capital, but after diplomatic intervention by the United States , he fled to asylum in Zimbabwe , where he still resides. The regime only survived another week after his ousting before the EPRDF poured into the capital and captured Addis Ababa. The EPRDF immediately disbanded

640-541: A series of offensives known as the Red Star Campaign in an attempt to crush the EPLF. Despite these efforts, the government forces were thwarted by the EPLF. Rather than crushing the EPLF, the unsuccessful operation had the opposite effect, strengthening it. This outcome led to an increased fervor among the Eritrean people, who rallied behind the EPLF. Growing from around four hundred men organized in squads,

704-679: A specific ethnic background, began armed resistance to the Soviet -backed Derg, in addition to the Eritrean separatists already fighting in the Eritrean War of Independence . The Derg used military campaigns and the Qey Shibir (Ethiopian Red Terror) to repress the rebels. By the mid-1980s, various issues such as the 1983–1985 famine , economic decline, and other after-effects of Derg policies ravaged Ethiopia, increasing popular support for

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768-694: The All-Ethiopia Socialist Movement (MEISON) came out from the Ethiopian Student Union in Europe (ESUE). The Derg also proposed prerequisites for ESM student demands, such as land reform and the creation of peasant association. The Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) and the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) whose formation traced back after the 1974 revolution, also inspired

832-547: The Derg and Ethiopian-Eritrean anti-government rebels from 12 September 1974 to 28 May 1991. The Derg overthrew the Ethiopian Empire and Emperor Haile Selassie in a coup d'état on 12 September 1974, establishing Ethiopia as a Marxist–Leninist state under a military junta and provisional government . Various opposition groups of ideological affiliations ranging from Communist to anti-Communist, often drawn from

896-664: The Derg regime. Scholars agreed that the ESM has laid foundation of many opposition forces behind the Derg government during the Ethiopian Civil War , especially the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) and the inspired the EPRDF 's notion of "multi-nation, multi-ethnic, and multilingual nature of Ethiopia". As such, ESM is critical for the 21st-century Ethiopian ethnic conflict . The first demonstration occurred in 1965 driven by Marxist–Leninist university students with

960-558: The Derg , a non-ideological committee of low-ranking officers and enlisted men in the Ethiopian Army who became the ruling military junta . On 21 March 1975, the Derg abolished the monarchy and adopted Marxism–Leninism as their official ideology, establishing themselves as a provisional government for the process of building a socialist state in Ethiopia. The Crown Prince went into exile in London , where several other members of

1024-646: The Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), and Romodan Mohammed Nur , who had become commissar of the Fourth Zone after military training in Syria. Cuba also received ten individuals, including Ibrahim Affa, a skilled former marine commando, in 1968. Upon their return, these men improved the combat capabilities of the front but also intensified internal conflicts and feuds. Disillusioned with incompetent and feuding leaders, many young dissidents left

1088-434: The Eritrean War of Independence since 1961, and now faced other rebel groups ranging from the conservative and pro-monarchy Ethiopian Democratic Union (EDU), to the rival Marxist–Leninist Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party (EPRP), and the ethnic Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF). In 1976, the Derg instigated the Qey Shibir (Ethiopian Red Terror), a campaign of violent political repression primarily targeting

1152-451: The House of Solomon lived, while other members who were in Ethiopia at the time of the revolution were imprisoned. Haile Selassie, his daughter by his first marriage Princess Ijigayehu , his sister Princess Tenagnework , and many of his nephews, nieces, close relatives, and in-laws were among those detained. On 27 August 1975, Haile Selassie died under mysterious circumstances in detention at

1216-576: The National Palace in Addis Ababa . That year, most industries and private urban real estate holdings were nationalized by the Derg regime. The assets of the former royal family were all seized and were nationalized in a program designed to implement the state ideology of socialism. Under the Derg, the new Ethiopian military was dominated by the Amhara ethnic group. Similar to the period of

1280-503: The People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ). Ethiopian Student Movement Tilahun Gizaw Haile Selassie The Ethiopian Student Movement ( Amharic : የኢትዮጵያ ተማሪዎች ንቅንቄ, ESM ) was a period of radical Marxist–Leninist student activism and movement in Ethiopia from the mid-1960s to the 1974 revolution . The first demonstration occurred in 1965 by university student, led by Marxist–Leninist motivation chanting "Land to

1344-533: The Somali National Army and WSLF. In early 1978 the Ethiopian forces, spearheaded by Cuban troops in an operation planned by Soviet generals, managed to push back the SNA/WSLF forces. By 1980, the original 120 ruling members of the Derg had been whittled down to only 38. All members but three were ethnic Amhara and were predominantly from settler colonialist neftenya origins. Many member of

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1408-514: The ruling class . Although many elites recognized the need for serious reform, Emperor Selassie refused to tolerate any form of protest, especially organized efforts. Even influential Ethiopian families feared the regime's extensive network of spies and the emperor’s potential reaction to dissent, creating an atmosphere of fear among the ruling class . By the 1960s, the Ethiopian Empire had become politically unstable. The administration

1472-410: The Derg but are yet unaccounted for. Eritrea had been annexed by the Ethiopian Empire in the early 1960s. In 1961, the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) began armed resistance to Ethiopian rule. When the Derg came to power, Eritreans were widely subjected to increasing repression and economic disruption as the government sought to crush the elusive insurgency in vain. Reports from Asmara in 1974,

1536-608: The Derg's rule sprang up with ferocity, particularly in the northern regions of Tigray and Eritrea which sought independence and in some regions in the Ogaden. Hundreds of thousands were killed as a result of the Qey Shibir, forced deportations . The Derg continued its attempts to end rebellions with military force by initiating several campaigns against both internal rebels and the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF),

1600-541: The ELF, forming competing organizations. Efforts at rectification and unity failed, leading to the emergence of the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF) in August 1973, officially known as Shaabia ("popular" in its Arabic abbreviation) in 1977. Led by Isaias and Ramadan, the EPLF found refuge in the mountains of Sahel, successfully repelling repeated assaults from Nakfa, a garrison town on a high plateau. The EPLF faced immediate challenges, including

1664-458: The EPLA became a formidable force by the mid-1980s. The primary combat component was the strategic mobile forces, consisting of permanent units like brigades and divisions. The smallest operational unit was the mesre (squad), followed by ganta (platoon), hayli (company), and bottoloni (battalion). The brigade, comprising three battalions, was the largest unit until the mid-1980s when it was surpassed by

1728-610: The EPRP and MEISON were devastated, with their leadership either dead or fleeing to the countryside to continue their activities in stronghold areas, but despite this, the Derg did not successfully consolidate their power as much as hoped. Ironically, the majority of the Qey Shibir's estimated 30,000 to 750,000 victims are believed to be innocents, with the violence and collateral damage shocking many Ethiopians into supporting rebel groups. There are currently many civilians who are still missing who are thought to have been systematically killed by

1792-456: The EPRP and later the All-Ethiopia Socialist Movement (MEISON), in an attempt to consolidate their power. The Qey Shibir was escalated on 3 February 1977 following the appointment of Mengistu Haile Mariam as Chairman of the Derg, who took a hardline stance against opponents. The urban guerrilla warfare saw brutal tactics used on all sides, including summary executions , assassinations , torture and imprisonment without trial. By August 1977,

1856-522: The Eritrean war, severely weakened the military's capacity to wage war and foreshadowed the downfall of the dictatorship, paving the way for Eritrean independence. The battle's strategic significance has been likened to the Vietnamese triumph against the French at Diebienphu . As its success grew the EPLF began attracting a wave of new support. After another defeat at Shire in 1989, the EPLF went on

1920-549: The Ethiopian Empire under Menelik II and Haile Selassie , over 80% of generals and over 65% of colonels in the armed forces were Amhara's. While the Amhara constituted the majority of the officer corps , the army was still ethnically heterogeneous. The Derg did not fully establish their control over the country, and the subsequent power vacuum led to open challenges from numerous civilian opposition groups . The Ethiopian government had been fighting Eritrean separatists in

1984-457: The Ogaden, supported by 10,000 Cuban army troops who garrisoned the regions towns. In Tigray there were an estimated 40,000 and in the southern Oromo provinces 20,000 were deployed. The Derg in its attempt to introduce full-fledged socialist ideals, fulfilled its main slogan of " Land to the Tiller ", by redistributing land in Ethiopia that once belonged to landlords to the peasants tilling

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2048-461: The Tiller" and "Is poverty a crime?". The student uprisings continued in 1966 until 1969. The movement also called for the abolition of monarchy under Emperor Haile Selassie and feudalism in Ethiopia. Following the 1974 revolution, the ESM members in Ethiopia and aboard superintended many political organizations like the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party (EPRP) and All-Ethiopia Socialist Movement (MEISON), that involved in insurgency against

2112-486: The Workers' Party of Ethiopia and shortly afterward arrested almost all of the most prominent Derg officials that were still in the country. In December 2006, 72 officials of the Derg were found guilty of genocide . Thirty-four people were in court, 14 others died during the lengthy process and 25, including Mengistu, were tried in absentia . These events marked the end of socialist rule in Ethiopia. Ethiopia then embraced

2176-425: The army held the true power behind the throne, and it was widely expected that the military would take control upon the emperor's death. The military mutinies that triggered the 1974 Ethiopian Revolution began with demands for better working conditions and wages for troops stationed in remote regions like Ogaden, Negele, and western Eritrea. On 12 September 1974, Haile Selassie and his government were overthrown by

2240-491: The army was frequently used to suppress student protests, peasant uprisings, and regional revolts in Ogaden , Bale , and Eritrea . At the start of the 1970s numerous parallel and interlocking trends across the empire were converging against the old feudal order, though had yet to coalesce into a well organized oppositional force. Working class Ethiopians had become increasingly dissatisfied with low wages and inflation, while

2304-523: The balance in Eritrea, and a temporary truce allowed joint offensives by the fronts in 1976. The First Congress of the EPLF occurred in January 1977 and formally set out the policies of this new organization. At this first meeting Romodan Mohammed Nur was elected Secretary-General and Isaias as Assistant Secretary-General. This program specifically targeted a liberalization of women's rights as well as

2368-413: The capital of the region, told of civilian massacres by army troops and rape at gunpoint. During January 1975 Eritrean resistance fighters began attacking the Ethiopian army in and around Asmara. The following year saw the Derg regime mobilize its first in a series of 'peasant marches'. The government made a call for 100,000 peasants to crush the Eritrean nationalists, though only 30,000 were organized for

2432-726: The complete secession of the Ogaden. On 13 July 1977, the Ogaden War was triggered when the Somali Democratic Republic invaded the Ogaden region in order to assist the WSLF. By November and the onset of the rainy season, the WSLF was poised to capture the city of Harar . A massive military air and sea lift from the Soviet Union transferred around two billion dollars worth of military equipment while 1,700 Soviet advisors and 17,000 Cuban troops were deployed against

2496-416: The country. The Ethiopian Civil War ended on 28 May 1991 when the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), a coalition of left-wing ethnic rebel groups, entered the capital Addis Ababa . The PDRE was dissolved and replaced with the Tigray People's Liberation Front -led Transitional Government of Ethiopia . The Ethiopian Civil War left at least 1.4 million people dead, with 1 million of

2560-410: The deaths being related to famine and the remainder from combat and other violence. In the 1950s, discontent grew within the Ethiopian Empire toward Emperor Haile Selassie’s imperial regime. Many members of the aristocracy became frustrated with the empire's stagnation and limitations. The government's repression and prohibition of autonomous organizations stifled any reformist movements within

2624-485: The division. Remarkably, nearly a third of the EPLA's total force and 15 percent of its frontline combat units were women, challenging traditional gender roles. However, women remained underrepresented in leadership positions. Specialized units within the EPLA effectively employed guerrilla and conventional tactics. By the end of the 1980s, the EPLA consisted of six divisions, fourteen infantry brigades, four mechanized brigades, and various specialized units. The EPLF, led by

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2688-438: The educated middle class of society were angered by poor governance and stunted advancement. In Eritrea province , armed resistance against imperial rule was rapidly escalating, but the independence movements were divided into the rivaling Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) and Eritrean Peoples Liberation Front (EPLF). In the Ogaden and Bale region, attacks by Somali insurgents were beginning to escalate. Elsewhere within

2752-502: The empire, spontaneous peasant uprising began proliferating and students were organized into underground organizations in urban areas across Ethiopia. The Ethiopian imperial army itself began protesting grievances to the government as the morale of its forces began to break down in Eritrea and the Ogaden. By the early 1970s, with multiplying regional revolts and an economic downturn, many army units became rebellious as their living conditions worsened. By 1973, many observers recognized that

2816-411: The failed 1960 coup attempt, no further coups had been attempted, largely due to deep divisions within the armed forces. As the imperial regime declined, the army became increasingly politicized due to Emperor Selassie's reliance on oppressive governance. Recruitment from educated Ethiopians throughout the 1960s and early 1970s heightened the political awareness of the armed forces. This awareness grew as

2880-518: The fall of 1980, towns and villages in Tigray were bombarded with napalm and cluster bombs by the regime. Massive military infantry sweeps across the countryside resulted in high civilian fatalities. The Tigray Peoples Liberation Front (TPLF) dominated most the region, with the Ethiopian army restricted to major towns and highways. In 1981 there were an estimated 60,000 to 70,000 Ethiopian army troops in Eritrea . 70,000 troops were also stationed in

2944-586: The first assault into Eritrea. The early 1970's saw the Somali liberation movement for the Ogaden region continue to gain momentum off the foundations of the Nasrallah insurgency which had fought a major revolt from 1963 to 1965 against Emperor Haile Selassie's empire. The many veteran insurgents and young intelligentsia from the Ogaden region within Siad Barre's government lobbied for Somalia to support

3008-517: The first six years, food production also increased by 6%. Crop production declined by 12.2% per year from 1982 to 1984. With the 1983–1985 famine, ten million people were affected five times of the 1973 drought. Eritrean People%27s Liberation Front In 1967, thirty-three men underwent six months of training in China, including Isaias Afwerki , an engineering student who had left Haile Selassie I University ( Addis Ababa University ) in 1966 to join

3072-421: The land. Although this was made to seem like a fair and just redistribution, the mismanagement, corruption, and general hostility to the Derg's violent and harsh rule coupled with the draining effects of constant warfare, separatist guerrilla movements in Eritrea and Tigray , resulted in a drastic decline in general productivity of food and cash crops . Although Ethiopia is often prone to chronic droughts , no one

3136-439: The mid-1980s but continued sporadic operations in Eritrea. The EPLF emerged as the dominant force, defeating major operations in 1982 and 1983. In 1988, the EPLF achieved a historic victory, signaling the defeat of the military regime and the path to Eritrean independence. The organizational structure and guiding ideas played a crucial role in the EPLF's success. Between February and June 1982, over 80,000 Ethiopian troops launched

3200-528: The most important ones being Operation Shiraro, Operation Lash, Operation Red Star, and Operation Adwa, which led to its decisive defeat in the Battle of Shire on 15–19 February 1989 which ultimately led to Eritrean independence. This marked a receding end in power to the Derg. On 28 May 1991, Mengistu's government was overthrown by its own officials and a coalition of rebel forces, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), after their bid for

3264-514: The movement abandoned most of its formerly Marxist–Leninist ideology , in favour of an own revolutionary left-wing concept and a more comprehensive and pragmatic approach to unite all Eritrean nationalists . The EPLF won its most resounding victory in March 1988 at the Battle of Afabet . It destroyed the most formidable Ethiopian garrison in northern Eritrea and marked a pivotal moment, setting off

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3328-420: The offensive in 1990 directed at Massawa. This offensive was known as Massawa and resulted in EPLF seizing the city and defeating the Ethiopian garrison. The defeat was complete, catastrophic, and irreversible. Even the vengeful bombing, which persisted until the end of March and resulted in the destruction of numerous historic Islamic buildings, could not alter the disastrous outcome. Isaias Afewerki , leader of

3392-543: The rebels. The Derg dissolved itself in 1987, establishing the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) under the Workers' Party of Ethiopia (WPE) in an attempt to maintain its rule. The Soviet Union began ending its support for the PDRE in the late-1980s and the government was overwhelmed by the increasingly victorious rebel groups. In May 1991, the PDRE was defeated in Eritrea and President Mengistu Haile Mariam fled

3456-619: The remainder from violence and conflicts, which was one third of the population. It also had impacts on land and agriculture: the reversal of the former feudal system and implementation of nationalized reforms led peasants to lose 75% of their production to landlords. Total forest cover in Wollo Province was approximately 2.2% of the total area in 1980, and in Tigray 0.5%, roughly 50% decline since 1960. Soil erosion could halt grain production by 120,000 tons per year in Wollo Province. During

3520-533: The resumption of the armed struggle during the 1970s. By June 1977, the Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF) had been successful in forcing the Ethiopian army out of much of the Ogaden and into the major urban strongholds of Jigjiga , Dire Dawa and Harar . President of Somalia Siad Barre decided to intensify the war by involving the Somali army as he believed it would allow the WSLF to press home their growing victories and enable

3584-482: The ruling elite were deeply opposed to the idea of loosening control on the rebellious southern regions conquered under Menelik II . At the start of the decade the Ethiopian army had swelled to a force of 250,000 strong. During the early 1980s the Ethiopian government rendered the Somali inhabited Ogaden region a vast military zone, engaging in indiscriminate aerial bombardments and forced resettlement programs. During

3648-405: The slogan " Land to the Tiller ". It was followed by the 1966, 1967 and 1968 uprising with "the powers that be on a variety of social and political issues". In May 1966, the student confronted the police, chanting the slogan "Is poverty a crime?". A faction within the movement supported the armed uprisings occurring against Selassie in Eritrea province and the Ogaden region. In April 1967,

3712-484: The student activism and protest. Elleni Zeleke wrote: The Ethiopian Student Movement was crucial for the fall of Emperor Haile Selassie regime, the 1974 revolution and the seizure of Derg military junta. Many political parties during the Derg era emerged from ESM, mostly the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party (EPRP) which was formed by students that exiled to the United States, Europe and Algiers while

3776-476: The third successive year of protest occurred near Arat Kilo campus rather than Siddest Kilo campus. In response, the Ethiopian government issued law to Ministry of Interior that restrict the protest. Two days prior, about 1,500 and 1,700 people demonstrated in Arat Kilo campus but were deterred by police force, utilizing tear gas and began attacking the demonstrator. The 1973 nationwide famine also agitated

3840-445: The use of the military saved Haile Selassie's regime, it made the armed forces a crucial pillar of his rule. The emperor's increasing dependence on their loyalty left the regime's stability precarious, as any signs of discontent within the military could threaten his survival. Throughout the following decade, Selassie sought to placate the military, further heightening their awareness of their growing power and political significance. Since

3904-517: The victorious army, concurs, acknowledging it as a victory of the greatest strategic value in the history of the struggle. The Third and last Congress of the EPLF was held in 1994 in Asmara . It was important as it converted the Front from a military organization to a purely political movement. At the time, the organization had 95,000 members. At this Congress, the name of the organization was changed to

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3968-722: Was abandoned due to internal and external criticism. The Second Congress in 1987, brought together the EPLF and the Eritrean Liberation Front/Central Leadership (also sometimes referred to as Central Command, CC) in what was called the Unity Congress . This was the culmination of negotiations over three years which had brought together the two fighting forces in October 1986, under a unified command. On this congress, Isaias Afewerki replaced secretary-general Ramadan Nur. Subsequently,

4032-463: Was becoming unpopular across all levels of society due to stagnating quality of life, slow economic development, and widespread human rights abuses. During this period, a radicalized student movement emerged , calling for land reform and democratization . In December 1960, the Imperial Guard attempted a military coup , which was violently suppressed by the imperial army and air force. While

4096-481: Was prepared for the scale of drought and the 1983–1985 famine that struck the country in the mid-1980s, in which 400,000–590,000 people are estimated to have died. Hundreds of thousands fled economic misery, conscription and political repression, and went to live in neighboring countries and all over the Western world , creating an Ethiopian diaspora community for the first time in its history. Insurrections against

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